1.
Definition of Problem and Problem-Solving
• Problem: An obstacle between a present state and a goal, where the solution isn’t obvious.
o Example: Wanting to study but being distracted by noise.
• Problem-Solving: The process of identifying a goal and overcoming obstacles to reach it.
2. The Problem-Solving Cycle
A step-by-step approach to systematically solve problems:
1. Problem Identification: Is there an actual problem?
2. Problem Definition and Representation: What exactly is the problem?
o Example: Identifying whether poor grades are due to study habits or distractions.
3. Strategy Formulation: Developing ways to solve the problem:
o Analysis: Breaking the problem into smaller parts.
o Synthesis: Combining elements to form a new solution.
o Divergent Thinking: Brainstorming multiple solutions.
o Convergent Thinking: Narrowing options to the best solution.
4. Organization of Information: Determining how pieces of information fit together.
5. Resource Allocation: Deciding time, effort, and resources.
o Example: Balancing time between studying and extracurriculars.
6. Monitoring: Tracking progress towards solving the problem.
7. Evaluation: Reviewing whether the solution worked.
3. Types of Problems
• Well-structured Problems: Clear steps and solutions (e.g., solving a math equation).
• Ill-structured Problems: Ambiguous paths to solutions (e.g., resolving workplace
conflicts).
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts used for quick decisions.
• Example: Choosing the fastest route home without checking maps.
• Advantage: Saves time.
• Disadvantage: Can lead to errors.
4. Approaches to Problem-Solving
A. Gestalt Approach
• Focuses on how problems are mentally represented and how restructuring this
representation leads to solutions.
• Key Concepts:
1. Restructuring: Changing how a problem is viewed.
▪ Example: Realizing a matchbox can be used as a stand, not just a container
(Candle Problem).
2. Insight: A sudden realization of a solution.
▪ Example: Figuring out the “aha!” moment during a tricky puzzle.
B. Information-Processing Approach
• Views problem-solving as navigating a “problem space” from the initial state to the goal
state.
• Key Elements:
1. Initial State: Starting condition.
2. Goal State: Desired outcome.
3. Operators: Actions that move the problem to different states.
4. Means-End Analysis: Breaking the problem into subgoals to reduce the gap.
▪ Example: Solving the Tower of Hanoi puzzle by moving one disc at a time.
C. Analogical Problem Solving
• Using a previously solved problem (source) to guide the solution of a new problem (target).
• Steps:
1. Noticing similarities.
2. Mapping the correspondence.
3. Applying the mapping to solve the target problem.
• Example:
o Radiation Problem: Using multiple weak rays to treat a tumor without damaging
surrounding tissues.
5. Overcoming Obstacles
A. Functional Fixedness
• Limiting the use of an object to its traditional purpose.
o Example: Using pliers as weights (Two-String Problem).
B. Mental Set
• Sticking to past strategies that worked, even when they’re ineffective now.
Strategies to Overcome Fixation:
1. Incubation: Taking a break to reset the mind.
2. Getting Ideas from Others: Fresh perspectives can inspire new solutions.
3. Distributed Effort: Working in multiple sessions instead of all at once.
6. Expert Problem-Solving
Characteristics of Experts:
1. More Knowledge: Experts have extensive knowledge stored in patterns or “chunks.”
o Example: Chess masters recognize board configurations quickly.
2. Better Organization: Experts organize information by principles rather than surface details.
3. Time Allocation: Experts analyze problems deeply before jumping to solutions.
4. Specialized Skills: Expertise is usually limited to their field.
Disadvantages:
• Experts may struggle with flexible thinking when new approaches are needed.
7. Creativity and Problem-Solving
A. Practical Creativity
• Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple solutions.
• Creativity requires originality and usefulness.
B. Generating Ideas
• Techniques:
1. Brainstorming: Encourages free expression without judgment.
2. Creative Cognition: Generating “preinventive forms” (rough ideas) before finalizing
a product.
C. Brain and Creativity
1. Default Mode Network (DMN):
o Active during mind-wandering and incubation phases.
o Associated with spontaneous idea generation.
2. Executive Control Network (ECN):
o Directs focus during creative tasks.
o Active during evaluation and refinement of ideas.
8. Example Problems for Practice
1. Nine-Dot Problem: Draw four lines through all nine dots without lifting the pen.
o Key: Think outside the perceived square boundary.
2. Candle Problem: Attach a candle to a wall using only a box of matches and tacks.
o Key: Use the matchbox as a support, not just a container.