CLASS XI PRACTICALS

PART A

(WRITINGS ON THE RULED SHEET, FIGURES ON THE BLANK SHEET)

Experiment 1
Aim: To study and describe locally available common flowering plants from the family
Solanaceae.
Family – Solanaceae (Nightshade family) Petunia nyctanginifolia
Habitat Grown an ornamental herb, Annual.

Root The root is branched. Tap-root system is observed

Stem Branched, aerial, solid, green, erect, herbaceous, cylindrical, hairy

Leaf Consecutive in basal part and opposing decussate in the upper part, simple, cauline
and Ramal, sessile, stipulate, acute, ovate, hairy, entire, unicostate, reticulate.

Inflorescence Axillary dichasial cyme, Cymose.

Flower Hypogynous, pedicellate, bracteate, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, regular,

pentamerous, complete, cyclic, white or light violet in colour.

Calyx 5 sepals, deeply lobes, green, gamosepalous, inferior, hairy, persistent

Corolla 5 petals, white or light violet in colour, infundibuliform, valvate, gamopetalous,

induplicate, inferior, pentafid

Gynoecium 2 carpels (bicarpellary), superior, many ovules in each locule, stigma capitate,
placenta swollen, syncarpous, bilocular, style long

Androecium 5 stamens, epipetalous, polyandrous, filaments unequal, basifixed, introse

Fruit Capsule

1
2
 Experiment 2

Preparation and study of T.S. of dicot and monocot roots and stems (primary)

Aim
To study the transverse section of the dicot root, sunflower root.

Theory
The T.S shows the following structures:

1. Epiblema or Epidermis
▪ Densely arranged cells with thin cell walls forming the outermost single
layer
▪ Several cells have thin outgrowths known as root hairs
2. Cortex
▪ Present under the epidermis consisting of several layers of thin-walled
parenchyma cells
3. Endodermis
▪ They are barrel-shaped forming the innermost layer of the cortex. They are
densely arranged single cell layer.
▪ A Casparian band is formed due to the radially arranged cell walls that are
thickened
4. Pericycle
▪ Under the endodermis is a thin-walled layer of cells known as pericycle.
5. Vascular bundles
▪ It consists of radial bundles having alternating 2 to 6 arrangement of
bundles of phloem and xylem
▪ Bundles of xylem are exarch wherein the metaxylem is present towards the
center and the protoxylem at the outer side
▪ In outline, xylem vessels are polygonal
6. Phloem bundles
▪ Comprises of companion cells, parenchyma and sieve tube
7. Conjunctive tissue
▪ They are the parenchyma cells that separate the xylem and phloem bundles
from each other
8. Pith
▪ They are significantly absent or occur rarely

Identification

▪ The epidermis shows the presence of unicellular hair

▪ Absence of hypodermis
▪ Radially arranged vascular bundles
▪ The number of phloem/xylem bundles is not more than 6
▪ The xylem is an exarch
▪ Absence or rare occurrence of pith

3
Aim
To study of the transverse section of monocot root, maize root.

Theory
The transverse section of monocot root depicts the structures as listed below:

1. Epiblema or Epidermis
▪ It is a single outermost layer with no cuticle
▪ Densely arranged cells
▪ Few cells may see unicellular root hair emerging
2. Cortex
▪ Found below epidermis
▪ It is broad consisting of multiple layers of parenchyma cells
3. Endodermis
▪ The innermost layer of the cortex
▪ Barrel-shaped cells arranged in a ring-like manner
▪ Presence of Casparian bands
4. Pericycle
▪ Found below the endodermis and is a single layer of
parenchymatous cells
5. Vascular bundles
▪ There are 8 or more alternating bundles of phloem and xylem
known as radial bundles
▪ Xylem bundles are exarch
▪ Xylem bundles are oval or rounded
▪ Phloem is found under the pericycle and comprises of companion
cells, sieve tube, parenchyma
6. Conjunctive tissue
▪ It is the xylem and phloem bundles that are distinguished from each
other by the parenchyma tissue
7. Pith

4
 ▪ Well-developed pith is observed
▪ It comprises of the parenchyma in the mid-region of the root

Identification

▪ Epidermis sees the presence of unicellular hair

▪ Absence of hypodermis
▪ Radially arranged vascular bundles
▪ 8 or more than 8 phloem and xylem bundles
▪ A well-developed pith

Aim
To study the transverse section of monocot stem, maize stem.

Theory

▪ The maize plant is a monocot plant

▪ The transverse section is circular having a smooth surface
▪ The ground tissue consists of many scattered vascular bundles
▪ From the periphery to the center, the transverse section displays the
structure of different tissues in a particular manner as follows:
▪ Epidermis
▪ An outermost, single layer
▪ Thin-walled cells that are living. Presence of thick cuticle towards
the outermost surface
▪ The rare occurrence of stomata.
▪ Lack of epidermal hair
▪ Function – Protection of internal tissue

5
 ▪ Hypodermis
▪ Present under the epidermis
▪ Consists of the thick-walled dead layer of sclerenchymatous cells.
Made up of two of these three layers
▪ Ground Tissue
▪ Found below the hypodermis
▪ Consists of thin-walled living cells, parenchymatous cells
▪ Loose arrangement of cells with the presence of intercellular spaces
▪ As seen in the dicotyledonous stem, there is no differentiation of
cortex, pericycle and the endodermis
▪ Vascular bundles
▪ Several scattered vascular bundles found in the ground tissue and
are closed type, collateral and conjoint
▪ At the periphery, the vascular bundles are more and densely
arranged when compared to the center
▪ Large vascular bundles in the center compared to vascular bundles
at the periphery
▪ They resemble an oval shape that is girdled by sclerenchymatous
bundle sheath
▪ It consists of the xylem and the phloem
(a) Xylem

▪ Y-shaped
▪ Metaxylem are present at the two lateral arms. Protoxylem is
present at the base
▪ The lower protoxylem particles form a cavity known as lysogenous
cavity
▪ Function: Conducts water
(b) Phloem

▪ Present at the periphery and consists of living cells

▪ It comprises of companion cells, sieve tubes, and the phloem
parenchyma
▪ Function – Conducts food materials

6
Aim
To study the transverse section of a dicot stem, a sunflower stem.

Theory

• A typical example of a dicot stem is a sunflower

• The outline of the stem in the transverse section is circular with a hairy surface
• The transverse section depicts the arrangement of different tissues in a particular way from
the exterior to the centre as listed below:

o Epidermis
▪ It is the outermost covering of the stem and is single-layered
▪ The cells are living cells that are densely arranged with a thin wall,
enclosed in a cuticle
▪ It displays multicellular hair
▪ Function – It provides protection
• Cortex
▪ Located just under the epidermis
▪ It consists of the following regions – Hypodermis, Endodermis, General
cortex.
(a) Hypodermis – It is situated just below the epidermis and consists of 4 to 5 layers of
collenchymatous cells. These are cells that have the cellulose deposits on the edges and are living
cells. It may possess chloroplast and hence carry out photosynthesis.
Function: It renders mechanical support
(b) Endodermis – Forms the interior most covering of the cortex consisting of a singular row of
cells that are densely arranged and barrel-shaped with no intercellular spaces. They are composed
of starch grains.

7
(c) General Cortex (Parenchyma) – Located just under the hypodermis, it consists of several
layers of cells that are living having thin walls along with intercellular spaces. It may contain
chloroplast and hence becomes photosynthetic. Several mucilaginous canals can also be
observed. Function: Food storage

Stele
In tissue, it forms the central core having a vascular bundle. It comprises of – pericycle, vascular
bundles, medullary rays, and pith.
(a) Pericycle

▪ Located between the vascular bundles and endodermis.

▪ Has recurrent patches of parenchyma and sclerenchyma.
▪ Each sclerenchyma patch is linked with hard-blast fires.
(b) Medullary rays

▪ It is located in the gaps between the vascular bundles. This gap finds
parenchymatous cells that are thinly walled and arranged radially in 4-5
rows.
▪ Helps in the storage of food material and in the lateral conduction of water
and food.
(c) Vascular bundle

▪ They are open, collateral and conjoint and are set up in a ring-like manner.
▪ Each of the vascular bundle comprises of- xylem, phloem, cambium.
▪ Phloem is located below the pericycle towards the exterior side. It consists
of thin cell walls possessing companion cells, sieve tube and phloem
parenchyma and conducts food material.
▪ Xylem is found in the interior of the vascular bundle, i.e., smaller
protoxylem towards the centre and larger metaxylem towards the periphery.
Therefore, xylem is endarch. These cells are dead and lignified. Xylem
conducts minerals and water.
▪ The cambium is present between phloem and xylem. The cells are
rectangular and have thin cell walls. It consists of meristematic tissues that
generate new cells.
(d) Pith

▪ It forms the mid-region of the stem. It arises under the vascular bundle up
till the centre and consists of large parenchymatous cells.

8
▪

9
 Experiment :3

Study of osmosis by potato osmometer.

Aim: To study osmosis by potato osmometer.

Materials Required: A potato without peel, petri plate, tile, 20% sugar solution, pins, knife,
distilled water

Procedure:

1. Place the peeled potato on the tile and using the knife, cut both ends of the potato to make
it flat.
2. Use the knife to make a cavity at the centre of the potato from one of the flat sides almost
up to the bottom.
3. Pour distilled water into the Petri dish until it is half full.
4. Now, place the potato in the Petri dish.
5. Fill half the cavity made in the potato with 20% sugar solution.
6. Mark the level of sugar solution in the cavity using a pin.
7. The potato now functions as an osmometer.
8. Leave the osmometer undisturbed for about two hours.
9. Mark the rise in the level of the sugar solution in the cavity with another pin.

Observation
The level of sugar solution in the potato cavity rises after some time due to the entry of water into
the sugar solution through the selectively permeable membrane of the cells of the potato.

Conclusion
The movement of water from the Petri dish to the potato cavity occurs because of the difference in
the concentration of solvent molecules in the two regions: sugar solution in the potato cavity and
pure water in the Petri dish.

10
 Experiment :4

Study of plasmolysis in epidermal peels of Rhoeo leaf cells

Aim: Study of Plasmolysis

Materials Required: Rheo leaf, glass slides, cover slips, 5% sodium chloride solution, compound
microscope, 0.1%sodium chloride solution, forceps, droppers, needle

Procedure

• Take two glass slides and place them on the table.

• Take a rhoeo leaf from the Petri dish.
• Fold the leaf and tear it along the lower side of the leaf.
• Using a forceps, pull out two small segments of thin transparent layer from the lower
epidermis of the rhoeo leaf.
• Place the epidermal peels on both glass slides.
• Using a dropper, take some sodium chloride 0.1% solution from the beaker.
• Put 1 to 2 drops of solution on one slide.
• Using another dropper, take sodium chloride 5% solution from the beaker.
• Put 1 to 2 drops of solution on the next slide.
• Place a cover slip over the peel of both slides using a needle.
• Place the slides one by one under the compound microscope.
• Observe them under the microscope.

Observation
After half an hour we can observe that cells in sodium chloride 0.1% solution appear turgid, while
cells in the sodium chloride 5 % solution show plasmolysis.

Conclusion
When plant cells are immersed in sodium chloride 5 % solution or concentrated salt solution, water
moves through the cell membrane into the surrounding medium because the water concentration
inside the cell is greater than that which is outside the cell. Ultimately the protoplasm causes
shrinkage and assumes spherical shape. This is called plasmolysis. When a plant cell is immersed
in sodium chloride 0.1% solution or dilute salt solution, the water moves into the cell because of
the higher concentration of water outside the cell than inside the cell. The cell then swells and
becomes turgid.

11
 Experiment :5

Study of distribution of stomata on the upper and lower surfaces of leaves

Aim: Study of distribution of stomata on the upper and lower surfaces of leaves.
Materials Required: four o’ clock plant, needle, brush, coverslip, microscope, glycerine, safranin
solution, forceps, distilled water, dropper, blade, watch glass, glass slide

Procedure

• Pluck one fresh leaf of a four-o’clock plant.

• Take two watch glasses and pour some distilled water into the both watch glasses.
• Split the leaf from the four-o’clock plant obliquely.
• Take the peel from the upper surface of the leaf using the forceps.
• Place the peel into a watch glass containing water.
• Take another peel from the lower surface of the leaf using the forceps.
• Place the peel into the other watch glass containing water.
• Using a dropper, take few drops of Safranin solution and put it into the two watch glasses.
• Take two clean glass slides and place the leaf peel on the slides one by one, using a brush.
• Take a blade and cut a small rectangle or square piece from each peel.
• Take some glycerine using a dropper and put one drop of glycerine on both slides.
• Take a cover slip and place it gently on the peel with the help of a needle.
• Take the glass slide and place it under compound microscope.
• Observe under the microscope.
• Count the number of stomata in the peels of both upper and lower epidermis of the leaf
appearing in the microscopic field.

Observations

• The number of stomata is greater in the lower epidermis, and fewer are present in the upper
epidermis of the leaf taken from a four-o’clock plant.

12
 Experiment :6

Comparative study of the rates of transpiration in the upper and lower surfaces of leaves.

Aim: To compare the rate of transpiration between the upper and lower surfaces of a leaf.
Materials Required: A healthy potted plant, forceps, filter paper, wire gauze, 3% cobalt chloride
solution, binder clip, petri plate glass slide.

Procedure

• Take 3 % cobalt chloride solution from beaker and pour into the Petri dish.
• Take some filter paper strips and dip them in the cobalt chloride solution.
• Keep the strips in the solution for 3-5 minutes. They become pink in colour when wet.
• Remove the strips from the solution using forceps.
• Place the strips on the wire gauze to allow them to dry.
• The filter paper becomes blue in colour on drying.
• Select one healthy leaf and clean the leaf to remove the water droplets using a filter paper.
• Take the dry pieces of cobalt chloride paper from the wire gauze.
• Place the dried strips of cobalt chloride paper: one on the upper and the other on the lower
surface of a leaf of the potted plant.
• Take two glass slides and place one over the upper and the other over the lower side of the
leaf.
• Clip the slides together using binder clips.
• Note the time taken by the cobalt chloride paper to change its blue colour to pink.

Observation
The time taken to change colour of the cobalt chloride paper from blue to pink on the lower leaf
surface is less than the upper surface.

Conclusion
The quick change in the colour of cobalt chloride paper on the lower surfaces indicates higher rate
of loss of water vapour from this surface than the upper one.

13
 Experiment :7

Test for the presence of sugar, starch, proteins and fats in suitable plant and animal materials.

[Link] for Sugar

Aim: To detect the presence of Glucose

[Link]'s Test

Materials Required: Banana extract, Benedict’s reagent, burner, dropper

Procedure:

• Using a dropper, take a small quantity of Benedict’s reagent.

• Add the reagent to the test tube containing banana extract.
• Boil the sample over a burner for 2 minutes holding the test tube firmly with a test tube
holder.
• Keep shaking the test tube as it is being heated.
• A brick red precipitate appears, indicating the presence of glucose in the banana extract.

Conclusion:
On boiling banana extract with the Benedict’s reagent, the cupric ion present in the Benedict’s
reagent is reduced by the reducing agent, sugar, to form a brick red coloured precipitate of cuprous
oxide.

b. Fehling's Test

Materials Required: Banana extract, Fehling’s solution A and B, burner, Dropper, Test tube
holder

Procedure:

• Using a dropper, take a small quantity of Fehling’s solution A.

• Add the Fehling’s solution A to the test tube containing banana extract.
• Using a dropper, take a small quantity of Fehling’s solution B.
• Add Fehling’s solution B to the test tube containing banana extract.
• Boil the sample over a burner for 2 minutes, holding the test tube firmly with a test tube
holder.
• Keep shaking the test tube while heating.
• A brick red precipitate appears, indicating the presence of glucose in the banana extract.

Conclusion:
The cupric ion present in the Fehling’s solution is reduced on boiling by the reducing substance,
sugar, to form the brick red coloured precipitate of cuprous oxide.

2. Test for Starch

14
Aim: To detect the presence of Starch

Materials Required: iodine solution, potato extract, dropper

Procedure

• Using a dropper, take a small quantity of iodine solution.

• Add 5 drops of iodine solution to the test tube containing potato extract.
• Blue black colour indicates the presence of starch in potato extract.

3. Test for Proteins

Aim: To detect the presence of Proteins

Biuret Test

Materials Required: 1% copper sulphate solution, 40% sodium chloride, egg albumin, dropper,
test tube holder

Procedure

• Using a dropper, take a small quantity of 40% NaOH solution.

• Add a few drops of NaOH solution to the test tube containing egg albumin.
• Using a dropper, take a small quantity of 1% CuSO4 solution.
• Add 2-3 drops of CuSO4 solution to the test tube containing egg albumin.
• Shake the solution to mix it well.
• A violet colour appears in the test tube, which indicates the presence of proteins.

4. Test for Fats

Aim: To detect the presence of fats

Sudan III Test

Materials Required: Oil, Sudan III solution, dropper

Procedure:

• Using a dropper, take a small quantity of Sudan III reagent.

• Add few drops of Sudan III reagent to the test tube containing egg albumin.
• Shake the solution to mix it well.
• Pink droplets appear indicating the presence of fat in the sample.

15
 Experiment-8

Separation of plant pigments through paper chromatography

Aim: To separate and study plant pigments by paper chromatography.

Materials required: spinach leaves, chromatography chamber, mortar and pestle, ether acetone
solvent, scissors, acetone, pencil, capillary tube, spatula, scale, filter paper, watch glass, thread,
stapler

Procedure
• Take a few freshly plucked green spinach leaves.

• Using scissors, cut the spinach leaves into small pieces and let them fall into the mortar.
• Take a measuring cylinder that contains 5ml of acetone and pour it into the mortar.
• Grind the spinach leaves using the mortar and pestle.
• Place the extract into a watch glass using a spatula.
• Take a strip of filter paper having a narrow notch at one end of the strip.
• Take a pencil and a scale and draw a horizontal line with a pencil about 2-3 cm away from
the tip of the notch.
• Put a drop of the pigment extract in the middle of the line with the help of a capillary tube.
• Allow the drop to dry and repeat till four or five drops are placed on the paper.
• Take the chromatographic chamber and pour ether acetone solvent in it.
• Fold one end of the filter paper strip and staple it.
• Using a thread, hang the filter paper strip in the chromatographic chamber.
• The loading spot should remain about 1 cm above the solvent level.
• Leave the chromatographic chamber undisturbed for some time.
• We can observe, as the solvent moves through the paper, it spreads the different pigments
of the mixture to various distances.
• When the solvent rises about 3/4th up the strip, remove the strip carefully and let it dry.

Observation
The dried chromatographic paper strip shows four distinct paper bands. Different pigments can be
identified by their colours.

16
Calculations
R_f Value of each pigment spot can be calculated by the equation;
R_f=(Distance travelled by the compound)/(Distance travelled by the solvent)
Measure the distance of each pigment band from the loading spot and also the distance travelled by
the solvent. Calculate the Rf value using the equation and record the values in the table.

Result
The topmost orange yellow band of pigments in the separation corresponds to carotene. The
yellowish band appearing below it indicates the xanthophylls. The third from above dark green
band represents chlorophyll a. The lowermost yellowish green band is that of chlorophyll b.

17
 Experiment 9
Study of the rate of respiration in flower buds/leaf tissue and germinating seeds
Aim: To study the rate of respiration in germinating seeds

Materials required: Test tube, distilled water, germinating bean seeds, cork with a hole,
measuring cylinder, conical flask, petroleum jelly, thread, freshly prepared KOH, glass delivery
tube with two bends at right angles

Real Lab Procedure

• Using a spatula, place about 30 germinating bean seeds in a conical flask.

• Pour 4ml of potassium hydroxide solution into a measuring cylinder.
• Transfer the potassium hydroxide solution from the measuring cylinder into a small test
tube.
• Tie a cotton thread around the neck of the test tube.
• Suspend the test tube in the conical flask above the germinating seeds.
• Close the mouth of the conical flask with a cork.
• Insert one end of a delivery tube into the conical flask through the cork and dip the other in
a beaker containing water.
• Observe the position of the water level in the delivery tube. This is the initial reading of the
water level in the delivery tube.
• Use your finger to take some petroleum jelly.
• Apply the petroleum jelly on the cork to make the apparatus air tight.
• Keep the apparatus undisturbed for two hours.
• Repeat the same procedure for the groundnut and wheat.

Observation
After two hours, you will see that the level of water has risen in the delivery tube at the end dipped
in the beaker of water. Note this level as the final level.

Conclusion
The rise in water level at the end of the delivery tube dipped in the beaker proves that germinating
seeds release carbon dioxide during respiration. In the case of groundnut and bean seeds, the rise in
water level is relatively lesser because these seeds use fat and proteins as respiratory substrate and
release a very small amount of carbon dioxide.
But in the case wheat grains, the rise in water level is greater because they use carbohydrate as
respiratory substrate. When carbohydrates are used as substrate, equal amounts of carbon dioxide
and oxygen are evolved and consumed.

18
 PART B (Spotting)
1. Parts of a compound microscope.

Aim
To study different parts of a compound microscope.

Theory

What is a compound microscope?

Real and magnified images of minuscule particles or objects can be achieved using a combination
of lenses. A compound microscope is an intricate gathering of a combination of lenses that
renders a highly maximized and magnified image of microscopic living entities and other
complex details or tissues and cells.

Diagram

Parts of the Compound Microscope

Parts of Compound Microscope

The parts of the compound microscope can be categorized into:

• Mechanical parts
• Optical parts

19
(A) Mechanical Parts of a Compound Microscope
1. Foot or base
It is a U-shaped structure and supports the entire weight of the compound microscope.
2. Pillar
It is a vertical projection. This stands by resting on the base and supports the stage.
3. Arm
The entire microscope is handled by a strong and curved structure known as the arm.
4. Stage
The flat and rectangular plate that is connected to the arm’s lower end is called the stage. The
specimen is placed on the stage for studying and examining the various features. The centre of the
stage has a hole through which light can pass.
5. Inclination joint
It is a joint, wherein the arm is fastened to the compound microscope’s pillar. The microscope can
be tilted using the inclination joint.
6. Clips
The upper part of the stage is connected to two clips. The slide can be held in its position with the
help of the clips.
7. Diaphragm
The diaphragm is fastened below the stage. It controls and adjusts the intensity of light that passes
into the microscope. The diaphragm can be of two types:

• Disc diaphragm
• Iris diaphragm
8. Nose piece
The nose piece is circular and a rotating metal part that is connected to the body tube’s lower end.
The nose piece has three holes wherein the objective lenses are embedded.
9. Body tube
The upper part of the arm of the microscope comprises a hollow and tubular structure known as
the body tube. The body tube can be shifted down and up using the adjustment knobs.
10. Fine adjustment knob
It is the smaller knob, which is used for sharp and fine focusing of the object. For accurate and
sharp focusing, this knob can be used.
11. Coarse adjustment knob
It is a large knob that is used for moving the body tube down and up for bringing the object to be
examined under exact focus.

(B) Optical Parts of Compound Microscope

1. Eyepiece lens or Ocular

20
At the top of the body tube, a lens is planted which is known as the eyepiece. On the rim of the
eyepiece, there are certain markings such as 5X, 10X, 15X, etc. These indicate the magnification
power. The object’s magnified image can be observed with the help of an eyepiece.
2. Mirror
A mirror is found attached wither to the pillar or the lower end of the arm. It consists of a concave
mirror on one side and a plain mirror on the other side. It can be used for reflection of light rays
into the microscope.
3. Objective lenses
At the bottom of the body tube, there are two objective lenses, which are connected to the
revolving nose piece. The three objective lenses are as follows:

• Oil immersion objective – 100X

• High power objective – 45X
• Low power objective – 10X

21
 Spotting 2.

Specimens/slides/models and identification with reasons - Bacteria, Oscillatoria,

Spirogyra, Rhizopus, mushroom, yeast, liverwort, moss, fern, pine, one
monocotyledonous plant, one dicotyledonous plant and one lichen.

Bacteria

Systematic position

Kingdom – Monera

Class – Eubacteria

(i) Bacteria (sing. : bacterium) are unicellular

(ii) Cell wall is present.

(iii) Absence of membrane bound organelles like mitochondria, nucleus, golgi bodies,
plastids,

(iv) Mesosomes are present.

v) Bacteria exist in different shapes like globular (coccus), rod-shaped (bacillus), spiral
(spirullum) and comma-shaped (vibrio).

Oscillatoria

OSCILLATORIA The features given below are useful in identifying Oscillatoria

22
(i) It is a blue-green algae of fresh water bodies.

(ii) Thallus is filamentous, unbranched, multicellular.

(iii) The cells are arranged one above the other like a pack of cards.

(iv) Each cell has a definite cell wall.

(v) Some cells of the filament may be dead and appear as blank spaces in the filament.

(vi) Fresh specimen of the filaments shows oscillatory movements and hence the name
Oscillatoria.

SPIROGYRA

Systematic position

Kingdom – Plantae

Division – Thallophyta

Class – Chlorophyceae

i) Spirogyra is a green-coloured algae commonly found in stagnant fresh water bodies.

(ii) It is unbranched, filamentous and slimy to touch.

(iii) The filament is composed of large number of long, cylindrical cells placed one above
the other in a single row.

(iv) The cells are characterised by long spiral ribbon-shaped chloroplasts with several
pyrenoids

(v) There is a single large vacuole in each cell.

vi) Conjugation tubes formed between the cells of two different filaments may also be
found when in reproductive phase.

23
 RHIZOPUS

Systematic position

Kingdom – Fungi

Division – Eumycota

Class – Zygomycetes

(i) Thallus is an interwoven mass of hyphae called mycelium.

(ii) Hyphae are tubular, multinucleate and without any septa (coenocytic)

(iii) Some hyphae are horizontal and grow parallel on the surface of the substratum. These
are called stoloniferous hyphae. Some hyphae grow down into the substratum, and are
called rhizoidal hyphae. Erect vertically growing hyphae are called sporangiophores.

• Sporangiophore bears the capsule or sporangium, which is globular in outline.

• A dome-shaped columella is found inside the cavity of sporangium.

• Numerous black spores fill the cavity between columella and the sporangial wall.

AGARICUS (MUSHROOM)

Classification:-

Kingdom – Fungi

Division – Eumycophyta

Class – Basidiomycetes

Genus – Agaricus

Species – Campestris

24
COMMENTS:

It is a saprophytic fungus that grows in hum & rich soils piles of straw & rotting wooden
logs

It has septate mycelium under the substratum. The mycelium produces white & creamy
coloured umbrella shaped ‘fruit bodies’ or ‘basidiocarp’ above the substratum.

Pileus is circular, umbrella like & bear a number of vertical plate like structure called gills.

DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES:

The fruiting body is umbrella shaped

Gills are present on the lower side of the pileus

SACCHAROMYCES

Systematic position

Kingdom – Fungi

Division – Eumycota

Class – Saccharomycetes

(i) Cells are oval or spherical in shape, and colourless.

25
(ii) Cells form chains of buds that help in propagation.

(iii) Each cell has one vacuole.

(iv) Single nucleus is present in each cell.

MARCHANTIA (LIVERWORT)

Systematic position

Kingdom – Plantae

Division – Bryophyta

Class – Hepaticopsida

(i) Marchantia thallus is dorsiventrally flat, thalloid structure that grows flat on the surface
of the soil substratum

(ii) Thallus is dichotomously lobed, with an apical notch in each lobe.

(iii) There is a dark median furrow called mid-rib on the dorsal side that extends into each
lobe. (iv) Small cup-like structures called gemma cups are borne on the dorsal surface of
the thallus. They contain the vegetative propagules called gemmae.

(v) Ventral side of the thallus bears colourless, unicellular rhizoids which are of two types-
(a) smooth walled, and (b) tuberculate rhizoids. The rhizoids help in anchorage and
absorption of water through their capillary action.

(vi) Reproductive organs are borne on antheridiophores and archegoniophores that arise
from the apical notches of male and female thalli respectively.

(vii) The antheridiophore has a flattened, more or less convex head or receptacle which
bears antheridia.

(ix) The archegoniophores are umbrella shaped structure, with outwardly projected ribs.
Between the ribs are the archegonia.

26
 FUNARIA (MOSS)

Systematic position

Kingdom – Plantae

Division – Bryophyta

Class – Musci/Bryopsida

(i) The thallus of Funaria consists of small upright, 'stem' that bears, small, ovate and leaf-
like structures which are without midrib

(ii) The leaves are green and are spirally arranged on the stem-like portion.

(iii) The thallus is attached to the substratum by a cluster of rhizoids.

(iv) Rhizoids are long, colourless, septate and intertwined.

(v) Reproductive organs are borne on separate branches of the same thallus.

(vi) The flattened apex of the male branch bears the antheridia which are club shaped,
while the flattened receptacle of the female branch bears archegonia which are flask
shaped.

(vii) A mature Funaria plant bears (on female branches) the sporophyte which consists of a
prominent conical capsule raised on a long stalk known as seta and a foot which is
embedded into the tissues of the gametophyte.

DRYOPTERIS (FERN)

Systematic position

Kingdom – Plantae

Division – Pteridophyta

Class – Filicopsida

27
(i) Dryopteris is a fern (Pteridophyta) with obliquely growing, subterranean rhizome

(ii) Rhizome is short, thick and is covered with scale leaves, remnants of leaf bases and
cluster of adventitious roots.

(iii) The aerial shoot consists of several large compound leaves called fronds.

(iv) Each compound leaf arises from a bud. The young leaf has circinate venation. The leaf
is rolled from apex downwards like a watch spring and petiole has dense covering of
brown hair like structures called ramenta.

(v) Leaves are long, upto 1.0-1.5 m length, compound with leaflets arranged on either side
of mid-rib called rachis. Rachis is the extended part of the petiole.

(vi) Petiole is long, cylindrical and covered with hairs when young

(vii) Leaflets or pinnules have wavy margin, and are sub sessile.

(viii) Large number of greenish (when young) or black (when mature) sac like structures
are borne on the ventral side of the pinnule at the point of bifurcation of each vein. These
are called as sori (single: sorus).

(ix) Each sorus contains a cluster of sporangia bearing spores.

PINUS

Systematic position

Kingdom – Plantae

Division – Gymnosperm

Class – Coniferopsida

(i) Pinus is a cone-shaped tall tree

(ii) Stem is hard, woody, cylindrical, rough and branched.

(iii) Branches are of two types- (a) branches of unlimited growth, and (b) branches of
limited growth.

28
(iv) Both types of branches bear large number of brown, membranous scaly leaves. (v)
Branches of limited growth are borne in the axil of scale leaves. They are 2-3 cm long and
bear a cluster of long, needle like leaves.

(vi) The needle like green leaves are called acicular leaves.

(vii) The dwarf branch with its needles is known as spur shoot.

(viii) Reproductive organs are borne in male and female cones in the same plant.

(ix) Male cones are borne in large clusters (8-40). They are small, green, conical and
composed of central axis surrounded by large number of green and small
microsporophylls which are compactly arranged.

(x) Micro sporophylls bear two elongated sac like structures at the base on the ventral
side. These are called pollen sacs. Pollen grains are winged.

(xi) Female cones are large, 10-30cm in length consisting of megasporophylls.

Megasporophylls are compact when young but spread apart when mature. Each
megasporophyll has (a) bract scale and (b) ovuliferous scale which bears 2 ovules on the
ventral side.

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANT

Systematic position

Kingdom – Plantae

Division – Angiosperm

Class – Monocotyledonae

(i) Plant body differentiated into roots, stems, and leaves

(ii) Fibrous root system.

(iii) Leaves simple or compound with parallel venation.

(iv) Flower trimerous.

29
(v) Ovules situated inside the carpels.

(vi) Seed has one cotyledon

Example: maize, wheat, sugarcane, paddy

DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANT

Systematic position

Kingdom – Plantae

Division – Angiosperm

Class – Dicotyledonae

(i) Plant body is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves

(ii) Taproot system.

(iii) Leaves simple or compound, with reticulate venation.

(iv) Flowers tetramerous or pentamerous, either solitary or in clusters forming

inflorescence.

(v) Reproductive organs are stamens and carpels. Within the carpels ovules are present.

(vi) Seeds have two cotyledons.

Example: Hibiscus, pea, gram, lady's finger, ground nut.

LICHENS (A SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATION)

Lichens are composite organisms representing a symbolic association between a fungus &
algae

30
Lichens grow on lands, rocks, tree trunks & walls of houses, like dry vegetation

The thallus of lichen resembles neither alga nor fungus

In a lichen thallus the algae individual called mycobiont belongs to ascomycetes or

basidiomycetes

Phycobiont belongs to Chlorophyceae or myxophyceae

Lichen reproduces vegetatively by fragmentation, asexually by soredia & isidia

Sexual organs like those in Ascomycetes are formed

31
 Spotting 3.

Virtual specimens/slides/models and identifying features of - Amoeba, Hydra, liver fluke,

Ascaris, leech, earthworm, prawn, silkworm, honey bee, snail, starfish, shark, rohu, frog,
lizard, pigeon and rabbit.

Amoeba Proteus

Classification

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Genus Species

Protista Protozoa Sarcodine Amoebida Amoeba Proteus

Characteristic Features

• Irregular shape
• Unicellular
• Exhibit pseudopodia – They are blunt and finger-like projections that are used in
locomotion and phagocytosis
• They exhibit contractile vacuole

Hydra

Systematic position

Phylum – Cnidaria

Class – Hydrozoa

32
(i) Body, called polyp is elongated and cylindrical

(ii) Long, slender and contractile tentacles (6-10) are present that encircle hypostome with an
opening at the tip. This end is called oral end.

(iii) The opposite (aboral) end of the body is flat, which helps the animal to attach itself to the
substratum. This is called basal disc.

(iv) Bud-like structures branch out from the polyp, which ultimately separate as young hydra
(vegetative propagation).

(v) Sometimes, gonads may be seen as small bulges on the body.

FASCIOLA (LIVER FLUKE)

Systematic position

Phylum – Platyhelminthes

Class – Trematoda

The external features are as follows:

(i) *A leaf-like dorso-ventrally flattened body about 20-30 mm in length, and 4 to 12 mm in width
in the middle.

(ii) Anterior part of the body is broader with a conical end.

(iii) *Mouth is present at the tip of the cone, and is surrounded by a muscular oral sucker.

(iv) On the ventral surface of the body there is a muscular ventral sucker situated 3-5 mm behind
(posterior) the oral sucker, and it is called acetabulum.

(v) *Slightly anterior to acetabulum on the ventral surface, there is an opening called genital
aperture or gonopore.

(vi) At the tip of the posterior end, an opening called excretory pore is present.

(vii) Liver fluke is bisexual.

33
 ASCARIS (ROUND WORM)

Systematic position

Phylum – Aschelminthes

Class – Nematoda

The external features of round worm are as follows:

(i) *Body long (20 to 40 cm), cylindrical (5 to 6 mm diameter) with no segmentation.

(ii) Sexes are separate; the females are longer than the males. (iii) *Both the ends are pointed;
posterior end of male is ventrally curved.

(iv) Mouth is situated at the anterior end, and is surrounded by three lips, one present mid-
dorsally and rest two lips are situated ventrolaterally (for viewing these lips a magnifying lens is
needed).

(v) *Single longitudinal lines are present on the dorsal, ventral and on the two lateral sides, all
along the length of the body. Out of these, the lateral lines are comparatively more distinct than
the other lines.

(vi) Excretory pore is present on the ventral surface slightly behind anterior end.

(vii) In addition to the ventrally curved posterior tip, the male worm has a pair of penial spicules
very close to the cloacal opening.

(viii) In case of female specimen, a female genital aperture is present mid ventrally at about one-
third distance from the anterior end.

34
 HIRUDINARIA (LEECH)

Systematic position

Phylum – Annelida

Class – Hirudinea

The following external features can be easily observed in the specimen:

(i) *The body is elongated with convex dorsal surface, and flat ventral surface

(ii) The dorsal surface is dark green, and the ventral surface is yellowish brown.

(iii) Size varies from 6 to 10 cm in length. However, leeches may contract or elongate their body
much beyond the limits mentioned.

(iv) Body surface always remains moist due to secretion of mucus from the body wall.

(v) *At the anterior end on the ventral surface a cup-shaped anterior sucker is present. Mouth is
present in the centre of the anterior sucker. A ventral sucker is also present at the posterior end of
the body.

(vi) Anus is present on the dorsal side at the junction of the last metamere and the posterior
sucker.

(vii) Hundred or more very closely arranged grooves or annuli are present on the body surface.
There are 33 body segments each with five superficially marked annuli except the few anterior
and posterior ones.

(viii) Each of the five anterior metameres bears a pair of eyes on the dorsal margin. Each eye
looks like a dark spot.

(ix) There are 17 pairs of ventro-laterally arranged nephridiopores in the metameres starting from
6th to 22nd. (x) The male and female genital apertures are present on the ventral side in the
middle of the 10th and 11th metameres.
35
 PHERETIMA (EARTHWORM)

Systematic position

Phylum – Annelida

Class – Oligochaeta

The external features of earthworm are as follows:

(i) *Body narrow and elongated about 150 mm in length and 3 to 5 mm in diameter

The anterior end of the body is pointed whereas the posterior end is slightly depressed or blunt.

(ii) *Entire body is divisible into more than 100 externally distinct segments of almost equal size.
These segments are called metameres.

(iii) Body surface of the living animal is slimy and moist due to the secretion of mucus from the
body wall.

(iv) Dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body can be easily distinguished, as the dorsal surface is
darker than the ventral one. Besides this, a mid-dorsal dark line is also visible all along the length
of the body due to underlying dorsal blood vessel.

(v) Mouth is situated ventrally in the first metamere called the peristomium.

(vi) Anus is situated at the tip of the last metamere.

(vii) *In the adult earthworm, the skin or body wall around the segments 14th to 16th is
comparatively thick, and it is called clitellum.

36
(viii) Female and male genital apertures are present ventrally in the14th and the 18th segments
respectively. The female genital aperture is situated mid-ventrally, whereas the male genital
apertures are ventro-lateral in position.

(ix) A pair of genital papillae is also present ventrolaterally in the 17th and the 19th segment just
above and below the male genital apertures.

(x) On the ventral surface, four pairs of openings of spermathecae are situated ventrolaterally in
the grooves between 5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9 segments.

PALAEMON (PRAWN)

Systematic position

Phylum – Arthropoda

Class – Crustacea

Following are the external features of prawn:

(i) Size of the animal is variable. Usually, it measures between 20 and 30 cm in length

(ii) Usually orange-red in colour, however, the colour is variable.

(iii) A bit laterally compressed body is elongated, bilateral and symmetrical.

(iv) *Body is apparently divided into anterior cephalothorax (fused head and thorax) and
posterior abdomen.

(v) *The cephalothorax can be identified by a thick and hard shield- like cover, called the
carapace. Anteriorly the carapace is extended as a serrated and pointed rostrum.

(vi) *A pair of stalked compound eyes are present at the anterior end of cephalothorax.

(vii) Abdomen consists of six segments each with its own set of biramous appendage.

viii) At the end of the last abdominal segment, a terminally pointed structure, telson, is present.
(ix) *There are 19 pairs of jointed appendages, i.e., one pair in each segment. In the
cephalothoracic region, there are 13 pairs of appendages of which antennules, antenna, chelate
legs, and nonchelate legs are the prominent ones. The appendages of the five anterior abdominal
segments are called the pleopods or swimming legs. The appendages of the last abdominal
segment are broader and called uropod.

37
 BOMBYX MORI (SILKMOTH)

Systematic position

Phylum – Arthropoda

Class – Insecta

The external features of mulberry silkworm is given below:

(i) Body colour is creamy white and measures approximately 25 mm in length

(ii) *Heavy and stout body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen.

(iii) Head is comparatively small. Thorax is provided with three pairs of jointed legs and two pairs
of wings. Abdominal segments are continuous with thoracic segments.

(iv) *The entire body as well as wings are covered with microscopic scales.

(v) A pair of compound eyes and an antenna are present on the head.

(vi) *In sitting posture, the wings remain outstretched (like the wings of an aeroplane).

(vii) They are nocturnal.

APIS INDICA (HONEYBEE)

Systematic position

Phylum – Arthropoda

Class – Insecta

Order – Hymenoptera

38
Honeybee is a social insect, and three distinct morphological forms (members) can be identified in
a colony of bees. These are queen, workers, and drones. All the three morphological forms of bees
have the features of an insect. Following common features are present in all the members of the
colony:

(i) *Body is divided into three distinct regions: head, thorax and abdomen.

(ii) Head is somewhat triangular. A pair of large compound eyes is present dorso-laterally on it.
Three small ocelli are present on the dorsal surface between the two compound eyes. Mouthparts
are present ventrally on the head.

(iii) Thorax consists of three segments, i.e., prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. One pair of
jointed legs is present ventrally in each of the thoracic segment. There are two pairs of
membranous wings present dorsally in the mesothorax and the metathorax.

(iv) Abdomen: A six-segmented abdomen is present behind the metathorax. A very narrow region
in between the abdomen and thorax. Apart from these common features, the workers, queen and
drones can be identified by their own specific features:

(a) Workers (i) Workers (unfertile female) are smallest in size. ii) Abdominal segments bear wax
glands, which are present ventrally on the four posterior abdominal segments. (iii) *A sting is
present at the end of the last abdominal segment. (iv) Pollen - collecting baskets are present in the
thoracic legs.

(b) Queen (i) Queen (fertile female) is largest in size (15-20 mm) in a colony of bees. Every
colony has a single queen bee (Fig. 3.9b). (ii) *The abdomen is long and tapering. (iii) Wings and
39
legs are small. (iv) Eyes are small. (v) Wax gland is absent in the abdominal segment. (c) Drones
(i) Drones (males) are larger than workers but smaller than queen in size. (ii) *Eyes are very large
(i.e., even larger than those of workers). (iii) Wax glands are absent in the abdominal segments.
The common Indian species of bees are: Apis dorsata, Apis indica and Apis florae. Among these
species Apis dorsata is largest in size and Apis florae is smallest.

PILA GLOBOSA (APPLE SNAIL)

Systematic position

Phylum – Mollusca

Class – Gastropoda

The external features are as follows:

(i) *Body of the animal remains lodged within a hard and one-piece spirally coiled calcareous sh

(ii) There is a wide opening at the end of the last whorl of the shell, which remains closed by
another calcareous plate called operculum.

(iii) The body consists of four regions: head, foot, visceral mass and mantle.

iv) It inhabits shallow freshwater (paddy fields, ponds) and moves foot.

ASTERIAS (STAR FISH)

. Systematic position

Phylum – Echinodermata

Class – Asteroidea

40
The external features are as follows

(i) *Starfish is an unique marine organism, which can be identified by its star-shaped pentamerous
structure

(ii) Body with apparent radial symmetry with diameter ranging between 15-20 cm.

(iii) Body has a central disc from which five tapering arms radiate.

(iv) The entire body surface bears numerous small-sized blunt protuberances.

(v) The lower surface is called the oral surface, as mouth is situated centrally on this side

(vi) *Radiating from the mouth there are five grooves, the ambulacral grooves, which continue in
the five arms on the oral side.

(vii) *Special organs, called tube feet, are present in these ambulacral grooves.

(viii) The upper surface is called aboral surface, where anus is present

(ix) At the margin of the central disc on the aboral surface is a circular sieve-like structure called
madreporite situated near the junction of two arms

SHARK (SCOLIODON)

41
Classification

Kingdom Phylum Subphylum Class Genus

Animalia Chordata Vertebrata Chondrichthyes Scoliodon sp.

Features

• It is widely distributed in marine waters. It is precious and attacks the preys with powerful
jaws.
• The body is long, laterally compressed and spindle-shaped that tapers at both ends.
• It can be distinguished into the head, trunk, and tail.
• The ventral surface is pale in colour while the lateral and dorsal body surface is dark grey.
• The skin is covered by an exoskeleton of dermal scales, placoid scales. The head is
dorsoventrally flattened, which is produced to form a snout.
• The head has a large pair of circular eyes at the sides, the mouth is wise crescentic present
ventrally. A pair of nostrils is present in the front.
• 5 pairs of naked gill slits are present behind the eyes.
• The trunk has two types of fins – lateral fins and median fins.
• Between the bases of the pelvic fins, a cloacal aperture is present
• Male sharks have a pair of claspers.

Carp (Labeo Rohita or Rohu)

Classification

Kingdom Phylum Subphylum Class Genus Species

Animalia Chordata Vertebrata Osteichthyes Labeo Rohita

Features

• It is a freshwater bony fish that is found in rivers and ponds. It is a source of food

42
 • The body is compressed, fusiform and matures up to 1m in length. The body is
distinguished into the head, trunk, and tail and is covered by a large overlapping cycloid
scale
• Head is depressed to form a blunt snout and has a subterminal fringe lipped mouth with no
teeth, a pair of eyes and nostrils
• Four pairs of gill slits on the lateral side of the body behind the eyes. The gill slits are
covered by an operculum. The lateral line is clear and distinct.
• The trunk comprises of a pair of pectoral fins, a pair of pelvic fins, a dorsal fin a ventral or
anal fin and a homocercal caudal fin.

Frog (Rana Tigrina)

Classification

Kingdom Phylum Subphylum Class Order Genus Species

Animalia Chordata Vertebrata Amphibia Anura Rana Tigrina

Features

• It is terrestrial and nocturnal.

• The body is distinguished into the head and the trunk.
• The skin is warty and dry.
• The head has a pair of eyes, nostrils, tympanum, parotid glands and a mouth.
• The mouth is large with no teeth.
• The tympanum is well developed and the eyes are large.
• Behind the tympanum, the parotid glands are present, which secretes a poisonous fluid that
has an irritating effect.
• The trunk has a pair of hind limbs, forelimbs, and at the posterior end there is a cloaca.
• Shorter forelimbs wherein each one has 3 webless fingers and a thumbpad.
• The hind-limbs are longer wherein each one has 3 toes with a highly reduced web.

43
 Lizard (Hemidactylus)

Classification

Kingdom Phylum Subphylum Order Genus

Animalia Chordata Reptilia Lacertilia Hemidactylus sp.

Features

• It is typically brown in colour and is 8-14cm in length.

• The body can be distinguished into the head that is thick and flattered, the neck is short,
the trunk is large with a tapering tail.
• The head has a pair of eyes having movable eyelids, ear openings and nostrils.
• The skin is covered with tiny scales and is dry.
• The tail has annular pores of scales. These scales can be broken.
• They have four limbs, each having five clawed digits.

Pigeon (Columba Livia)

Classification

Kingdom Phylum Subphylum Class Genus Species

Animalia Chordata Vertebrata Aves Columba Livia

44
Features

• It is adapted for an aerial or volant mode of life and is a common domesticated bird.
• The body is boat-shaped and can be distinguished into the head, trunk and tail.
• The entire body surface except the feet is covered by feathers. The feet are covered by
epidermal scutes
• The head has a pair of eyes, a pair of slit-like nostrils and a short beak.
• Eyes are large, rounded with movable eyelids and a nictitating membrane that is well
developed.
• The forelimbs are modified into wings to take a flight.
• The hind limbs are pushed forward for bipedal locomotion. The digits end in claws.
• They have pneumatic bones. Teeth are absent and the skull is monocondylar.

Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

Classification

Kingdom Phylum Subphylum Class Order Genus Species

Animalia Chordata Vertebrata Mammalia Lagomorpha Oryctolagus Cuniculus

Features

• The body can be distinguished into a head, trunk, neck and a small bushy tail.
• The entire body is covered with hair of black or brown colour
• The presence of two largely movable pinned behind the eyes. The colour of the eyes is
pink.
• The mouth appears to have fleshy and soft lower and upper lips
• Sexual dimorphism is observed. Sexes are distinct and separate
• They possess the characteristic mammary glands, which end in nipples, located in the
abdominal region.

45
 Spotting 4

Aim: identify different stages of Mitosis in onion root tip cells from permanent slides.

Prophase : (i) Replicated chromosomes, each consisting of 2 chromatids, condense and become
visible.

(ii) Microtubules are assembled into mitotic spindle.

(iii) Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.

(iv) Centriole moves to opposite poles.

Metaphase : (i) Spindle fibres attached to kinetochores (small disc-shaped structures at the
surface of centromeres) of chromosomes.

(ii) Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle to form metaphase plate.

Anaphase : (i) Centromeres split and chromatids separate.

(ii) Chromatids move to opposite poles.

Telophase : (i) Chromosomes cluster at opposite poles.

(ii) Nuclear envelope assembles around chromosome cluster.

(iii) Nucleolus, golgi complex, ER reform.

46