446 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

sensitivity factor curves involve considerable scatter and because of this many
design calculations involve only the stress concentration factor Kt.

12.6 CONTACT STRESSES

Stresses developed during the pressing actions of two bodies need careful atten-
tion since the occurrence of such cases are very frequent. Gears, ball-and-roller
bearings, wheel on rails, etc., are familiar examples. When bodies with curved
surfaces come into contact without any pressure or forces between them, the
geometry of contact is in general either a point or a line. When pressure is applied
between the contacting bodies, the point or line contact become area contacts.
Since the areas of contact are small, the stresses developed will be high. Typical
failures due to these high contact stresses are seen as cracks, pits or flaking in
the surface material.
The general analysis of contact stresses involve bodies having double radius
of curvature; that is, when the radius in the plane of rolling is different from the
radius in a perpendicular plane. Figure 12.20 illstrates a body having a double
radius of curvature.
In the present discussion, only two special cases will be considered, i.e., con-
tacting spheres and contacting cylinders, because of their importance. The stresses
developed are generally referred to as Hertzian stresses, named after the scientist
who developed the theory.
(a) Two Spheres in Contact Consider two spheres of diameters d1 and d2
brought into contact. Initially, when no pressure is applied, the spheres expe-
rience point contacts. When a force F is
applied, a circular area of contact is devel-
oped due to axial symmetry. Let this con-
F tact area have a radius a, and let E 1, v 1 and
E2, v 2 be the respective elastic constants of
the two spheres. According to Hertzian
analysis, the radius a of the contact sur-
face is given by

3F 1 v12 E1 1 v22 E2
a (12.17)
8 1/ d1 1/ d 2

Fig. 12.20 Body having a double If the spheres are extremely rigid with E1Æ•
radius of curvature and E2Æ•, the area of contact will be a point
as the expression reveals. The stresses at all
points within the area of contact in the two spheres are not uniform. They have
a semi-elliptical distribution. Figure 12.21(a) shows two spheres in contact and
the frame of reference xyz. The axis of z is downword and the force F acts along

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 Introduction to Stress Concentration and Fracture Mechanics 447

the z-axis. Figure 12.21(b) shows the stress distribution in the spheres and in the
area of contact; and this is shown in Fig. 12.21(c), separately.

VF VF

Vx Vx Vx
Vd1
Vy
Vy Vy
Va
Vd2 a
Vz
(c)

VF VF

Vz Vz
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.21 (a) Geometry of spheres; (b) Stress distribution within the area of contact;
(c) Enlarged sketch
The maximum pressure pmax occurs at the centre of the contact area, and its
magnitude is given as

pmax = 3F 2 (12.18)
2π a
Equations (12.17) and (12.18) are general expressions in the sense that they are
valid for a sphere in contact with a plane surface, or a sphere inside another
spherical surface. For a sphere of diameter d1 in contacte with a plane, d2 = •. For
a sphere d1 in contact within another internal spherical surface, d2 is negative.
These cases are shown in Fig. 12.22.

1
d (negative)
2 2

d1 d1
d2 = •

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.22 (a) Sphere in contact with a plane; (b) Sphere inside another spherical surface
All points within the spheres experience stresses, but the stresses along the z-
axis are maximum; i.e., in any diametrical plane at z the stresses at point ( 0, 0, z )

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 448 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

are maximum. Their values are

⎧ ⎫
⎪⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤ ⎪
σ x = σ y = − pmax ⎨ ⎢1 − z tan −1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎥ (1 + v ) − 1
2 ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎣ a ⎝ z / a ⎠ ⎦ 2 1 + (
z 2
/ a ⎪ )⎭ (12.19)

⎡ 1 ⎤
σ z = − pmax ⎢ 2 2⎥ (12.20)
⎣1 + z / a ⎦
where pmax is the numerical value as given by Eq. (12.18). These are the principal
stresses at any point z along the z-axis.
2
( )
The average stress at the area of contact is F / πa . Hence, the maximum pres-
sure pmax as given by Eq. (12.18) which occurs at the centre of the contact area, is
1
1
2
times the average stress. Assuming both the spheres have the same elastic
properties, and taking v = 0.3, the maximum pressure which is compressive, is
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 3 FE 2 ( r1 + r2 )
2
3 F ⎥
pmax = = 0.388 (12.21)
2 πa 2 ⎢ r12 r22 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

where r1 and r2 are the radii of the two spheres. Let the sphere with radius r1 be
pressed on to a plane surface which has the same elastic properties as that of the
sphere. Putting r2 = •, the radius of the contact area, and the maximum pressure are

⎡ Fr ⎤ ⎡ FE 2 ⎤
a = 1.109 ⎢ 3 1 ⎥ , pmax = 0.388 ⎢ 3 2 ⎥ (12.22)
⎢⎣ E ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ r1 ⎥⎦

Equations (12.17) to (12.22) are valid for both spheres; but appropriate value for
Poisson’s ratio corresponding to the sphere considered, need to be used.
The Mohr’s circles for the state of stress described by equations (12.19) and
(12.20) consist of a point and circle.
Further as σ x = σ y , τ xy = 0; and

σx −σz σy −σz
τ xz = τ yz = = (12.23)
2 2

One can plot the values sx and sz along z to display their variations as a func-
tions of the distance from z = 0. In measuring the distances along the z-axis, the
radius a of the surface of contact is taken as the unit. For the stresses, pmax is
taken as the unit. Figure 12.23 shows graphically the plots of sz and sx = sy.
The plot of txz = tyz , Eq. (12.23), is also shown. All the normal stresses are
compressive in nature, and v is taken as equal to 0.3.

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 Introduction to Stress Concentration and Fracture Mechanics 449

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0 s/Pmax

sx = sy

0.5

1.0 txz = tyz

sz

1.5

2.0

z/a
2.5

3.0
Fig. 12.23 Plot of σ max,σ x , σ y , τ xz and τ yz

At the central point of contact, i.e., at x = y = z = 0, the values of sx = sy are from

Eq. (12.19),

σ x = σ y = − pmax ⎡(1 + v ) − 1 ⎤ = − 1 + 2v pmax (12.24a)

⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ 2
From Eq. (12.20),
σ z = − pmax
The maximum shear stress at the point from Eq. (12.24) is

2 2 ( 2 )
τ xz = τ yz = 1 (σ x − σ z ) = 1 − 1 + 2v + 1 pmax = 1 − 2v pmax
4 (12.24b)
With v= 0.3, τ xz = τ yz = 0.1 pmax (12.24c)
This being too small, it dose not cause any yielding of materials such as steel,
which depend on shear stresses for yielding. In fact, the maximum shear stress
occurs inside the sphere at approximately half the distance of the radius of the
contact area. This point must be considered as the weakest point in such materi-
als as steel. The maximum shearing stress at this point, for v = 0.3 is about 0.31pmax.
It is suggested that cracks originate at this point below the surface and progresses
to the surface. The lubricant, which is under pressure, enters the fine crack and
wedges the chip loose.

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 450 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

(b) Two Cylinders in Contact Now consider two cylinders, Fig. 12.24, pressing
against each other. Before the application of force F, there will be a line of con-
tract l. After the application of the pressing force, the bodies deform and the line
of contact becomes a narrow rectangle of width 2b and length l. The pressure
distribution within the area of contact is once again semi-elliptical as in the case
of the two spheres.
F
F
x

x
d1
l
y y

b
d2

F
F
z
z
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.24 (a) Two cylinders in contact; (b) Pressure distribution in the contact area
If d1 and d2 are the diameters of the cylinders, and if E1, v1, and E2, v2 are the
respective elastic constants, then the half-width b of the rectangle area of contact
is given by

⎡ ⎤
b=
(
⎢ 2F 1 − v1
2
) (
E 1+ 1 − v22 ) E2 ⎥ (12.25)
⎢ πl 1+ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ d1 d2 ⎦

The maximum pressure; i.e., compressive stress σ max which occurs along the middle
line of the contact area is given by
2F
pmax = (12.26)
πbl
Equations (12.25) and (12.26) are general and are applicable to both cylinders. If a
cylinder of diameter d1 presses on a plate, then d2 becomes infinite in Eq. (12.25).
If the cylinder is in contact with a hollow cylinder of diameter d2, then d2 is
negative. A wheel pressing on a rail is a case where d2 = •.

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 Introduction to Stress Concentration and Fracture Mechanics 451

The state of stress along the z-axis for two cylinders is given by

⎡ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎤
σ x = −2vpmax ⎢ ⎜1 + z 2 ⎟ − z ⎥ (12.27)
⎝ ⎠ b
⎢⎣ b ⎥⎦

⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
σ y = − p m ax ⎢ ⎜ 2 − 2⎟
1 + z2 b2 − 2 z ⎥ (12.28)
2
1 + z /b ⎠ b
⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎥⎦

σ z = − pmax 1
(12.29)
1 + z 2 / b2

If the elastic properties of the two cylinders are identical, then equations (12.25)
and (12.26) reduce to the following.

⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎡ EF d1 + d 2 ⎤
F (1 − v) d1d 2 ⎥
b = 1.128 ⎢ ; pmax = 0.564 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ El (d1 + d 2 ) ⎥⎦ l (1 − v 2 )d1d 2 ⎥ (12.30)
⎣⎢ ⎦
Figure 12.25 is a plot of sx, sy, and sz as a function of depth form the centre of the
contact area. The unit of depth is b, the half-width of the contract area, and the
unit of stress is pmax.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 s/Pmax

sy
0.5 sx

1.0 sz

1.5 tyz

z/a 2.0

2.5

3.0
Fig. 12.25 Plots of sx , sy , sz and tyz (v = 0.3)

Let the force applied per unit length of cylinders be F* = F/l, and let

1 − v12 1 − v2 2
k1 = , and k2 = (12.31)
E1 E2

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 452 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Then

⎡ 4 F * (k1 + k2 ) r1r2 ⎤
b= ⎢ ⎥ (12.32)
⎣⎢ r1 + r2 ⎦⎥
where r1 and r2 are the radii of the cylinders. If both cylinders have the same
elastic constants and v = 0.3, then

F * r1r2
b = 1.52 (12.33)
E (r1 + r2 )

In the case of two equal radii r1 = r2 = r,

F *r
b = 1.08 (12.34)
E

For the case of contact of cylinder with a plane surface,

F *r
b = 1.52 (12.35)
E

Substituting for b from Eq. (12.33) into Eq. (12.26), one gets

F * (r1 + r2 )
pmax = (12.36)
π 2 (k1 + k2 )r1r2

If the materials of both cylinders are the same and v = 0.3

F * E (r1 + r2 )
pmax = 0.418 (12.37)
r1r2

In case of contact of a cylinder with a plane surface,

F*E
pmax = 0.418 (12.38)
r
Based on the plot of tyz, the maximum shearing stress occurs at a depth z = 0.78b,
and its magnitude is 0.301 pmax .
Instead of maximum shear stress theory for failure of materials, sometimes the
octahedral shear stress theory is used. From Eq. (1.44a).

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 Introduction to Stress Concentration and Fracture Mechanics 453

1/ 2
τ oct = 1 ⎡(σ1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + (σ 3 − σ1 )2 ⎤
2
3⎣ ⎦
where s1, s2 and s3 are principal stresses.
(i) Two Spheres in Contact sx = sy , and sz are the principal stresses at the centre
of the area of contact. Since these are compressive, stresses, arranging them alge-
braically,
σ1 = σ 2 = σ x = σ y , and σ 3 = σ z
1/ 2
τ oct = 1 ⎡(σ x − σ z ) + (σ z − σ x ) ⎤
2 2
∴
3⎣ ⎦

1⎡ 1/ 2
= 2σ 2 + 2σ z 2 − 4σ xσ z ⎤⎦
3⎣ x

2 σ −σ
=
3
( x z) (12.39)

At z = 0, substituting from equations (12.19) and (12.20),

τ oct = 2 ⎡ − 1 + 2v pmax + pmax ⎤

3 ⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥

= 2 (1 − 2v) p
max (12.40)
6
With v = 0.3,

τ oct = 0.094 pmax

(ii) Two Cylinders in Contact At z = 0; from equations (12.27), (12.28),
and (12.29),
σ x = −2vpmax ; σ y = − pmax ; σ z = − pmax

Arranging algebraically,

σ1 = σ x , σ 2 = σ 3 = σ z
1/ 2
∴ τ oct = 1 ⎡(σ x − σ z ) + (σ z − σ x ) ⎤
2 2
3⎣ ⎦

= 2 (σ − σ ) = 2 (1 − 2v) p
x z max (12.41)
3 3
Example 12.1 Two carbon steel balls, each 25 mm in diameter are pressed together
by a force F = 18N. At the centre of the area of contact, determine the values of the
principal stresses, the maximum shear stress, and the octahedral shear stress.
For carbon steel, E = 207 GPa, and v = 0.292.

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 454 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Solution From Eq. (12.17)

3F ⎡ 2 (1 − v 2) / E ⎤
a= 3 ⎢ ⎥
8 ⎢⎣ 2/d ⎥⎦

3 F ⎡ (1 − v ) d ⎤
2
a= 3 ⎢ ⎥
8 ⎣⎢ E ⎥⎦

Substituting the given values,

⎡ −3 ⎤
a = 3 ⎢ 3 × 18 × 0.915 × 259× 10 ⎥
⎣ 8 × 207 × 10 ⎦

= 10−4 3 0.7459 = 9.07 × 10−5 m = 0.091 mm

From Eq. (12.18),

pmax = 3F 2
2π a
3 × 18 × 1010
= = 1045 MPa
2 × π × 9.07 2
From Eq. (12.24),
σ x = σ y = − 1 + 2v pmax
2
= - 0.792 pmax = - 828 MPa
sz = - pmax= - 1045 MPa
Arranging algebraically,
s1 = s2 = -828 MPa, s3 = - 1045 MPa

Maximum shear stress is

σ1 − σ 3
τ max =
2
1
= (−828 + 1045) = 108.5 MPa
2
Octahedral shearing stress is
1/ 2
τ oct = 1 ⎡(σ1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ1 ) ⎤
2 2 2
3⎣ ⎦

1/ 2
= 1 ⎡(σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 2 ) ⎤
2 2
3 ⎣ ⎦
2
= (σ 2 − σ 3 )
3

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 Introduction to Stress Concentration and Fracture Mechanics 455

= 2 (− 828 + 1045) = 102.3 MPa

3
Also, from Eq.(12.y)

τ oct = 2 (1 − 2v) Pmax

6

= 2 (1 − 0.584) × 104.5 × 107

6
= 102.5 MPa.

Example 12.2 In Example 12.1, one of the steel balls is replaced by a flat carbon plate.
For F = 18N, determine the principal stresses, the maximum shearing stress, and the
octahedral shearing stress, at the centre of the contact area.

Solution From Eq. (12.17), with d2 = •,

3F ⎡ 2(1 − v) 2 d1 ⎤
a= 3 ⎢ ⎥
8 ⎣⎢ E ⎦⎥
Substituting the given values from Example 12.1,

⎡ 3 × 18 × 2 × 0.915 × 25 × 10 −3 ⎤
a= 3
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 8 × 207 × 10 9 ⎦

= 10 4 3 1.492 = 11.43 ×10 − 5 m = 0.1143 mm

From Eq. (12.18),

pmax = 3F 2
2 a
10
= 3 × 18 × 10 2 = 658 × 106 Pa .
2 × × 11.43
From Eq. (12.24),

σ x = σ y = − 1 + 2v pmax
2
= − 0.792 pmax = −521× 106 Pa

σ z = − pmax = −658 ×106 Pa .

Arranging algebraically,
σ1 = σ 2 = −521 × 106 Pa, σ 3 = −658 × 106 Pa.
Maximum shear stress is
σ1 − σ 3
τ max =
2

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 456 Advanced Mechanics of Solids

1
= (−521 + 658)106 = 68.5 MPa .
2
From Eq. (12.y), the octahedral shear stress is

τ oct = 2 (1 − 2v) pmax

6

= 2 × 0.416 × 658 × 106

6
= 64.5 MPa.

Example 12.3 In Example 12.2, determine the maximum shear stress and the
maximum octahedral shear stress. At what distance from the contact surface do they
occur?

Solution The maximum shear stress and octahedral shear stress occur approxi-
1
mately at half the radius of the contact area, i.e., at z = a = 5.7 × 10−5 m. At this
2
point, from equations (12.19) and (12.20)

⎧ ⎫
⎪⎡ 1 −1 ⎤ 1 ⎪
σ x = σ y = − pmax ⎨ 1 − tan (2) (1.292) − ⎬
⎢ ⎥⎦
⎪⎣ 2 2× 5⎪
⎩ 4⎭

{
= − pmax ⎡1 − 1 × 1.107 ⎤ (1.292) − 0.4
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ }
= − 0.177 pmax = −116 MPa

⎡ ⎤
⎢
σ z = − pmax ⎢ 1 ⎥
and ⎥
1+ 1
⎣⎢ 4 ⎦⎥
= −0.8 pmax = −526 MPa .
Hence, the maximum shear stress is

τ max = 1 (σ x − σ z )
2
1
= (−116 + 526) = 205 MPa .
2
The Octahedral shear stress is

τ oct = 2 (σ x − σ z )
3

2
= (−116 + 526) = 193 MPa .
3

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