CHAPTER 3

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF
DIFFERENT ARCHITECTURES
OF VEHICLES
 CHAPTER 3

3. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF
DIFFERENT ARCHITECTURES OF
VEHICLES
3.1 Introduction

The emissions produced by conventional ICE vehicles are directly linked to several
environmental and human health issues. Rising fuel costs and rapidly depleting energy
supplies are currently a cause of concern. Many countries are enacting measures to reduce
greenhouse emissions caused by automobiles [1][18-20], resulting in a greater demand for
fuel-efficient vehicles. For example, the government of the United States issued a new
average fuel efficiency requirement in 2012. By 2025, the average fuel efficiency for new
vehicles and light trucks will be 4.3 L/100 km [12]. Since improving air quality is one of
the top priorities, India declared phase II of its faster adaptation and production of hybrid
and electric vehicles (FAME) scheme in 2019 [5][14].

Electric vehicles (EVs) were created to address the constraints of conventional vehicles.,
but the EVs market crashed in the late 1990s due to the following factors:

1. EVs Limitations: EVs have a range of 100 to 150 Km, while gasoline-powered
conventional ICE vehicles have a range of 450 Km or more when fully charged. The
fuel tank of a conventional ICE vehicle can be filled in a matter of minutes, while the
battery of an electric vehicle can take 6 to 8 hours or even a day to charge completely.
EVs are about 40% more expensive than conventional ICE vehicles. EVs have small
cargo space as well.
2. Infrastructure: Charging stations are needed for recharging EVs, but there are fewer
charging stations than conventional ICE vehicle fuel stations.

69
3. Battery Technology: Since most EVs use lead-acid batteries for energy storage, the
batteries are heavy and account for around half of the vehicle's overall weight.
Recharging lead-acid batteries takes a long time.
4. Consumers: Since EVs are more expensive than ICE vehicles and gasoline prices are
also low. The consumers were not much interested in replacing their ICE vehicles with
EVs.
Both ICE and EV vehicles have limitations, so HEVs were developed to overcome them
[21]. HEVs can be used as a green next-generation transportation system because they are
powered by batteries, fuel cells, ultracapacitors, and solar, or a combination of these
sources [22]. Power electronics are important in the development of commercial HEVs.
The performance of HEVs is highly dependent on power electronic converters, which
provide power to the traction motor drive and various auxiliary loads while still storing
energy in a regenerative mode in an energy storage device, such as batteries.
Semiconductor devices made of silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) are
preferred over silicon-based devices for HEV applications [21][34].

HEVs have two propulsion powertrains: an ICE propulsion powertrain and an electric
propulsion powertrain, which work together or separately to provide traction power to the
vehicle. The vehicle's ICE is gasoline fuel-driven, and the traction motor drive is powered
by the storage battery. Lead-acid batteries were the most popular in the past, but at present,
the batteries utilized are NiMH and lithium-ion in both EVs and HEVs. Since NiMH
batteries have a higher capacity and energy efficiency than lead-acid batteries, they are
used in this thesis. HEVs are categorized in various ways based on architecture, HEVs can
be classified in series, parallel, series-parallel, or complex HEVs. Based on the degree of
hybridization, they can be categorized as micro, medium, or complete hybrid vehicles.
Driving conditions and road gradients influence the performance of HEVs.A standard
driving schedule such as CYC_NEDC, CYC_UDDS, and CYC_INDIA_URBAN, etc. can
be used to compare the fuel economy and vehicle emissions. In modern techniques, an
autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA)-based method, a data-driven real-time
system that aims to forecast future velocity and road gradient [15], and a global driving
cycle construction tool that employs a real-time traffic information system for adaptive
70
energy management in HEVs is used [16][17]. The control methodology for various
topologies may vary, but the overall goal is to improve the vehicle's performance, whether
it's fuel efficiency or a predictive energy management system that achieves traction demand
while maintaining speed and torque requirements throughout the driving schedule.

Contribution and organization: In this chapter, a traditional hatchback category small car
is chosen to reflect the most common car on the market; in India, hatchback cars have a
higher market share than any other category. In paper [28], a heavy vehicle is chosen where
fuel economy is an important parameter, but for the hatchback cars segment, acceleration
performance, pollution, avoiding road grades, and overall fuel economy efficiency are
important. The ADVISOR software is used to perform all of the simulations. The
ADVISOR software consists of a collection of models and data used with the
Matlab/Simulink platform. The results of the acceleration performance and gradability
tests were obtained and vehicle emissions of each vehicle are examined. The figure of merit
to each vehicle is awarded. The followings are the breakdown of this chapter: after a brief
overview in section 3.1, section 3.2 will highlight the various architectures of HEVs and
their general advantages. Section 3.3 presents the vehicle road load modeling and vehicle
dynamics and specifications. The performance evaluation of the HEVs using ADVISOR
software is depicted in section 3.4. The vehicle requirements chosen for the simulation are
also detailed in this section. The performance analysis and the findings are presented in
3.5, In section 3.6 summary of the chapter is presented.

3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Architectures

The combination of an internal combustion engine vehicle and a battery-electric vehicle

forms a hybrid electric vehicle. Propulsion is provided by an ICE as well as an electric
motor/generator. From the perspective of power flow, the electric motor and the ICE could
be connected in a series or parallel configuration. The HEV becomes a series hybrid vehicle
when the ICE and the electric motor are connected in series, only the electric motor
provides propulsion to the wheels. The HEV is a parallel hybrid vehicle when the electric
motor and the ICE work together to provide propulsion to the wheels. An HEV's energy
source is still liquid fuel. The primary converter of power is ICE that supplies much of the
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vehicle's electricity. The electric motor increases system efficiency and reduces the use of
fuel through regenerative braking, and it improves ICE activity during regular driving
through engine torque and speed change. The ICE increases the driving range of the
vehicle, exceeding the constraints of a pure electric vehicle. Aside from the liquid fuel
present on the vehicle, the batteries of an HEV can be recharged through a plug-in system,
and this form of HEV is known as a Plug-in HEV [24][31][33][35][36][40][45]. As a result,
fuel demand would be lowered much more. These configurations can usually improve the
vehicle's reliability and fuel economy with additional component prices.

3.2.1 Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 3.1 depicts the Components of a series-HEV powertrain architecture. The principal
energy converter in this HEV is the ICE., which transforms the fuel's initial energy into
mechanical power, the ICE's mechanical output converted to electricity by the generator
(G). The final drive is moved by the electric motor, It is powered by energy generated by
the generator or saved in the battery. The engine, battery, or both can be used to fuel the
electric motor. Since the engine is not directly linked to the wheels, the speed of the engine
can be changed independently of the vehicle's speed, this facilitates engine power and
allows the engine to run at its most optimum speed to obtain the highest fuel-efficiency. It
also allows for greater freedom for finding the vehicle's engine. A conventional mechanical
transmission is not required in series HEV [20][22].

Figure 3.1: Components of a series-HEV powertrain architecture.

72
The components of a series HEV's propulsion system can work in a variety of
configurations depending on the vehicle operating conditions:

1. Battery alone mode: When the state-of-charge (SoC) of the battery is maximum, and
the amount of traction power required by the vehicle is minimum, The
ICE/Generator(I/G) system has been turned off the electric motor's only source of
traction power is the battery.
2. Combined power mode: When the electric motor has a significant need for traction
power, The I/G set has been turned on, and both the I/G set and the battery supply the
traction power demand.
3. Engine alone mode: When the traction power demand is very high for the efficient
operation of the electric motor while cruising or hill climbing, the traction demand is
only met by the I/G set, independent of the battery's SoC.
4. Power split mode: When the vehicle's demand for traction power falls below the I/G
set limit capacity and the SoC of the battery reaches a particular level of insufficiency,
The I/G set is turned on, and the I/G set provides traction power demand, as well as a
portion of its output to recharge the battery.
5. Standstill charging mode: when the vehicle is not moving(standstill) and the I/G set
is on, it is used for recharging the battery.
6. Regenerative braking mode: The traction motor serves as a generator in this mode,
transforming the kinetic energy of the vehicle into electrical energy, as well as battery
recharging.
The series-HEV drivetrain is an EV with the addition of a generator and an ICE. When
running forward/backward, the EM can be operated as a motor or generator. Because of
the two-stage conversion and two electric machines, a series-HEV drivetrain has low
performance and high weight.

3.2.2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Figure 3.2 depicts the Components of a parallel-HEV powertrain architecture. The electric
motor and ICE are attached to the wheels via means of gears, clutches, pulleys, and belts
in this configuration. The ICE, as well as the motor, can provide traction power to the
73
wheels, either in tandem or separately. During braking, It's possible to use an electric motor
as a generator to get kinetic energy back or it can absorb some of the ICE's power [20][22].

Figure 3.2: Components of a parallel-HEV powertrain architecture.

Only two propulsion devices are needed for the parallel-HEV drivetrain electric motor and
ICE that are capable of working in any of the following modes:

1. Motor alone mode: When the SoC of the battery is maximum, and the amount of
traction power required by the vehicle is minimum, the ICE is turned off, the wheels
are given traction power only by the battery through the electric motor.
2. Combined power mode: When the vehicle has a significant need for traction power,
the ICE is turned on, and both ICE and the battery supply the traction power demand
of the vehicle.
3. Engine alone mode: When the traction power demand is very high, for the efficient
operation of the vehicle while cruising or hill climbing, the traction power demand of
74
 the wheels is fulfilled only through the ICE. In this mode, the electric motor remains
idle.
4. Power split mode: When the vehicle's demand for traction power falls below the ICE
limit capacity, and the SoC of the battery reaches a particular level of insufficiency, the
ICE is turned on, and the ICE provides traction power demand of the vehicle, as well
as a portion of its output is transformed into electric power by the electric motor, to
restore the battery's charge.
5. Standstill charging mode: when the vehicle is not moving(standstill) and the ICE is
on, and it is used to recharge the battery by changing the electric motor into a generator
powered by ICE.
6. Regenerative braking mode: The traction motor serves as a generator in this mode,
transforming the kinetic energy of the vehicle into electrical energy, as well as battery
recharging.
Only one electric machine, powered by energy storage batteries, is needed in this
architecture. The parallel-HEV drivetrain can be driven by either an ICE or an EM, or both,
making it more efficient than other architectures because it decreases the size of the ICE.

3.2.3 Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Both series and parallel HEV features are incorporated in this series-parallel HEV
architecture as shown in figure 3.3. Due to this, it is possible to use it in either a parallel or
series HEV configuration. Unlike a series HEV, a mechanical component is added to the
series-parallel HEV between the final drive and the engine, enabling the engine to directly
drive the wheels. In contrast to a parallel HEV, an extra electrical machine is added in the
series-parallel HEV which primarily serves as an electric generator. The fuel efficiency
and drivability of the series-parallel HEV can be optimized depending on driving
conditions, enabling it to operate in both modes. This architecture is favored by many due
to its improved degree of freedom in control. It is, however, typically more costly and less
efficient than series or parallel HEVs due to additional components and complexities
[20][22].

75
 Figure 3.3: Components of a series-parallel HEV powertrain architecture.

Some of the more contemporary hybrid concepts include micro-hybrid, mild-hybrid, and
full-hybrid. Typically, these concepts are linked to the HEV's main electric motor's power
rating. A fully hybrid car, for example, has a large electric motor and batteries. However,
a micro-hybrid vehicle is one in which the electric motor is quite small.

To represent the degree of hybridization, a hybridization ratio is used. The hybridization

ratio in a parallel HEV is the electric power as a percentage of total vehicle power. An
HEV with a 40 kW electrical motor power and a 60 kW IC engine power, for example, a
hybridization ratio of 40/(40 + 60) = 40%. The hybridization ratio of a conventional
gasoline-powered automobile is 0%, while the hybridization ratio of a battery-powered
vehicle (EV) is 100%. Due to the vehicle's ability to be powered in EV mode, also a 100%
hybridization ratio would likewise be present in a series HEV

3.3 Vehicle Dynamics and Specification

When designing an HEV, the requirements for the ICE, energy storage batteries, an electric
motor, and a generator must all be determined by the expected performance of the vehicle.

76
After the initial design is completed, we will check if the vehicle's performance standards
are met. Iterations may be expected before the final design is finished, and the design
usually necessitates the use of modeling and simulation tools. As a result, this section will
concentrate on road load modeling for vehicles and how to express the performance of the
vehicle and fuel efficiency. Vehicle operation basics are mathematical descriptions of
vehicle performance based on general dynamics concepts. The vehicle is represented as
road load figure 3.4 depicts the vehicle and various relevant forces acting on the vehicle
[50][77].

Figure 3.4: Road load model and forces acting on the vehicle during driving uphill.

3.3.1 Vehicle Modelling

Consider a vehicle climbing up a hill with a velocity v avoiding the road grade (slope) angle
of 𝜭0 and the vehicle mass is Mveh.. The tractive force Ftrac. also known as the driving
force, is the force that propels a vehicle forward. This force must withstand rolling
77
resistance loss force Froll., aerodynamic drag loss force Faerod., road gradient resistance
force Fresist. and the acceleration force for the vehicle to drive forward without slipping.

Rolling resistance loss force Froll. is a force that is required to overcome the frictional force
between the road and the tire of the vehicle, and is given by

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙. = 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. 𝑔 𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (3.1)

Where

𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. = vehicle mass (kg)

𝑔 = gravitational force of the earth (m/s2)

𝐶𝑟𝑟 = vehicle rolling resistance coefficient (depends upon road condition and the vehicle’s
tire pressure)

Aerodynamic drag loss force Faerod., is a frictional force that mostly occurs between the
front surface of the vehicle and the flowing airstream. This force can be modeled as:

1
𝐹𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑑. = 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑣 2 (3.2)
2

A = Vehicle’s front area (m2),

ρ = air density (kg/m3)

𝐶𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 = Coefficient of drag.

Road gradient resistance force Fresist., is the force that occurs on the vehicle while driving
on non-horizontal roads, this force is due to gravity and affects the vehicle performance
this road gradient resistance force Fresist., modeled as:

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡. = 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (3.3)

Acceleration force Facc. is defined as the amount of force produced to accelerate or

decelerate a vehicle, and it is governed by Newton’s 2nd law of motion and is represented
by:

78
 𝑑(𝑣)
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑐. = 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. 𝑎 = 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. (3.4)
𝑑𝑡

where a is the acceleration of the vehicle.

The total tractive force to be generated by the vehicle is given by

Ftrac. = 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑐. + 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙. +𝐹𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑑. +𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡.

3.3.2 Vehicle Performance

The ICE, EM, engines, and energy storage battery are all part of an HEV's drivetrain. These
components' ratings shall meet the power requirements of the vehicles under various
driving schedule conditions. The part sizes are selected to correspond to the efficiency of
ICE vehicles. When traveling at a speed of 60 to 100 km/h, HEVs are supposed to be able
to avoid 5 to 10% of the road gradient. As compared to ICE vehicles, HEVs must satisfy
the owner's acceleration demand for acceptable results.

The method presented in this chapter measures the vehicle's acceleration power demand
based on two assumptions: first, that air density does not change with time, and second,
that the vehicle does not accelerate at a grade angle. The acceleration power P acc. is
determined by the following equation for HEVs with a total weight of 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. and road grade
angle of 00.

𝑑(𝑣) 1
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑐. = 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. 𝑣 + 2 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑣 3 + 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. 𝑔 𝑣 𝐶𝑟𝑟 (3.5)
𝑑𝑡

as the road grade angle is 00 cos𝜃becomes 1.

Equation (3.5) gives the total power available to the wheels. Equation (3.5) must be used
to get the acceleration power to analyze HEV drivetrain losses at various stages, and
drivetrain part sizing should then be performed accordingly. We will integrate Equation
(3.5) from 0 to tmax. to satisfy the acceleration power requirement of the vehicle as the HEV
accelerates from 0 to full speed Vmax.

𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥.

𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. 1 2
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑐. = { 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥. + 𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝑔 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡} + ∫ 𝑣 3 𝑑𝑡 (3.6)
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥. 2 0 2 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥. 0
79
where tmax. is the amount of time it takes for HEVs to reach their full speed. The speed 𝑣 is
depicted as a time-dependent variable in Equation (3.7), and we can see the plot in Figure
3.5

𝑡 𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥. (𝑡 ) (3.7)
𝑚𝑎𝑥.

We will derive the time to achieve 100 km/h and the top speed from the vehicle speed map.
Exponentiation 𝑥 from 0 to 100 km/h has a normal value between 0.5 and 0.66.

Figure 3.5: Relation between vehicle speed and time during acceleration.

For simplification, the 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑐. can be presented as

𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑐. = 𝑎0 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. + 𝑏0 (3.8)

Where,

𝑣2 𝐶 𝑔 𝑡
𝑎0 = 2𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥. + 𝑡 𝑟𝑟 ∫0 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 (3.9)
𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑚𝑎𝑥.

80
 𝑣2 1
∴ 𝑎0 = 2𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥. + 1+𝑥 𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝑔 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥. (3.10)
𝑚𝑎𝑥.

𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥.
and 𝑏0 = ∫0 𝑣 3 𝑑𝑡 (3.11)
2𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥.

1 3
∴ 𝑏0 = 2(1+2𝑥) 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥. (3.12)

The first part of the Pacc. in equation (3.8) is linear to the weight of the HEV, while the
second part represents the vehicle's design constant. When Crr and vehicle acceleration
change, the factor a0 changes as well. The aerodynamic drag coefficient (Cdrag) and the
vehicle's frontal area (A) will determine the factor b0.

Grade-climbing power (Pgr) is the amount of power necessary to avoid a road grade while
hill climbing. This power is required by the vehicles to negotiate the road gradient at a
constant speed of vgr and the Pgr is computed as,

1 3
𝑃𝑔𝑟 = 2 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑣𝑔𝑟 + 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. 𝑔 𝑣𝑔𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. 𝑔 𝑣𝑔𝑟 𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (3.13)

Here 𝜃 is the angle of road grade, hence the equation (3.13) may be written as,

𝑃𝑔𝑟 = 𝑎1 𝑀𝑣𝑒ℎ. + 𝑏1 (3.14)

where,

𝑎1 = 𝑔 𝑣𝑔𝑟 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) (3.15)

1 3
and 𝑏1 = 𝜌𝐴𝐶𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑣𝑔𝑟 (3.16)
2

3.4 Performance Evaluation of an HEV using Advanced Vehicle Simulator

(ADVISOR)

The Advanced Vehicle Simulator (ADVISOR) was developed by the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory in 1994 [81]. as part of the US Department of Energy's hybrid
propulsion system initiative. This application was developed in MATLAB/Simulink
environments and is available for free on the web. ADVISOR was created to describe the
dynamics of the powertrain using basic kinematic equations. It was most likely the first
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system to take into account stability charts for all powertrain components. Previous
experiments regarded an electric transmission as optimal or considered just relative losses,
unlike the performance map application. Emissions were represented in the same way as
efficiencies, as operational point-based maps. ADVISOR accepted almost every
combination of electric and hybrid powertrains. ADVISOR is said to function in a "quasi-
steady" state, that is, transients must not be too rapid or extremely disruptive. This software
simulates the efficiency of the vehicle faster by 1.7 to 8.0 times than a comparable
established norm [81][82]. This software allowed the simulation of new vehicle
configurations as well as the development of vehicle control strategies (in comparison to
other available software). The software also allowed for the use of driving cycles as well
as fuel efficiency, maximum-effort acceleration ability, and emissions, which are all
calculated using drivetrain component capacity.

This software employed a backward/forward hybrid algorithm in its equations stream. In

comparison to a straightforward forward-facing stream of computations, a backward-
facing method of computation of stream manages limitations of component accuracy. This
method helped the user accurately reflect vehicle activity in various operating scenarios. A
graphical user interface (GUI) level and a block diagram level are also available for user
adjustment in ADVISOR (Simulink). Users of ADVISOR were able to contribute to the
ADVISOR library component data [81][82][83].

For this study, a traditional hatchback style small car was chosen to reflect the most
common car on the market; in India, hatchback cars have a much greater market share than
any other form of a personal car. Table 3.1 shows the primary dimensions and mass of the
hatchback car chassis. Table 3.2 summarises the series-HEV drivetrain variable rating used
for simulation purposes. Table 3.3 shows the parallel-HEV drivetrain component ratings
used in the simulation.

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 Table 3.1: Hatchback Car physical parameter data

Car physical parameter Value

Frontal area (A) 2 m2

Coefficient of drag (Cdrag) 0.33

Coefficient of rolling resistance (Crr) 0.015

Air Density (𝜌) 1.2 kg/m3

Wheelbase 2.6 m

Gravitational force (g) 9.81m/s2

Mass of the Test Vehicle 𝑴𝒗𝒆𝒉.

ICE vehicle 1140 kg

Series HEV 1219 kg

Parallel HEV 1248 kg

Cargo 136 kg

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 Table 3.2: Series-HEV drivetrain components rating

Parameter Value

ICE

Peak efficiency 34%

Maximum power 41 kW

Maximum torque 60 Nm

Weight 131 kg

EM Controller

EM peak efficiency 92%

EM constant power 25 kW for (2200–6000 rpm)

EM peak torque 85 Nm for (0–2200 rpm)

EM weight 30 kg

Generator

Peak efficiency 95%

Maximum power 30 kW

Generator weight 35 kg

Energy Storage Battery (Ni-MH)

Battery weight 108 kg

Battery Capacity (Ah) 28 Ah

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 Table 3.3: Parallel-HEV drivetrain components rating

Parameter Value

ICE

Peak efficiency 34%

Maximum power 41 kW

Maximum torque 60 Nm

Weight 131 kg

EM Controller

EM peak efficiency 92%

EM constant power 25 kW for (2200–6000 rpm)

EM peak torque 85 Nm for (0–2200 rpm)

EM weight 30 kg

Energy Storage Battery (Ni-MH)

Battery weight 108 kg

Battery Capacity (Ah) 28 Ah

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3.4.1 Drive Schedule

A drive schedule is a typical vehicle speed vs. time graph that can be used to compare and
evaluate vehicle fuel efficiency, performance, and emissions of the vehicle [17][28][44].
Driving cycles and vehicle mass can be used to calculate the amount of power required to
operate a vehicle. In different locations around the world, different drive cycles are used to
evaluate the fuel efficiency and dynamic performance of various vehicles. Standard driving
schedules are in use all around the world. We choose three driving schedules to reflect
highway and city driving trends in this study: CYC_NEDC, CYC_UDDS, and
CYC_INDIA_URBAN. Each driving schedule has an impact on the vehicle's efficiency.
Figure 3.6 depicts the three driving schedules that were used to compare the test vehicles'
results. The last two driving schedules have fewer stops than the first one, the maximum
attainable speed for CYC_NEDC is 120 km/h which is almost double that for
CYC_INDIA_URBAN. The operating parameters correlated with the above driving
schedules are summarized in Table 3.4.

Figure 3.6: Three different driving schedules namely CYC_INDIA_URBAN,

CYC_NEDC, and CYC_UDDS used for analysis.

86
 Table 3.4: Different parameters for the three-drive schedule

Drive schedule
CYC_INDIA_URBAN CYC_UDDS CYC_NEDC
Parameter

Distance 17.49 km 11.99 km 10.93 km

Idle time 267 s 259 s 298 s

Number of stops 52 17 13

Maximum speed 62.56 km/h 91.25 km/h 120 km/h

Average speed 23.41 km/h 31.51 km/h 33.21 km/h

Maximum
1.73 m/s2 1.48 m/s2 1.06 m/s2
acceleration

Total time 2689 s 1369 s 1184 s

Efficiency mappings are commonly used in HEV drivetrains to describe overall efficiency
in terms of speed/torque characteristics. The operational efficiency of EMs used in HEV
propulsion drivetrain applications is the most extensively utilized criterion for evaluating
their performance. In this study, the ADVISOR software is used to simulate a test vehicle
with three distinct drivetrain propulsion systems: a normal ICE drivetrain, a series-HEV
drivetrain, and a parallel-HEV drivetrain propulsion system. Section 3.4 has already
specified the various drivetrain parameters that will be used in the simulation. We
employed a regular highway and city driving schedule to evaluate the performance of these
three different drivetrains, with the parameters utilized for simulation purposes shown in
Table 3.4. The major acceleration test with 5% gradeability is performed in all three
drivetrains with varied driving schedules using ADVISOR software with the support of the
Matlab/Simulink platform. Vehicle emissions and fuel efficiency are currently major
concerns; this study examines fuel economy and vehicle emissions as part of the
performance evaluation.

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3.5 Results and Discussion

The simulation is performed on a test vehicle using all three drivetrain options. HEVs were
created to address the shortcomings of conventional vehicles and electric cars, therefore
they must meet the vehicle's performance requirements, such as the speed-torque
characteristics required by a typical driving schedule. The speed-torque mapping derived
from modeling the series-HEV propulsion powertrain in the CYC_UDDS schedule, a
highway driving schedule, is shown in figure 3.7(a). The actual operating points of EM are
between maximum continuous torque and maximum continuous generating torque, with
maximum operating points at 2000-3000 rpm and completing the traction effort, as
required by the driving cycle. The fuel converter efficiency mapping for the complete travel
duration of the driving schedule is shown in Figure 3.7(b). The speed-torque mapping
varies as the driving schedule shifts from the highway to the city. Because this schedule
has more stops, EM is now attempting to match the CYC_INDIA_URBAN requirements
as depicted in figure 3.7(c), therefore all real operating points are between 0 and 3500 rpm
only.

(a)
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 (b)

(c)

Figure 3.7(a): EM's speed-torque characteristics representing series-HEV's real

operational points during the CYC_UDDS simulation. 3.7(b): ICE fuel converter
efficiency mapping for CYC_UDDS. 3.7(c): Speed torque characteristics during
CYC_INDIA_URBAN, for series-HEV drivetrain propulsion.

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Figures 3.8–3.10 show the speed-torque mapping and fuel converter efficiency for the
parallel-HEV propulsion powertrain under all three standard driving schedules. The wheels
in a parallel-HEV drive train propulsion system derive propulsion power from EM and ICE
independently or combined via a dual-clutch mechanism. Figure 3.8 shows the EM's actual
operating points and fuel converter efficiency throughout the parallel-HEV drivetrain's
complete run in a highway driving schedule CYC_UDDS. The EM requires less tractive
effort than a series-HEV because in a parallel-HEV, both the ICE and the EM supply the
vehicle’s tractive effort, which improves the vehicle's efficiency.

(a)
90
 (b)

Figure 3.8(a): EM speed-torque characteristics during CYC_UDDS, exhibiting real

operational points of parallel-HEV and 3.8(b): ICE fuel converter efficiency mapping, for
parallel-HEV drivetrain propulsion.

Figure 3.9 depicts EM speed torque mapping in parallel-HEV drivetrain propulsion and
fuel converter efficiency for another highway standard driving schedule CYC_NEDC. The
actual operating points of the vehicles suggest that the propulsion power needed is largely
between 2000 and 4500 rpm during the CYC_NEDC driving schedule, both the EM and
ICE engines provide driving power to the vehicles.

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 (a)

(b)

Figure 3.9(a): EM speed-torque characteristics during CYC_NEDC, indicating actual

operational points of parallel-HEV and 3.9(b): ICE fuel converter efficiency mapping, for
parallel-HEV drivetrain propulsion.
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For the CYC_INDIA_URBAN standard driving pattern, which reflects city driving
conditions, Figure 3.10 shows speed torque mapping of EM operating points and fuel
converter efficiency mapping of ICE for parallel-HEV drivetrain propulsion. When
compared to highway driving conditions, city driving involves many starts and stops
between two locations owing to severe traffic. As a result, it takes nearly twice as long to
traverse the same distance. Because the vehicle cannot be switched off during numerous
stops, we have a lot of idle time to charge the batteries.

(a)

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 (b)

Figure 3.10(a): EM speed-torque characteristics during CYC_INDIA_URBAN,

indicating actual operational points of parallel-HEV and 3.10(b): ICE fuel converter
efficiency mapping, for parallel-HEV drivetrain propulsion.

Table 3.5 displays the simulation results obtained after three different test drivetrain
acceleration tests. The acceleration criteria for a hatchback type test car operating in
highway or city driving conditions must be satisfied. The parallel-HEV configuration is
considerably superior to a typical ICE automobile. In comparison to ICE automobiles, the
parallel-HEV required just 9 seconds to attain acceleration from 0 km/h to 100 km/h. ICE

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vehicles accelerate 4 times slower from 0 to 150 km/h than parallel-HEVs with a 5% road
gradeability. Based on the acceleration performance of the test vehicles the figure of merit
is awarded to the test vehicle as the acceleration performance of parallel HEV is superior
to the other vehicles in all the three acceleration performance tests so we award 5 points to
parallel HEV.

Table 3.5: CYC_INDIA_URBAN driving schedule acceleration performance test results

for vehicles with a 5% road gradient.

Acceleration performance test results

The
numerical
Required time Required time Required time
value of
Vehicle (s) to achieve (s) to achieve (s) to achieve
merit
acceleration of acceleration of acceleration of
awarded
0-100 km/h 40-100 km/h 0-150 km/h

Convention ICE 23 17 84 3

Series HEVs 15 11 49 4

Parallel HEVs 9 7 20 5

Table 3.6 summarizes the results of the enhanced acceleration performance tests performed
during the propulsion drivetrain simulation. Characteristics such as the maximum
acceleration obtained throughout the run are indicators of the vehicle's propulsion power.
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During simulation, a parallel-HEV reached a top speed of 204 km/h, which is much faster
than an ICE vehicle.

Table 3.6: Enhanced acceleration performance test results of different vehicles during
CYC_INDIA_URBAN driving schedule.

The The The

Vehicle
Conventi numerical numerical numerical
Performa Series Parallel
onal value of value of value of
nce HEVs HEVs
paramete ICE merit merit merit
rs
awarded awarded awarded

Maximum
accelerati
2.3 m/s2 3 2.9 m/s2 3 5 m/s2 5
on
attained

Distance
covered in 24 m 3 36 m 4 56 m 5
5s

Time is
taken for 27 s 3 23 s 3 19 s 5
0.5 km

Maximum
204
speed 152 km/h 3 157 km/h 3 5
km/h
achieved

HEVs were designed to minimize carbon emissions from vehicle emissions. Figure
3.11(a)-(c) depicts the results of simulations of ICE, series-HEV, and parallel-HEV
drivetrains for vehicle emissions over three driving schedules. HEVs have smaller carbon
footprints during emissions as compared to ICE automobiles. The parallel-HEV, the latter
of the two drivetrains, has lower emissions.
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 Vehicle emissions during CYC_NEDC
9

6
gram/km

0
Conventional ICE Vehicle Series HEVs Parallel HEVs
HC 0.781 0.155 0.169
CO 8.156 1.226 0.885
NOx 1.549 0.339 0.134

(a)

Vehicle emissions during CYC_UDDS

10
9
8
7
6
gram/km

5
4
3
2
1
0
Conventional ICE Vehicle Series HEVs Parallel HEVs
HC 0.774 0.196 0.164
CO 8.894 1.418 0.698
NOx 1.472 0.508 0.151

(b)

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 Vehicle emissions during CYC_URBAN_INDIA
10

6
gram/km

0
Conventional ICE Vehicle Series HEVs Parallel HEVs
HC 0.913 0.131 0.18
CO 9.364 0.957 0.702
NOx 1.596 0.339 0.164

(c)

Figure 3.11 (a)-(c): Vehicles emissions graph during different driving schedules

Fuel economy is also a concern, and HEVs were designed to minimize fuel use while
maintaining high fuel converter efficiency. Figure 3.12 depicts the cars' fuel consumption
in L/100 km. The parallel-HEV outperforms the ICE and series-HEV in terms of fuel
economy. In CYC INDIA URBAN, a parallel-HEV requires just 6.5 L/100 km of gasoline,
but an ICE car requires 7.6 L/100 km.

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 Fuel consumption (L/100 km)
8

5
L/100 km

0
Conventional ICE
Series HEVs Parallel HEVs
Vehicle
CYC_NEDC 6.5 5.6 5.3
CYC_UDDS 6.5 6 5.3
CYC_INDIA_URBAN 7.6 7.5 6.5

Figure 3.12: Fuel economy of different test vehicles during different driving schedules

Table 3.7 summarises the awarded figure of merit for each performance parameter to the
test vehicles during the CYC_INDIA_URBAN driving schedule condition. The parallel-
HEV configuration has outperformed both series vehicles and conventional ICE vehicles
in terms of merit.

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 Table 3.7: Figure of merit of the test vehicles

Performance Conventional ICE

Series HEV Parallel HEV
Parameter Vehicle

Acceleration
3 4 5
Performance
Maximum speed
3 3 5
achieved (km/h)
Distance covered in
3 4 5
5s
Time is taken for
3 3 5
0.5 km
Maximum
acceleration 3 3 5
attained

Fuel Saving 2 3 5

GSG Emissions 1 4 5

No. of Components 5 3 4

Efficiency 3 4 5

Where 1 is lowest and 5 is highest

3.6 Summary

The significant contributions of this chapter can be summarized as given below.

● This chapter compares various aspects of vehicle performance, including

efficiency, emissions, gradeability, and so on, for pure ICE, series-HEV, and
parallel-HEV vehicles.
● While setting simulation variables on ADVISOR, a medium-sized hatchback
vehicle was chosen for a reasonable comparison.

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 ● The vehicle road load modeling for the performance of the vehicle has been carried
out.
● The various driving schedules significantly influence the efficiency of the electric
motor-converter and the vehicle performance. This study focuses on performance
testing conducted under the CYC_INDIA_URBAN driving cycle.
● The US PNGV (Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicle) goal for mid-size
vehicles are
0 - 60 mph ≤ 12 sec.

40 - 60 mph ≤ 5.38 sec

0 - 85 mph ≤ 23.4 sec.

Max. speed = 85 mph

Max. grade at 55 mph = 6.5%

The above simulation results illustrate the vehicle's acceleration and gradeability
performance matching the US PNGV goal for mid-sized vehicles.

● The obtained data show that the performance of parallel-HEV outperforms that of
ICE and series-HEV. The efficiency computation is based on the correlation of EM
operational points to ICE efficiency graphs. parallel-HEVs release the fewest GHG,
but their efficiency suffers since ICEs are not run at optimal drive configuration.
Future advancements in ESS (energy storage systems), fuel cells, and motor drivetrains
will allow even more freedom in the construction of more efficient HEVs. In the next
chapter of the thesis, the authors present the BLDC motor modeling and its control.

101