Interferometers are investigative tools used in many fields of science and engineering.

They
are called interferometers because they work by merging two or more sources of light to create
an interference pattern, which can be measured and analyzed; hence "Interfere-ometer". In
analytical science, interferometers are used to measure lengths and the shape of optical
components with nanometer precision; they are the highest precision length measuring
instruments existing. In Fourier transform spectroscopy they are used to analyze light
containing features of absorption or emission associated with a substance or mixture. An
astronomical interferometer consists of two or more separate telescopes that combine their
signals, offering a resolution equivalent to that of a telescope of diameter equal to the largest
separation between its individual elements.
Principle of Operation of Interferometer
Interferometry makes use of the principle of superposition to combine waves in a way that will
cause the result of their combination to have some meaningful property that is diagnostic of
the original state of the waves. This works because when two waves with the same frequency
combine, the resulting intensity pattern is determined by the phase difference between the two
waves—waves that are in phase will undergo constructive interference while waves that are
out of phase will undergo destructive interference. Waves which are not completely in phase
nor completely out of phase will have an intermediate intensity pattern, which can be used to
determine their relative phase difference. Most interferometers use light or some other form of
electromagnetic wave.
NB: Find more notes on “online references”
• Fibre Interferometers
• Laser Feedback systems
• Interferometric fibre sensors
Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. The amount
of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the opening. If
the opening is much larger than the light's wavelength, the bending will be almost unnoticeable.
Another definition: Diffraction is the spreading out of waves as they pass through an aperture
or around objects. It occurs significantly when the size of the aperture or obstacle is of similar
linear dimensions to the wavelength of the incident wave. It happens when a part of the
travelling wavefront is obscured.
Similar experiments with those for Interference are also used for diffraction. That is, both
Young’s single and double-slit experiments.
As much light spectrum can be split by a prism or combined using a lens, more wavelength
specific techniques are used for colourless light. A diffraction grating is this technique!
Diffraction grating
In optics, a diffraction grating is an optical component with a periodic structure that splits and
diffracts light into several beams travelling in different directions. ... Because of this, gratings
are commonly used in monochromators and spectrometers. In applied optics, this technique is
used for wavelength multiplexing and demultiplexing.
Introduction

Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it travels around the edges of an object/slit or after
passing through an opening. The amount light is bent by depends on the exact wavelength of
the light and the size of opening.

Diffraction can be usually be characterised by one of two types:

• Fresnel diffraction
• Fraunhoffer diffraction

Fresnel Diffraction

Fresnel diffraction, or near-field diffraction, occurs when a wave passes via a small hole and
diffracts, creating a diffraction pattern. The size of the pattern depends on the distance
between a projection and an aperture.

This type of diffraction occurs when the distance of propagation of diffracted waves is short,
resulting in a Fresnel number greater than 1. Diffracted waves become planar when the
distance of propagation is increased.

Fraunhofer Diffraction

Fraunhofer diffraction, or far-field diffraction, is a type of wave diffraction which occurs

when field waves pass via a slit or an aperture, thereby changing the size of an observed
aperture image with respect to the increasingly planar nature of diffracted waves and far-field
location of observation.

Comparison of Fresnel and Fraunhoffer Diffraction

Fraunhofer
Characteristics Fresnel Diffraction
Diffraction

Fraunhofer diffraction
Surface of Fresnel diffraction occurs on spherical
patterns on flat
calculation surfaces.
surfaces.

Shape and intensity of diffraction pattern

Shape and intensity
Diffraction pattern change as the waves propagate downstream
remain constant.
of the scattering source.

Movement of Move along the corresponding shift in the Remains in a fixed

diffraction pattern object. position.

Screen placed at finite distance from an Infinite observation

Observation distance
object. distance.

Wave fronts Cylindrical wave fronts. Planar wave fronts.

Resolving Power
It is the physical ability of an optical instrument to clearly separate closely placed objects as
distinct objects. Some binary stars in the sky look like one single star when viewed with the
naked eye, but the images of the two stars are clearly resolved when viewed with a
telescope. Many factors such as imperfect optics and atmospheric turbulence can limit the
resolving power of a telescope. But diffraction (the spreading of light around the edges of
obstacles) determines the intrinsic minimum angular separation of two objects which can just
be resolved. It is given by qmin = 1.22l/D, where D is the diameter of the objective or the lens’
aperture and l is the wavelength of the light when we consider a circular aperture. The factor
1.220 is derived from a calculation of the position of the first dark circular ring surrounding
the central Airy disc of the diffraction pattern.
If f is the focal length of the optical system, then the linear value of the Rayleigh limit of
resolution is σ = 1.21λf/D. This is called linear or spatial resolution.

For lateral resolution, resolution of a system is based on the minimum distance at which
the points can be distinguished as individuals.
1.22𝜆 0.61𝜆
𝑟 = 2𝜂𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁𝐴

where

𝑟 is the minimum distance between resolvable points, in the same units as 𝜆 is

specified
𝜆 is the wavelength of light, emission wavelength, in the case of fluorescence,
𝜂 is the index of refraction of the media surrounding the radiating points,
𝜃 is the half angle of the pencil of light that enters the objective, and
𝑁. 𝐴 is the numerical aperture
Example

Rayleigh light source with a wavelength of 557nm has a numerical aperture (NA) of 0.9. Calculate its
resolving power.
Polarization*** Use the handouts!