INTRODUCTION

Water as a valuable component of the environment is important for human, economic and

social development. Rivers serve as one of the sources of public drinking water and private

wells. Others may include streams, lakes, reservoirs, springs, and ground water. Therefore, when

these sources are polluted, wildlife is endangered, drinking water becomes unsafe, and by

implication threatens the health of the users, due to its poor-quality status. The World Health

Organization (WHO) estimated that up to 80 % of all sicknesses and diseases in the world are

caused by inadequate sanitation, polluted water or unavailability of water. There are various

criteria for water quality standards, i.e., safety of drinking water, acceptability of water quality

for industrial use such as cooling water for boilers, water used for agriculture, fish farming,

fishery, and for sustaining natural aquatic ecosystems. (Adeyefa et al. 2023).

Thus, information on water quality and pollution sources in such water bodies is

important for the implementation of sustainable water use management strategies, have opined

that for effective maintenance of water quality through appropriate control measures, continuous

monitoring of a large number of quality parameters is essential. In addition, due to seasonal and

regional characteristics of river water, assessing spatial variations has become an important

aspect of river water quality at a watershed level as an important aspect for the physical and

chemical characterization of aquatic environments. Unethical disposal habits and activities

around river bodies have been largely responsible for the deteriorating nature of river water

quality. Although, deterioration of river water quality can result from natural processes, but more

recently, it's due to anthropogenic activities through the discharge of industrial and domestic

wastewater as well as agricultural drainage to the rivers. (Adeyefa et al. 2023).

 In Nigeria, the problem of water pollution is largely a result of an interplay of high

population growth, accelerated urbanization and industrialization, and has become a complex

issue due to a lack of a solid waste management approach.

As observed by Ayatomuno and Gobo 2004), estimation shows that each Nigerian

generates about 0.85 kg of waste per day totaling about 119 million tons of municipal and

industrial waste per annum. A substantial amount of this eventually found its way to the rivers.

The activities of the people in waste generation and disposal at the upper course and even around

Ogunpa River in Oyo state, are not different. As a result, the quality status of the river is unsafe

for domestic purposes (cooking, washing of clothes, bathing, and recreation, amongst others) due

to the unpleasant waste dumping habits.

The problem of how to manage these wastes is reaching a critical proportion. In the

recent past, the government had gone extra the mile to invest in the services of waste

management companies, especially in urban areas which has led to improvements in the level of

urban cleanliness. But unfortunately, solid waste dumps keep on emerging and proliferating in

different parts of the urban landscape. The choice of rivers and streams as dumpsites particularly

in areas of proximity is becoming a major concern that merits special attention. This is essential

because most of these surface water bodies still serve as sources of water supply to many urban

and rural communities down-stream and are expected to maintain a certain level of quality for

sustainable use by these populations.

Several studies have been undertaken generally on water quality assessments and

environmental-related issues. River water quality assessments, specifically are also numerous

among others. The rate at which the residents along the various points through which the river

flows dispose faeces, domestic and industrial wastes, is alarming. This may have led to the
pollution and contamination of the river. More importantly, many of the users of the river at the

lower course assume they are not affected by the hazardous activities occurring at the upper

course of the stream. This requires that knowledge of what is operational, and the quality status

of the river at various points is made known.

Thus, the need for investigating, identifying and understanding the extent to which the

menace has affected the river's water-quality status. Given the alarming rate at which Ogunpa

River is mismanaged in terms of quality, quantity and utilization at different points as observed

above, and the dearth of information on water quality assessments on the river, the knowledge of

the spatial and temporal variations of the physicochemical properties of the river water is

required. Apart from the examination of the variations in the river water properties, computation

of the water quality index (WQI) for reaches along River Ogunpa should also be of

consideration. All this is to ascertain its quality status.

Rivers come in contact with different types of rocks in their pathway which are

weathered by physical, chemical and biological processes. The weathered elements by the

natural processes add directly in to the river system. Various types of chemicals also added in the

rivers by anthropogenic activities which contribute in changing the physical, chemical, and

biological properties of the rivers water. Besides these human influences, river water quality is

also affected by other natural activities viz. geological, hydrological and climatic factors.

(Harendra & Shukla 2016).

The concentration of pollutants in water samples only indicate the situation at the time of

sampling, while concentrations in the organism are the result of past as well as current pollution

levels in the environment in which the organism lives (Ravera et al. 2001). A previous study

indicated that potential sources of elevated levels of heavy metals were sewage wastes, wastes
from metal processing industries and other household refuse. Generally, the main natural source

of heavy metals in water is weathering of minerals. Industrial effluents and non-point pollution

sources, as well as changes in atmospheric precipitation can lead to local increase in heavy

metals concentration water.

Also, total heavy metals concentrations in aquatic ecosystem can mirror the present

pollution status of these areas. Tannery industry contributes significantly towards exports,

employment generation and occupies an important role in Indian economy. Heavy metals

released from tanneries are kept under environment pollutant category due to their toxic effects

on plants, animals and human beings. They interfere with physiological activities of plants such

as photosynthesis, gaseous exchange and nutrient absorption and cause reduction in plant

growth, dry matter accumulation and yield. They cause direct toxicity, both to human and other

living beings due to their presence beyond specified limits. The metals present in the soil can

enter in the aquatic system by weathering, percolation, and surface runoff from agricultural land.

Soil can also be polluted by wastewater irrigation. These contaminated soils may have an impact

on water quality. Therefore, protection of the soil around the industrial region is of prime

importance for the quality of soil and water. Temporal variations in precipitation, surface runoff,

interflow, groundwater flow, and pumped in and outflows have a strong effect on river discharge

and subsequently on the concentration of pollutants in river water (Haiyan and Stuanes, 2003).

The quantity of the river water may determine how well it is able to sustain its application

for these services as well as the diversity and richness of its freshwater biota. This study was

carried out to determine the general status of the physical and chemical water quality parameters

of the river from its headwaters to the lower reach before discharge into the sea (Omoniyi et. al

(2017).
 The outcome of this study therefore, will be useful in creating awareness, and educating

the society at large as well as the appropriate authorities on the best way, manner and approach to

manage water bodies within a given environment.

1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

AIM

The aim of this research work is to investigate the impact of spatial and temporary

variation of water quality parameters in Ogunpa, Oyo State.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives are to:

1. To analyze spatial variations in water quality parameters across different locations within

the Ogunpa river watershed

2. To access temporal variations in water quality over specific time intervals.

3. To evaluate the implications of observed variation for local ecosystems and public

health.

1.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study will be focused on the impact of spatial and temporary variation of water

quality parameters in Ogunpa river, Oyo State.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

The study offered information on the impact of spatial and temporary variation of water

quality parameters in Ogunpa river watershed . The outcome was useful for the sustainable

management of the river and the protection of public health.

1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The quality of water in Ogunpa River has been a major concern due to pollution from

various sources. However, spatial and temporary variation of water quality parameters in ogunpa

river has not been adequately investigated.

 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Omoniyi et. al (2017) examine the Seasonal and Spatial Variations in Physico-Chemical

Water Quality. This study was carried out at six selected sampling stations over the three reaches

of River along its main axis to determine seasonal and spatial variations in the general physico-

chemical water quality parameters of the river water. From each sampling station, surface water

samples were collected bi-monthly for an annual cycle, the samples were treated and analyzed

for physico-chemical water quality parameters using applicable standard procedures. The river

showed an increasing clarity from its headwaters to the lower reach with regard to mean

transparency, turbidity and colour and was also clearer in the dry season than in the rainy season.

The mean values of most parameters determined were within permissible limits making the river

water suitable for most probable domestic and industrial uses and livestock support.

Li, M. et al. (2016) conducted a longitudinal study to assess the temporal variability of

water quality parameters within delineated watersheds over multiple years. Their research

provided insights into the dynamic nature of pollutant transport processes and the implications

for long-term watershed management strategies. The result showed that fluctuations in water

quality parameters such as nutrient concentrations, pollutant levels, and sedimentation rates over

time, influenced by seasonal variations, weather patterns, land use changes, and human activities.

Additionally, they have identified trends or patterns in the temporal variability of water quality

parameters, highlighting periods of improvement or degradation in water quality within the

studied watersheds. Their study likely provided valuable information for understanding the
dynamics of water quality over time and guiding long-term watershed management and

conservation efforts.

Abel. et. al (2023) carried out an investigation on study of seasonal changes in Quality

Parameters, Physico-chemical parameters of River were investigated to determine its quality

characteristics and establish seasonal effects on the water. Water from the river was collected at

five different points in dry season (March, 2008 and 2009) and rainy season (July, 2008 and

2009). Quality evaluation for irrigation revealed that the water was suitable for all irrigation

purposes. River Oluwa water was soft, low mineralized, chemically potable, suitable for

irrigation but with lower ionic concentrations in rainy season.

Johnson, D.W. et al. (2020) investigated the influence of watershed delineation on the

identification of critical source areas for sediment and nutrient transport in agricultural

landscapes. By comparing different delineation methods, the researchers highlighted how

variations in boundary definition can impact the spatial distribution of pollutant hotspots. The

result indicated that watershed delineation significantly influences the identification of critical

source areas for sediment and nutrient transport in agricultural landscapes. They have found that

variations in watershed boundaries can lead to differences in the spatial distribution and

magnitude of sediment and nutrient loads, affecting the prioritization of management practices

and resources. They have recommended approaches to improve the accuracy of watershed

delineation methods to better target conservation efforts and mitigate water quality impacts in

agricultural areas.

Adeyefa et. al (2023) investigate on Spatial and Temporal Variations in Water Quality of

River Ogun” The water quality of River Ogun is contaminated largely through the activities of

the population by the latter purpose. Several studies have been carried out on water quality
assessment with little or no information on the River Ogun portion of Abeokuta, a fundamental

water source for densely populated area. Standard analytical methods were undertaken to

determine the physical (salinity, temperature, Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved

Solids (TDS)), and the chemical parameters (pH, hardness, ammonia, chloride, nitrate, alkalinity,

dissolved oxygen, and biochemical oxygen demand). Graphs, tables, T-test, and ANOVA, were

employed for the statistical analyses.

2.2 Effect of spatial and temporary variation

Spatial and temporal variations significantly impact water quality parameters, affecting the
suitability of water for various uses.

2.2.1 Spatial Variation

1. Geographical Location: Water bodies in different regions exhibit varying water quality
due to differences in climate, geology, and human activities. For example, urban areas
with high pollution levels may have poorer water quality compared to rural areas.
2. Distance from Pollution Sources: Water quality deteriorates closer to pollution sources
like industrial discharges or agricultural runoff.
3. Depth: Water quality parameters can vary with depth due to factors like sunlight
penetration, temperature stratification, and sediment deposition.
4. Flow Rate: Water bodies with higher flow rates tend to have better water quality as
pollutants are diluted and dispersed more rapidly.

2.2.2 Temporal Variation

1. Seasonal Changes: Water quality can fluctuate seasonally due to factors like rainfall,
temperature, and vegetation cover. For example, nutrient levels may increase during
spring runoff, leading to algal blooms.
 2. Diurnal Variations: Water quality parameters can vary throughout the day due to factors
like photosynthesis, respiration, and human activities. For example, dissolved oxygen
levels may decrease at night due to reduced photosynthesis.
3. Long-term Trends: Water quality can change over longer time periods due to climate
change, urbanization, and changes in land use. For example, increased temperature can
lead to decreased dissolved oxygen levels.

2.2.3 Combined Effects

Spatial and temporal variations can interact to further complicate water quality patterns.
For example, a pollutant discharged into a river may have a greater impact during low-flow
periods when dilution is reduced.

2.2.4 Implications:
Understanding the spatial and temporal variations in water quality is crucial for:
1. Effective Water Management: Implementing appropriate strategies to mitigate pollution
and conserve water resources.
2. Public Health: Ensuring safe drinking water and preventing waterborne diseases.
3. Environmental Protection: Protecting aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity.
4. Sustainable Development: Balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability.

2.3 Water quality parameters

Water quality parameters are used to evaluate the quality of water. Some of the main
parameters include:
1. pH: A measure of water's acidity or alkalinity. pH levels outside the acceptable range can
harm aquatic life and water treatment systems.
2. Temperature: A measure of the average energy of water molecules. Temperature affects
water chemistry and the functions of aquatic organisms.
3. Turbidity: A measure of how particles suspended in water affect water clarity. Turbidity
increases after rainfall when sediment is carried into the water.
4. Conductivity: A measure of water's ability to conduct electricity. Water with a lot of salt
can be dangerous to crops.
5. Hardness: A measure of the presence of certain salts in water, such as carbonate, bi-
carbonates, chlorides, and sulphates of Ca and Mg.
6. Alkalinity: A measure of water's ability to neutralize acids. Alkalinity is often measured
to determine how much soda and lime to add to water to soften it.
7. Biological: A measure of whether water meets set standards. Biological parameters
include bacteria and algae.
8. Nitrogen: Water can contain four forms of nitrogen: organic, ammonia, nitrite, and
nitrate.
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Description of the study area
The Ogunpa River river system is a third-order stream with a channel length of 21.5
kilometres (13.4 mi) and a drainage basin covering 73.3 square kilometres (28.3 sq mi) draining
the densely populated eastern part of Ibadan, Nigeria. The city of Ibadan in
southwestern Nigeria (7º23’ N, 3º5’ E) is the largest urban centre in Africa south of the Sahara.
Ogunpa River is known to contain 49 species of zooplankton. western part.
Ibadan is one of many key regions in the globe where managing solid waste poses a
serious threat to the environment and the general public's health. The city, which has a population
of over 3 million, produces a lot of waste every day, and the lack of a solid waste management
system has caused illegal dumps to develop, waterways to get contaminated, and diseases to
spread. The Ogunpa River, which flows through the city's core and is significantly polluted by
solid waste, including plastics, bottles, and other non-biodegradable items, is one such example.
The river, an important source of water for the community, has been poisoned as a result. And
many people have been exposed to water-borne illnesses like cholera, typhoid, and dysentery

3.2 Model Selection and Description

Selecting an appropriate model is crucial for accurately assessing the effect of watershed
declination on water quality parameters. In this study, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool
(SWAT) was chosen due to its capability to simulate the hydrological processes and water quality
dynamics within a watershed. SWAT is widely used for watershed-scale assessments, offering
comprehensive features for simulating various land management practices and their impacts on
water resources.
3.3 Model Data Requirement
3.3.1 Digital Elevation Model (DEM):
A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a digital representation of the Earth's surface topography. It
provides elevation data for each grid cell within a study area, typically in the form of a raster
dataset. DEMs are essential for delineating watershed boundaries, estimating slope and aspect,
and modeling surface water flow. They are 15 commonly derived from remote sensing
technologies such as satellite imagery or airborne LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
systems.

3.3.2 Soil Map:

A soil map provides information on the spatial distribution of soil types, properties, and
characteristics within a study area. It delineates soil units based on factors such as texture,
drainage, depth, and fertility. Soil maps are essential for understanding soil-water interactions,
infiltration rates, and nutrient cycling processes. They are typically derived from soil surveys
conducted on the ground and are represented as polygonal or raster datasets.

3.3.3 Land Use/Land Cover (LULC):

Land use/land cover data classify the types of land cover and land use activities within a
geographic area. This dataset categorizes land into classes such as forest, agriculture, urban,
water bodies, etc. Land use/land cover data are crucial for characterizing the spatial distribution
of human activities and their impacts on hydrological processes and water quality. They are
typically derived from satellite imagery, aerial photography, or field surveys.
3.3.4 Weather Data
Meteorological data including temperature, rainfall, humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed
were collected from weather stations within or near the study area. These data were used as input
for SWAT to simulate hydrological processes and water quality parameters.
i. Temperature: Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of the atmosphere.
In the context of hydrological modeling, temperature data is essential as it influences
various processes such as evaporation, snowmelt, and vegetation growth. Temperature
data is usually measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F) and is recorded at
regular intervals (e.g., daily, hourly). It provides insights into seasonal variations and
climate patterns, which are crucial for understanding hydrological processes.
ii. Rainfall: Rainfall represents the amount of precipitation, typically in the form of rain,
which falls over a specific area during a given period. Rainfall data is measured using
rain gauges or radar systems and is expressed in units such as millimeters (mm) or inches.
It is a primary driver of surface runoff, infiltration, and groundwater recharge within
watersheds. Temporal patterns of rainfall, including intensity, frequency, and duration,
influence hydrological response and water quality dynamics.
iii. Humidity: Humidity measures the amount of water vapor present in the air. It is an
important meteorological parameter that affects evaporation rates, plant transpiration, and
atmospheric stability. Relative humidity, expressed as a percentage, indicates the moisture
content of the air relative to its maximum capacity at a given temperature. High humidity
levels can enhance evapotranspiration rates, while low humidity levels can lead to
increased water stress in vegetation.
iv. Solar Radiation: Solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the
sun. It includes both direct radiation from the sun and diffuse radiation scattered by the
atmosphere. Solar radiation plays a crucial role in driving various environmental
processes, including photosynthesis, evaporation, and temperature regulation. Solar
 radiation data is typically measured in watts per square meter (W/m²) and is influenced
by factors such as time of day, season, cloud cover, and atmospheric conditions.
v. Wind Speed: Wind speed measures the rate at which air moves horizontally across the
Earth's surface. It is an important meteorological parameter that affects evaporation,
dispersion of pollutants, and wind-driven erosion. Wind speed data is usually recorded in
meters per second (m/s) or kilometers per hour (km/h) and is measured using
anemometers or weather stations. Wind direction, in conjunction with wind speed,
influences the distribution of pollutants and the transport of airborne particles within the
atmosphere.

3.4 Model Parameterization and Prediction of Water Quality Parameters

Model Parameterization
SWAT Model Setup: Configure the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) by defining
model parameters, land use categories, soil types, and management practices. Calibrate model
parameters such as curve number, soil hydraulic properties, and crop coefficients using observed
data to improve model performance.
Hydrological Components: Specify parameters related to hydrological processes such as
evapotranspiration, infiltration, surface runoff, and groundwater flow. Ensure that these
parameters accurately represent the physical characteristics of the study area and hydrological
processes within the watershed.

Prediction of Water Quality Parameters

Water quality parameters such as nutrient concentrations (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus),
sediment yield, and pollutant loads were predicted using the calibrated SWAT model. The model
incorporated algorithms to simulate the transport and transformation of pollutants within the
watershed, accounting for factors such as land use, soil properties, and hydrological processes.
Prediction of water quality parameters enabled the assessment of how changes in watershed
declination affect the overall water quality status of the Ogunpa River in Oyo State.

3.7 Visualization of the Result

 Visualization of the results is a critical component of any research project, including
watershed and hydrological analysis. Effective visualization techniques enable researchers and
stakeholders to interpret complex datasets, identify spatial patterns, and communicate findings in
a clear and concise manner. In the context of watershed management, visualization tools can
enhance understanding of hydrological processes, watershed characteristics, and the impacts of
management interventions on water resources.
One commonly used visualization tool is geographic information systems (GIS), which
enable researchers to integrate, analyze, and visualize spatial data layers within a geospatial
framework. GIS software provides a range of visualization techniques, including overlay
analysis, 3D visualization, and interactive mapping, to explore relationships between different
datasets and extract meaningful insights (Fisher & Tate, 2006). For instance, researchers can use
GIS to overlay results with land use maps, soil maps, and hydrological modeling outputs to
assess the impacts of land use changes on water resources and ecosystem services.
Visualization of the results is important in watershed management by enhancing
understanding, facilitating communication, and guiding decision-making processes. By
employing a combination of thematic mapping, GIS analysis, and remote sensing techniques,
researchers can effectively visualize hydrological processes, watershed characteristics, and the
impacts of management interventions, contributing to informed and evidence-based decision-
making for sustainable water resource management.