Chapter 1: Introduction

Eyob Mersha
E-mail:eyob.mersha12@[Link]

Haramaya University

Haramaya Institute of Technology

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

June 4, 2024

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 Importance of Materials

Materials is an essential requirement for the development of engineering

and technology.
Basis for manufacturing, fabrication, operations, and constructions etc.
Construction of a building, manufacturing of a machine, generation of
electricity, transmission of message, control instruments
Materials are of different natures viz., R.C.C. (reinforced cement con-
crete), steel and iron, copper and aluminium, mica and rubber, alloy and
glass etc.
Depending upon the areas in which they are used, the materials may be
known as
1 Civil engineering materials,
2 Electrical engineering materials,
3 Mechanical engineering materials,
4 Electronics engineering materials,
5 Nuclear engineering materials, and
6 Computer engineering materials etc.,
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These days, most materials find inter-disciplinary uses.
Let’s take the example of aluminum.
• It is generally known as a mechanical engineering material but it finds use
in electrical engineering also as a conductor
• It is used in electronics engineering for doping of intrinsic semiconductors
• It is used in metallurgical engineering as an alloying element
• It is used in civil engineering for decorative items.
However, conventionally we call
• RCC as civil engineering material,
• Insulator (e.g. mica) as electrical engineering material
• Metals as mechanical engineering materials
• Semiconductors as electronics engineering materials
• Uranium as nuclear engineering materials etc,

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Rapid advancement in electron-based computers, revolutionary changes
in electronics engineering
• From vacuum valves to very large-scale Integration (VLSI),
• Developments of conducting polymers, ferroelectrics as a modern breed of
dielectrics, and ferrites as a superb magnetic material, whisker-based fibre
optics, light-based computers, high temperature superconductors etc.
• The 21st century will see the high voltage transmission through hair- sized
conducting wires, the hybrid magnets of more than 100 T (tesla) capacities,

• The magnetic refrigerators operating well above 100 K (kelvin), and hybrid
crystals (e.g. Hg-Cd-Te) serving as sensor elements.
• Smart materials, ferrites, ferroelectrics, garnets, and ceramic superconduc-
tors are the latest kind of materials of today and tomorrow. More materials
in this list are ruby laser, superalloys, crystalline carbon 60 (C60) etc.

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Classification of Electrical and Electronic Materials

Electrical engineering materials can be classified into following types:

1 Conductors
I High voltage and low voltage conductors
I High temperature and low temperature conductors
I Bared and insulated conductors
2 Semiconductors
1 Intrinsic (or element) type
2 Extrinsic (compound and alloy) type

I n type I p type

3 Dielectrics (or Insulators)

I Solid type I Ceramic type

I Liquid type I Polymeric type
I Gaseous type I Fibrous type

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4 Superconductors 5 Magnetic materials
• Metallic type
• Diamagnetic
• Ceramic type
• • Paramagnetic
Ideal and hard types
• Low and high temperature types • Ferromagnetic
• Magnetic and non-magnetic • Antiferromagnetic
types • Ferrimagnetic (or ferrites)

6 Ferroelectrics
• Zirconates 7 Spinels, Garnets, and Magneto-
• Hafnates plumbites
• Titanates • Normal spinel (as ZnFe2O4)
• • Inverse spinel (as magnetite)
PLZT (Perovskite Lead Lan-
thanum Zirconate Titanate) • Metallic garnet
• Rare earth garnet

8 Piezoelectrics iobate)
1 Natural (as rochelle salt)
2 Artificial (as tourmaline, metan-9 Perovskites (or mixed oxides)
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 Energy Gap for Different Solids

Figure: Classification of solids based on energy gap (a) conductor having overlapping
energy level, (b) conductor having Eg = 0, (c) conductor, (d) and (e) semiconductors,
and (f ) and (g) insulators

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 Conductors

These are the materials having plenty of free electrons in their valence
orbit which are responsible for electrical and heat conduction.
The valence and conduction band energies overlap in them (see Fig. 1).
Gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), aluminium (Al) are good electrical
conductors.
Considering the cost factor, copper and aluminium are widely used as
transmission wires and cables, and windings of rotating machines (mo-
tors, alternators etc.).
Oxygen-free high conductivity (OFHC) copper conductor is very suitable
for low temperature applications.
Electrical resistivity of conductors is of the order of 10−9 ohm-meter.
It is influenced by temperature, impurities, alloying elements, and plastic
deformation.

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 semiconductors

These are the solids having energy gap ’Eg’ lying in between the conduc-
tor and insulator.
Their conductivity is more than that of the dielectrics but less than that of
conductors. (Si) and (Ge)
The element form remains in pure state and is called intrinsic semicon-
ductor.
Intrinsic semiconductors are of no practical utility since they desire an
extremely high voltage (108 volts) for conduction across the energy gap.
Hence, they are doped to make extrinsic semiconductors. (n-type and p-
type)
They may be in compound form such as GaAs, CdTe etc. and in alloy
form such as HgCdxTe1-x.
A number of semiconducting compounds are available in oxide, halide
and sulphide forms also.

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 Semiconductors...

The n and p-types are used to make n-p junction for diode, n-p-n and p-n-p
for transistor, etc.
Semiconductors are generally hard and brittle, and possess negative coef-
ficient of temperature resistance.
In contrast with conductors whose conductivity increases with purifica-
tion, the conductivity of semiconductors decreases with purification.
Semiconductors are widely used as rectifiers, amplifiers, photocells etc.
Their properties are of greater importance in telecommunication, power
electronics, computer hardware etc.

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 Dielectrics

These are the insulating materials in which the valence electrons are tightly
bound to their parent atoms.
They require a very large electric field to remove these electrons from the
atoms.
Dielectrics are characterized by
1 a full valence band
2 an empty conduction band, and
3 a large energy gap (Eg > 3 eV).
Dielectrics are available in solid, liquid, and gaseous states.
Natural or synthetic types, polymeric or ceramic in nature, and fibrous or
flaked in structure.

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Solid dielectrics
• Mica, Bakelite, Elastomeric fibre, and Paper
Liquid dielectrics
• Transformer oil, Silicon oil, Varnishes
Gaseous dielectrics
• Air, Nitrogen, Ozone
Dielectrics are used as
• Capacitors, as insulation, in strain gauges and sonar devices.

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 Main properties of dielectrics

Dielectric constant, Dielectric strength, and Dielectric loss.

Dielectric constant: is influenced by temperature and frequency.
A good dielectric should have high dielectric constant and high dielectric
strength but a lower dielectric loss.
The dielectric loss is the least in transformer oil and fused silica (tan δ =
0.0001).
Dielectrics are subjected to different kinds of polarization under the influ-
ence of applied electric field.
These polarization processes are affected by time, frequency and temper-
ature. The time effect is expressed in terms of relaxation time.

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 Superconductors

Exhibit abrupt and sudden changes in their resistance and other behaviour,
at extremely low temperatures.
It is because of a phenomenon called superconductivity which is noticed
below a certain critical temperature.
Superconductors show extraordinary properties
1 Resistance R of the material ≈ 0,
2 Magnetic flux density B ≈ 0, and
3 Power (copper) loss I 2 R ≈ 0.
Superconducting materials mainly fall in the category of metals and ce-
ramics, (element, compound, or alloy forms).

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 Superconductors

They are magnetic or non-magnetic nature, type I (ideal) or type II (hard),

and low temperature or high temperature superconductors.
Superconductivity in materials is presently available at low temperatures
only, there is a need to develop these properties at high temperatures (say
room temperature).
Superconducting compounds and alloys Nb3 Sn, La80 Au20 , Nb-Zr-Ti are
some examples of.
Modern ceramic (i.e. oxide) superconductors.
• Yattrium barium copper oxide YBa2 Cu3 O7−x
• Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (Bi Sr Ca CuO) and
• Thallium barium calcium copper oxide (Th Ba Ca CuO)

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 Superconductors

Application of Superconductors are:

• Leviated trains (wheel-less train moving on magnetic field),
• Powerful magnets for nuclear fusion reactors,
• Medical imaging machines: Superconductors play a crucial role in MRI
machines, which are widely used for medical imaging.
• Power Transmission Cables: Superconductors can transmit electrical power
with zero resistance, making them ideal for long-distance power transmis-
sion.
• Energy Storage and Generation: Superconductors can store energy effi-
ciently due to their zero resistance property.
• Cryogenic engines,
• High speed electronic signal processing, and
• Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation etc.

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 Magnetic Materials

The magnetization can be easily induced to make them magnets.

The generation of induced dipole is attributed to electron spins, orbital
motion of electrons and the interaction between them.
Depending upon the arrangement of magnetic moments in them, the mag-
netic materials may be of diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, an-
tiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic (or ferrites) types.
Diamagnetic materials develop no magnetism due to the absence of mag-
netic moment.
• Examples: Gold, bismuth, copper.
Paramagnetic materials form weak magnets.
• Examples: Aluminium, platinum, NiSO4 .(Nickel Sulphate)

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 Magnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic materials develop very strong magnetism.

• Examples: Steel and iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and gadolinium
(Gd).
• Depending upon the area under B-H curve, it may be either soft magnetic
materials or hard magnetic materials.
Soft magnetic materials are used as transformer core because hystersis
loss is least.
Hard magnetic materials are used to make permanent magnets for elec-
tric motors, alternators etc. Ferromagnetic materials find use as magnetic
screens and magnetic waves also.
Antiferromagnetic materials here, antiparallel alignment of electron spins
of neighbouring atoms.
• Examples: Oxides and sulphides of metals.
• Their susceptibility is of the order of +103 which varies with change in
temperature.
• Maximum susceptibility in them occurs at Neel temperature.
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 Magnetic Materials

Ferrites
The magnitude of magnetic moment is more in one direction than the
other.
They are compounds of two metallic oxides of which one is invariably an
iron oxide.
• Examples: FeO, Fe2 O3 , BaO6 , Fe2O3.
Basically, they are ceramics (high electrical resistivity and low power
loss), and similar to semiconductors in conduction behaviour.
Ferrites may be soft ferrite (Lithium ferrite) or hard ferrite (strontium fer-
rite).
A soft ferrite possesses square hysteresis loop while the hard ferrite shows
semiconductor behaviour.
• Ex: Mg-Mn and Zn-Mn ferrites are used as memory cores in computers.
Ferrites are made by powder compaction technique.
Their resistivity of 107 ohm-meter, and relative permeability of the order
of 104 .
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 Magnetic Materials

Ferroelectrics
These are advanced kind of dielectrics having r > 2000.
They are much superior to conventional dielectrics such as mica whose r
is 8 only.
Such a high value of r in ferroelectrics is due to alignment of all the
electric dipoles in the direction of applied field.
Therefore, causes large and spontaneous polarization. Thus the ferro-
electrics are analogous to ferromagnetic materials.
• Examples: Rochelle salt, SrTiO3 (strontium titanate), PbZrO3 (lead-zirconium
titanate).
They are used in miniature capacitors, as electro-optic materials, and in
sonar devices etc.

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 Magnetic Materials

Piezoelectrics
Exhibits piezoelectric effect (An electric field induces a mechanical strain
in piezoelectric crystals and vice-versa).
• Examples: Quartz, CdS (calcium sulphide), ZnO (zinc oxide).
These are used as transducers in various devices and instruments for chang-
ing electrical signal into mechanical signal and vice-versa.
A quartz crystal is used to produce ultrasonic waves.

Perovskites (Titanates, Zirconates, Hafnates)

These are the mixed oxides obtained on fusing the oxides of titanium (Ti),
zirconium (Zr), and hafnium (Hf) with oxides of other metals.
The other metals are quite different in size from Ti, Zr or Hf.
Thus the fusion of the two metals results in formation of titanates, zir-
conates, and hafnates.
Perovskites (named after its inventor Perovsky) are used to make high
temperature ceramic superconductors.
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 Magnetic Materials

Spinels, Garnets, and Magnetoplumbite

These are basically magnetic materials.
They belong to ferrite family and are different crystal forms of it.
Spinels and garnets have cubic structures while the magnetoplumbite has
hexagonal structure.
• Examples: of a spinel is MnFe2 O4 , of a garnet is Er3 Fe2 O12 , and of mag-
netoplumbite is BaFe12 O19 .
They behave as soft and hard ferrites both, possess square hysteresis loop,
and serve as low mobility semiconductors.
Since they belong to ferrite’s family, they are used as memory cores in
computers, in microwave frequency applications etc.

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 Scope of Electrical and Electronic Materials

In consumer items

• Bulb filaments • Switches

• Heaters • Iron press
• Remote control devices • Radio and Television
• Telephone, cellphones
• Domestic wiring • Inverters
• Tape recorder • Microwave ovens

In electrical engineering

• Contacts • Conductors
• Cables • Dielectrics/Insulators
• Magnets • Piezoelectrics
• Alternators • Transformers
• Motors • Capacitors
• Voltage Dividers • Bus bars, etc.

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In Electronics

• Amplifiers • Filters
• Integrated circuits • Regulators
• Antenna • Satellite
• Broadcasting system • Photoconductive cells
• Printed Circuit • Transistors
• Rectifiers • Modulators, etc.

In Robotics

• Sensors • Actuators
• Controls • Processors
• Manipulators • Encoders
• Grippers • Pendants, etc.

In Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

• Electrocardiography • Electronic photography

• Fiber-optic endoscopy • Magnetic resonance imaging, etc.

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In Computer Engineering

• Hardware • Storage devices

• Monitors • Ports
• Peripherals • Display devices
• Floppy • Hard disks
• Printers • CD, etc.

In instrumentation

• Transducers • Cathod ray Oscilloscopes

• Signal generators • Thermistors
• Microprocessors
• Strain gauge • Energy meters, etc.

In information technology

• Networking cables • Routers and switches

• Web camera
• Multimedia devices • Optical fibers, etc.

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 Requirements of Engineering Materials

An electrical engineering material is used in one or all of the following

areas.
• Machines (as motor, alternator, robots etc.)
• Structures (as transformer, cathode ray tube, antenna etc.)
• Devices (as strain gauge, integrated circuit, control switch, thermistor, bimetal
gauge )
• Instruments (as multimeter, transducers, thermocouples etc.)

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 Properties of Engineering Materials

1 Electrical resistivity, conductivity, dielectric constant, dielectric strength,

relaxation time, loss angle, power factor.
2 Magnetic hysteresis, retentivity, permeability, susceptibility, coercive force,
reluctivity.
3 Electronic semi-conduction, drift, diffusion, concentration, energy gap,
Fermi-energy, mobility, carrier density, ionization energy, effective mass,
density of state, rectifying action.
4 Optical reflection, refraction, transmission, fluorescence, lustre (shine),
luminescence.
5 Physical density, melting point, colour, shape, size, finish, porosity (Fluid
absorbtion).
6 Thermal expansion, conductivity, specific heat, thermal fatigue, thermal
stress, thermal shock, latent heat (Radiation) of fusion.
7 Mechanical creep, fatigue, toughness, hardness, impact, ductility/malleabilit
resilience(Return to Original state), brittleness.
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8 Chemical corrosion resistance, passivity, atomic number, molecular weight,
acidity, alkalinity, oxidation.
9 Cryogenic (Low Temp) ductile-brittle behaviour, low temperature impact
behaviour, very low temperature phase changes, superconductivity.
10 Acoustical sound reflection, absorption, damping, transmission.
11 Structural strength, stiff ness, elasticity, plasticity.
12 Surface friction, abrasion, wear, erosion.
13 Metallurgical phase rule, solid solution, crystallization rate, diffusion.
14 Technological weldability, machinability, formability, castability, fabri-
cation ability, hardenability.
15 Aesthetic feel, texture, appearance, lustre (shine).
16 Nuclear half-life period, decay constant, radiation absorptivity.

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 Properties of Electrical Materials

Porosity is a desired requirement in intrinsic semiconductor for doping,

but is undesired in insulators exposed to moist air.
Thermal expansion of unequal values is desired in bimetallic strips of
dissimilar materials for use in thermostatic controls and thermocouples.
Fatigue resistance is a desired property in lamp filaments against fluctu-
ation of voltage, otherwise the life of filaments will decrease.
Corrosion resistance is desired in all the materials against environmental
effects.
Damping is a desired property for various components of an electrical in-
strument to prevent against mechanical shocks and vibrations, and against
the effects of external magnetic and electrical fields.
Strength is very essential for the casing of alternators and motors.

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 Properties of Electrical Materials

Elasticity and ductility are also needed in cables, wires and coils.
Abrasion (erosion by friction) resistance is an important requirement for
contact materials which are subjected to sparking of arc, such as in elec-
trodes.
Wear resistance is desired in contacts which are subjected to physical/
mechanical rubbings.
Diffusion is desired for doping of silicon and germanium elements. It
is also needed in making of binary (metal) alloy systems such as CuZn,
Cu-Ni etc.
Weldability is desired in the construction of laminated core of trans-
former.
Appearance of any machine, equipment, or device provides elegancy and
aesthetics to the product.

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Operational Requirements of Electrical and Electronic
Materials

High and low voltage applications

High and low conduction applications
High and low temperature services
High and low frequency services
High and low resistivity devices
High and low emission applications, etc.

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 High and Low Temperature (Service) Materials

It may be
• A high value of 3410◦ C for tungsten (W) and 2454◦ C for iridium (Ir),
• A medium range value of 1769◦ C for platinum (Pt) and 1083◦ C for cop-
per,
• A low value of 30◦ C for gallium (Ga) and -220◦ C for fluorine (F).
In case of electrically heated ovens, the heating coils of the heater are
normally subjected to above said temperatures.
Normally a thermocouple is used for temperature measurement.
It mainly employs nichrome as the material.
Nichrome is a heat resisting alloy of 80% Ni and 20% Cr composition.
• Constantan (60% Cu + 40% Ni), kanthal, platinum-rhodium etc. are other
materials used for this purpose.
For low-temperature measurement, various nickel based cryogenic steels
are used. These are
Percentage of Nichel 3.5 5.0 9.0
◦
Service temprature ( C) -100 -120 -190
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E YOB M. (H I T) Figure: Comparison
C HAPTER 1: Iof Electrical Materials
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