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Unit-I Lecture Notes
UAV Systems

UNIT-I LECTURE TOPICS:

1. Overview of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

2. History: Beginning of UAV Flights
3. Pre and Post World War Era
4. Classification of UAVs on the basis of various parameters- Part-I
5. Classification of UAVs on the basis of various parameters-Part-II
6. Introduction of UAVs
7. Essential components of UAVs/Drone
8. UAVs in India
9. Applications & Roles of UAVs
10. Its associated concepts
11. UAV System and its components
12. Air vehicle, Mission Planning
13. Control Station (MPCS)
14. Launch and Recovery Equipment
15. Payloads and Data Links

HISTORY OF UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES/DRONE

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), better known as drones, are one of the major technological
developments of today. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are a class of aircrafts that can fly without
the onboard presence of pilots. Unmanned aircraft systems consist of the aircraft component, sensor
payloads and a ground control station. They can be controlled by onboard electronic equipment’s or
via control equipment from the ground. When it is remotely controlled from ground it is called RPV
(Remotely Piloted Vehicle) and requires reliable wireless communication for control.
Important Points:
 Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is used more and more in many applications because of its
rapid and cost-effective deployment. UAV can be used not only for reconnaissance, but also
as a communication platform. Compared with satellite communication platform, it has simple
system construction, high speed and low lag communication capability.
 Unmanned aerial vehicles are employed in numerous real life applications such as payload
delivery, traffic monitoring, moving objects in seemingly dangerous environment, and
surveillance.

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“Drone” is the most commonly used term to refer to any unmanned aerial vehicle, mostly because it’s
a term that the media knows will catch the attention of casual viewers. From a technical standpoint, a
drone can refer to any vehicle – even those that travel in water or land – that can travel autonomously.
In modern times, the definition of drone has expanded to include vehicles that can be controlled
remotely, on top of those that are capable of autonomous movement. Thus, a simpler way of defining
a drone is simply as any vehicle that can operate without a drive or pilot inside it.
In many ways, “drone” is a term that can be used as a non-technical catch-all for both UAV and UAS.
The term can be used to refer to both fixed-wing and multicopter models, although the latter type has
definitely become much more common nowadays.
History of UAVs:
Today, drones are used for a wide range of functions, including monitoring climate change, delivering
goods, aiding in search and resuce operations, and in filming and photography. Of course, UAVs are
also an increasingly important part of the military in many countries.
According to various dictionaries, a drone tends to be defined as: -
"An unmanned aircraft or ship guided by remote control or onboard computers." - Merriam Webster.
"A drone, in technological terms, is an unmanned aircraft. Essentially, a drone is a flying robot that
can be remotely controlled or fly autonomously through software-controlled flight plans in their
embedded systems, working in conjunction with onboard sensors and GPS." - Internet of Things
Agenda.
2006 – First Commercial Drone Uses
UAV’s are first used by corporations in 2006 to inspect pipelines and spray pesticides on farms. How
Drones Technology and Camera improved in the military sector, those same technological
improvements could be used in the private sector. Also, on May 18, 2006, the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) issued a certificate of authorization which will allow the M/RQ-1 and M/RQ-9
aircraft to be used within U.S. civilian airspace to search for survivors of disasters.

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History of drone’s timeline

 1783 - The first-ever UAV

 1849 – Shift to the military use of UAVs
 1858 – The first Aerial Photograph with a UAV
 1898 – The first Radio-Controlled craft
 1917 – The first UAV known as the Kettering Bug
 1935 – The development of the first modern drone
 1936 – The drone arrives in the US
 1937 – The US Navy develops the first radio-controlled UAV
 1941 – The Radio Plane was invented
 1943 – The Beginnings of First-Person View (FPV) Flight
 1973 – Israel begins using UAVs for surveillance and scouting purposes.
 1985 – The production of drones in the US increases drastically
 1986 – The introduction of the RQ2 Pioneer Drone
 1996 – The introduction of the Predator Drone
 2006 –The US Civilian Airspace use UAVs for the first time
 2010 – Parrot Controls a drone with a Smartphone
 2013 – Companies test drone use as a delivery platform
 2014 – The beginning of commercial drone use
 2020 – Drone use for the Covid-19 pandemic

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Here we will focus on this particular aspect of drone technology.

Some of the earliest military drones appeared in the mid-1850s
The concept of drones may well date back to 1849, when Austria attacked Venice using unmanned
balloons stuffed with explosives. Austrian forces, who were besieging Venice at the time, launched
around 200 of these incendiary balloons over the city.
Each balloon carried anywhere between 24 (11 kg) to 30 (14 kg) pounds of bombs. Once in position,
these bombs were dropped from their carrier balloons to wreak havoc on the city below. Fortunately
for the Venetians, only one bomb found its mark, as most of the balloons were blown off-course due
to a sudden change in wind direction.

Source: [Link]

 In the form of balloons, torpedoes and aerial targets, the military used UAVs for target practice,
airstrikes, bomb detection, surveillance etc.
 The Austrian army in 1839 was the first to use a bomb balloon to attack Venice, but it was not as
successful as they imagined.

One of the first quadcopters appeared in the early-1900s

One common feature of many modern commercial drones is the quadcopter configuration. Early
development of this technology appeared in 1907, when brothers Jacques and Louis Bréguet, with
help of French physiologist Professor Charles Richet, developed an early example with their
gyroplane, a forerunner of the helicopter.
For its time, the design of the copter was visionary. Although it achieved the first ascent of a vertical-
flight aircraft with a pilot, it only reached a height of 0.6 meters. It was also not a free flight, as four
men were needed to steady the structure.

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Source: Breguet Aviation/Wikimedia Commons

World War I
Moving forward a little bit in time, the first pilotless aircraft was developed in 1916, after the outbreak
of World War I. Called the Ruston Proctor Aerial Target, these pilotless military drones used a radio
guidance system developed by British engineer Archibald Low.
Using a hand-picked team of around 30 men, Low rapidly built a pilotless plane which was launched
from the back of a truck using compressed air (also a first). In 1917, Low and his team also invented
the first wireless or rocket. The technology for this would later be adapted by the Germans for their
V1 rocket program in WWII.
Although Low's projects had some success, and Low was nicknamed “the father of radio guidance
systems,” his work was not followed up by the British military after the war. The cutting edge nature
of Low's work was not appreciated by the British government, although the Germans certainly
understood its importance - they made two attempts to assassinate Low.
Shortly after this, the U.S. Army built the Kettering Bug, which used gyroscopic controls and was
intended to be used as an “aerial torpedo”. Each "Bug" was launched from a four-wheeled dolly that
rolled down a portable track
"After a predetermined length of time, a control closed an electrical circuit, which shut off the engine.
Then, the wings were released, causing the Bug to plunge to earth -- where its 180 pounds (82 kg) of
explosive detonated on impact." - National Museum of the United States Air Force.
Around 50 of the "Bugs" were built by the Dayton-Wright Airplane Co., but they arrived too late to
actually see any combat.

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Source: National Museum of the United States Air Force

 During World War I in 1916, Great Britain UAV fanatics were inspired by Nikola Tesla, the
so-called 'magician' who developed a radio-controlled craft. This led to the first winged
aircraft, known as the Ruston Proctor Aerial Target.
 After a series of failed launches, the flying bomb did not meet the British military's
expectations and was soon abandoned as a tool for an attack.
 But little did they know, only a year later, the US Army would propose a successful
alternative: the Kettering Bug.
 Nicknamed the 'Bug' purely because it would fly to a specific distance for the engine to stop,
detach the wings and fall to the ground with roughly 180 pounds of explosives

World War II
After WW1, UAV technological developments continued unabated. In the 1930s, the U.S. Navy
began experimenting with radio-controlled aircraft, which resulted in the development of Curtiss
N2C-2 Drone in 1937.
In 1935, the British developed “Queen Bee”, a radio-controlled target drone, which is also believed
to have led to the use of term “drone,” for radio-controlled unmanned aircrafts.
Radioplane OQ-2, a remote-controlled model airplane developed by British actor Reginald Denny
and engineer Walter Righter in the 1930s, actually became the first mass-produced UAV product in
the U.S. Nearly 15,000 drones were manufactured for the military during the war.
However, the actual credit for inventing a radio-controlled aircraft that could fly out of sight goes to
Edward M. Sorensen, who patented an invention that used a ground terminal to track the movements
of the airplane. Before this development, early RC aircraft could only operate within the visual sight
of the controlling pilot.
However, the most notable event of the Second World War, with regards to drones, was the
emergence of the V-1 "Doodlebugs" of the German army. Fitted with pulsejets, these crafts were
effectively the world's first-ever cruise-missiles.

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The Vietnam War: The Vietnam War saw the first use of drones with cameras for reconnaissance.

Ryan Model 147. Source: unbekannt/Wikimedia Commons

The next big step in drone technology occurred during the Vietnam War. This war saw the first
widespread deployment and use of drones as dedicated reconnaissance UAVs.
Not only that, but "drones also began to be used in a range of new roles, such as acting as decoys in
combat, launching missiles against fixed targets, and dropping leaflets for psychological operations,"
according to the Imperial War Museum, London.
In the late 1950s, the U.S. spy plane, the manned SR-71 Blackbird, was still in development and
spy satellites were also not ready for deployment, just yet.

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What was needed were specialized UAVs to safely gather information in combat areas. Some models
did exist, like the Ryan 147Bs, but these needed to be piggybacked on C-130s and parachuted to the
ground in friendly territory to recover any information they gathered.
The need for drones also occurred to many other nations around the world, who also began to explore
the use of UAVs for various military applications. New drone models became more sophisticated as
designers focused on improving endurance and the height at which the drones could safely operate.
Assault military drones were seriously beefed up during 1980-1989
Even though the U.S. was able to achieve a breakthrough in the mass-manufacturing and supply of
drones for the military, UAVs were often considered unreliable and expensive. This perspective
changed in 1982 when Israeli forces used unmanned aircraft to gain a victory over the Syrian Air
Force with minimal losses.
The U.S. also began the Pioneer UAV Program in 1980, with the goal of building an inexpensive
drone for fleet operations. A joint project by the U.S. and Israel in 1986 led to the development of
the RQ2 Pioneer – a medium-sized reconnaissance aircraft.
Also during this period, drone developers began to focus their attention on alternative power sources
for drones. One obvious source was solar power.
1990-2010 was a pivotal period for military and civilian drone development

Source: U.S. Air Force/Lt Col Leslie Pratt/Wikimedia Common

Mini and micro versions of UAVs were introduced in 1990, and, the famous Predator drone was
introduced in 2000. This was used in Afghanistan to launch missiles and in the search of Osama Bin
Laden.
In the following years, a number of small-sized, fixed-wing surveillance drones such as Raven, Wasp,
and Puma were developed by AeroVironment Inc.
Raven is currently used in a number of countries, with tens of thousands of units deployed.
2006 was another pivotal year in the history of drones. This was the year that the FAA officially
issued the first commercial drone permit.
However, consumer applications were slow to start, with very small numbers of people applying for
permits in the first few years.

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2010-today might just be the "Golden Age" of drones

Source: [Link]

The last 10 years or so have seen a huge explosion in drone innovation and commercial interest.
While prior to this, drones were primarily used for military purposes or hobbyists, beginning in the
early-2010s, a host of new uses were proposed for drones, including their use as delivery vehicles.
By the middle of the decade, the FAA was seeing a massive growth in demand for drone permits, with
around 1000 commercial drone permits issued in 2015.
This number tripled one year later and has continued to grow exponentially since.
Equipping drones with cameras is now commonplace in commercial photography and videography.
This is the result of a merging of radio-controlled (RC) aircraft and smartphone technology.
The rapid growth in the usage of smartphones reduced the prices of microcontrollers, accelerometers,
and camera sensors, which are ideal for use in fixed-wing hobbyist aircraft. Further advances allowed
a drone with 4 or more rotors to be controlled by adjusting the speed of individual rotors.
Improving the stability of multirotor aircraft opened up new possibilities for them to be used in a
number of ways.
What is the future of drones?
The future of drones looks highly promising. Gartner predicts that the global drone market will grow
substantially over the next few years
Business Insider, for example, expects global shipments of drones to rise to 2.4 million by 2023, that
is a 66.8% compound annual growth rate.
"Drone growth will occur across the four main segments of the enterprise industry: Agriculture,
construction and mining, insurance, and media and telecommunications," told Business Insider.

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CLASSIFICATION OF UAVS
The unmanned aircraft system shall, based on the maximum all-up weight including payload, be
classified as follows (as per The Drone Rule 2021):
 Nano unmanned aircraft system: weighing less than or equal to 250 grams;
 Micro unmanned aircraft system: weighing more than 250 grams, but less than or equal to
Two kilograms;
 Small unmanned aircraft system: weighing more than Two kilograms, but less than or
equal to 25 kilograms;
 Medium unmanned aircraft system: weighing more than 25 kilograms, but less than or
equal to 150 kilograms

There is no one standard when it comes to the classification of UAS. (In this course, the terms UAS
and UAV will be used interchangeably.) Defense agencies have their own standard, and civilians have
their ever-evolving loose categories for UAS. People classify them by size, range and endurance, and
use a tier system that is employed by the military.
For classification according to size, one can come up with the following sub-classes:
 Very small UAVs
 Micro or Nano UAVs
 Small UAVs
 Mini UAVs
 Medium UAVs
 Large UAVs

UAVs also can be classified according to the ranges they can travel and their endurance in the air
using the following sub-classes developed by the US military:

 Very low cost close-range UAVs

 Close-range UAVs
 Short-range UAVs
 Mid-range UAVs
 Endurance UAVs

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SIZE

Very small UAVs
The very small UAV class applies to UAVs with dimensions ranging from the size of a large insect
to 30-50 cm long. The insect-like UAVs, with flapping or rotary wings, are a popular micro design.
They are extremely small in size, are very light weight, and can be used for spying and biological
warfare. Larger ones utilize conventional aircraft configuration. The choice between flapping or
rotary wings is a matter of desired maneuverability.
Flapping wing-based designs allow perching and landing on small surfaces. Examples of very small
UAVs are the Israeli IAI Malat Mosquito (with wing span of 35 cm and endurance of 40 minutes,)

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the US Aurora Flight Sciences Skate (with wing span of 60 cm and length of 33 cm), the Australian
Cyber Technology CyberQuad Mini (with 42x42 cm square), and their latest model, CyberQuad
Maxi. See Figure 1.1, below.

Source: Paul Fahlstrom and Thomas Gleason, 2012, Introduction to UAV Systems, 4th edition, Wiley

Small UAVs
The Small UAV class (which also called sometimes mini-UAV) applies to UAVs that have at least
one dimension greater than 50 cm and no larger than 2 meters. Many of the designs in this category
are based on the fixed-wing model, and most are hand-launched by throwing them in the air as shown
in Figure 1.2. Examples of members of this small UAV class are:
 the 1 meter long RQ-11 Raven, by US Aero Vironment with a wingspan of 1.4 m;
 the Turkish Bayraktar(link is external) (Figure 1.5), which weighs about 5 kg and has a data
link range of 20 km;
 the US Army RQ-7 Shadow (Figure 1.3);
The RS-16, by American Aerospace and shown in Figure 1.4. The RS-16 is a crossover UAV between
a small and a medium sized system
Some of the UASs of this class are based on a rotary-wing design.

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Fig. RS-16

Medium UAVs
The medium UAV class applies to UAVs that are too heavy to be carried by one person but are still
smaller than a light aircraft. They usually have a wingspan of about 5-10 m and can carry payloads of
100 to 200 kg. Examples of medium fixed-wing UAVs are (see Figure 1.6, below) the Israeli-US
Hunter and the UK Watchkeeper. There are other brands used in the past, such as the US Boeing
Eagle Eye, the RQ-2 Pioneer, the BAE systems Skyeye R4E, and the RQ-5A Hunter. The Hunter has
a wingspan of 10.2 m and is 6.9 m long. It weighs about 885 kg at takeoff. The RS-20 by American
Aerospace is another example of a crossover UAV that spans the specifications of a small and
medium sized UAV. Many other medium UAVs can be found in the reading assignment. There are
also numbers of rotary-based medium sized UAVs.

Fig. Examples of medium UAVs

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Large UAVs
The large UAV class applies to the large UAVs used mainly for combat operations by the military.
Examples of these large UAVs are the US General Atomics Predator A and B and the US Northrop
Grumman Global Hawk (Figures 1.7 and 1.8).

Figure: Examples of large UAVs

Figure: NASA's Global Hawk

Classification According to Range and Endurance

Shortly after being appointed the central manager of US military UAV programs, the Joint UAV
Program Office (JPO) defined classes of UAVs as a step toward providing some measure of
standardization to UAV terminology. They were:

 Very Low-Cost Close Range: Required by the Marine Corps and perhaps the Army
to have a range of about 5 km (3 mi) and cost about $10,000 per air vehicle. This
UAV system fits into what could be called the “model airplane” type of system and its
feasibility with regard to both performance and cost had not been proven but since has
been demonstrated by systems such as the Raven and Dragon Eye.

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 Close Range: Required by all of the services but its concept of operation varied
greatly depending on the service. The Air Force usage would be in the role of airfield
damage assessment and would operate over its own airfields. The Army and Marine
Corps would use it to look over the next hill, and desired a system that was easy to
move and operate on the battlefield. The Navy wanted it to operate from small ships
such as frigates. It was to have a range of 50 km (31 mi), with 30 km (19 mi) forward
of the FLOT. The required endurance was from 1 to 6 h depending on the mission. All
services agreed that the priority mission was reconnaissance and surveillance, day and
night.

 Short Range: The Short-Range UAV also was required by all of the services and,
like the Close-Range UAV, had the day/night, reconnaissance and surveillance
mission as a top priority. It had a required range of 150 km (93 mi) beyond the FLOT,
but 300 km (186 mi) was desired. The endurance time was to be 8–12 h. The Navy
required the system to be capable of launch and recovery from larger ships of the
Amphibious Assault Ship and Battleship class.

 Mid Range: The Mid-Range UAV was required by all the services except the Army.
It required the capability of being ground or air launched and was not required to
loiter. The latter requirement suggested that the air vehicle was a high-speed deep
penetrator and, in fact, the velocity requirement was high subsonic. The radius of
action was 650 km (404 mi) and it was to be used for day/night reconnaissance and
surveillance. A secondary mission for the Mid Range was the gathering of
meteorological data.

 Endurance: The Endurance UAV was required by all services and, as the name
suggested, was to have a loiter capability of at least 36 h. The air vehicle had to be
able to operate from land or sea and have a radius of action of approximately 300 km
(186 mi). The mission was day/night reconnaissance first, and communications relay
second. Speed was not specified, but it had to be able to maintain station in the high
winds that will be experienced at high altitudes. The altitude requirement was not
specified, but it was thought probably to be 30,000 ft (9.14 km) or higher.
Table 4.1 Classification of UAV’s according to Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Systems Association [Bendea et al. 2008]

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UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE (UAV)

A UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) or UAS (Unmanned Aerial System) is any aircraft that can
navigate without a human pilot on board. Sometimes referred to as a drone. With the advancements
in the UAV industry today, there are more UAVs in the air than at any point in history.

Definition: The UAV is an acronym for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, which is an aircraft with no pilot
on board. UAVs can be remote controlled aircraft (e.g. flown by a pilot at a ground control station) or
can fly autonomously based on pre-programmed flight plans or more complex dynamic automation
systems. UAVs are currently used for a number of missions, including reconnaissance and attack
roles. For the purposes of this article, and to distinguish UAVs from missiles, a UAV is defined as
being capable of controlled, sustained level flight and powered by a jet or reciprocating engine.

The acronym UAV has been expanded in some cases to UAVS (Unmanned Aircraft Vehicle
System). The FAA has adopted the acronym UAS (Unmanned Aircraft System) to reflect the fact that
these complex systems include ground stations and other elements besides the actual air vehicles.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), popularly known as Drone, is an airborne system or an aircraft
operated remotely by a human operator or autonomously by an onboard computer. UAV based
Remote Sensing (UAV-RS) is the new addition to the North Eastern Space Applications Centre
(NE-SAC) for large-scale mapping and real time assessment and monitoring activities of various
applications.

Types of Drones/ UAVs

Based on the type of aerial platform used, there are 4 major types of UAVs.
 Multi Rotor Drone
 Fixed Wing Drone
 Single Rotor Drone
 Fixed Wing Hybrid VTOL

Fig. 4 – Types of Drones/ Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

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Multi Rotor Drone

Multi Rotor Drone uses multiple propellers to navigate and fly. They are utilized for common uses
such as photography and video surveillance. They are the most common of all UAVs.
They can be further classified in four most popular categories based on the number of propellers being
used. They are:
 Tricopter – Three Propeller Drones
 Quadcopter – Four Propeller Drones
 Hexacopter – Six Propeller Drones
 Octocopter – Eight Propeller Drones
Fixed Wing Drones
Fixed Wing drones have wings in place of propellers just like an airplane. They cannot hover at one
place. They fly on the set course till their energy source is functional.
Single Rotor Drones
As the name suggests, a Single rotor drone has only one rotor and a small tail to control it direction.
They resemble more like a helicopter and are very energy efficient.
Fixed Wing Hybrid VTOL
VTOL stands for Vertical take Off & Landing. Fixed Wing Hybrid VTOLs uses propeller(s) to lift off
and wings for gliding.

Main Components of Drones/ UAVs (Quadcopter)

There are multiple designs used for drones, the most popular is the four-wing structure called
Quadcopter. The main components of a Quadcopter are:
1. Propellers/ Wings
2. Chassis
3. DC motors
4. Flight Controller
5. Electronic Speed Controllers
6. Landing Gear
7. Transmitter
8. Receiver
9. GPS Module
10. Battery
11. Camera

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Fig. – Main Components of Drones/ Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

The following table is an excellent guide to choosing the right combination of quadcopter frame,
motors, propellers, and lipo batteries. As you can see, smaller frames mean lighter drones with higher
speed.

Frame Size Propeller Motor Motor KV Battery

120 mm or less 3″ 1104 – 1105 4000KV+ 80-800mAh 1s/2s

130 mm – 170 600-

3-4″ 1306 – 1407 3000KV+
mm 900mAh 2s/3s

180 mm – 200 1000-

4″ 1806 – 2204 2600KV+
mm 1300mAh 3s/4s

210 mm – 240 1000-

5″ 2204 – 2206 2300KV-2700KV
mm 1300mAh 3s/4s

250 mm – 320 1300-

6″ 2204 – 2208 2000KV-2300KV
mm 1800mAh 3s/4s

330 mm – 350 2200-

7-8″ 2208 – 2212 1500KV-1600KV
mm 3200mah 3s/4s

450 mm – 500
9-10″ 2212 – 2216 800KV-1000KV 3300mAh 4s
mm

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This is an ideal combination for enthusiasts that want speed and control. On the other hand, larger
frames allow for more stable flights and are ideal for beginners that want to fly their drone around
their house without damaging it or themselves.
Different Types of Drone Frames
There are so many types of drones that are available in the market and each of them serves a different
purpose so we cannot define any set criteria for their classification. As you already know that drones
have different number of propellers.

Monocopters
Monocopters are the type of drone which has only one motor and using a single motor, we can move
our drone in upward and downward directions only. Monocopters are ruled out by this basic concept
since an airflow difference cannot be created to direct the drone. The drone will lift off and fly, but
yaw, rudder, and roll motions are not possible for monocopter. Increasing the number of motors also
helps to stabilize the drone. If additional motors, more wings are added, and the angle between the
arms is lowered, this results in more airflow. Higher motors lift more weight capacity, which means
you can carry more gear with your drone.

Bicopters
Bicopters typically have two fixed-pitch propellers, one clockwise (CW) and the other
counterclockwise (CCW). Control is achieved by varying the speed of each rotor independently and it
is possible to generate a desired total thrust. Place the center of thrust both laterally and
longitudinally, and create a desired total torque, or turning force, by altering the speed of each rotor.

The propellers on a bi-copter rotate in the opposite direction. These propeller pairs will create lifting
thrust without rotating in the same direction. Each rotor generates power and torque along its axis of
rotation, as well as a drag force in the opposite direction of the vehicle's flight path. The net
aerodynamic torque, and the angular acceleration along the yaw axis, are exactly zero if all rotors spin
at the same angular velocity.

Tricopter
Tricopters typically have three fixed-pitch propellers. These can fly in more directions than bicopters
and can also carry a substantial load. Tricopters have three motors in a Y or T configuration, with the
motors sitting in the distal part of the limbs. If you get your hands on a tricopter, you'll notice that it
has a lot more stability than a bicopter because of the extra blade. Although, even in a light breeze, a
tricopter can become unsteady. Tricopters are more stable than quadcopters, but they lack the speed
and performance of quadcopters.
Tricopters are of two types - Y shape tricopter and T shape tricopter.

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In comparison to a quadcopter, a tricopter has more yaw authority which means that when a
quadcopter or hexacopter yaws, half of the motors slow down while the other half speeds up. If the
copter is flying at maximum speed (all motors on), it will have to slow down to achieve yaw. On the
other hand, a tricopter employs a servo to achieve yaw, therefore it loses less thrust in the same
situation.

Quadcopter
The quadcopter is indeed the most popular multi-copter. Everyone loves quadcopter, whether it's a
DIY maker or a professional drone manufacturer because it's been demonstrated that four is the
optimal number for balancing price, performance, stability, and flying time. A quadcopter is a multi-
rotor drone with 4 motors attached. This Drone stabilizes its flight using an electronic sensor and
control system. There are three types of quadcopters - Plus shape quadcopter, Cross shape quadcopter,
and H shape quadcopter.

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All the shapes are stable in forward flight, but quadcopter requires a yaw control input in forward
flight. Yaw control authority is identical for all configurations but the pitch and roll control authority
is about 30% greater in the case of cross configuration. H-frame drones were the first and the most
popular drones. They can handle a lot of FPV gear while running on a LiPo battery. They feature a
wider base, which ensures that they roll steadily. H-frame drone batteries tend to survive longer since
their location prevents them from being readily damaged. It's also the best drone frame for racing
because it has lots of room for easy construction and changes.

Hexacopter
The hexacopter has six propellers that are placed in a circle around the hexacopter's main body. The
machine's bottom has a pair of leg-like appendages that allow it to land safely on the ground. Because
of its six propellers, the quadcopter is a more powerful flyer than the quadcopter and can carry bigger
loads. The hexacopter has a substantial advantage that even if one of the propellers fails, the craft can
still fly because of the other five propellers. This implies that if one of the propellers fails, the drone
will not crash to the ground, causing damage to the equipment attached to it. The contraption will not
be able to fly if two propellers fail, but it will stay stable enough to land safely.

A hexacopter can go quicker and reach higher altitudes than a quadcopter. Because hexacopters are
more expensive, these are typically employed to transport more valuable cargo that cannot be
destroyed in the event of a crash. They are also larger and more complex to assemble and store than
quadcopters.

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Octocopters
This is the drone with eight propellers and is significantly more powerful than either a quadcopter or a
hexacopter. In comparison to previous drones, these can fly higher, move faster, and carry heavier
payloads. The octocopter is also extremely steady in the air, allowing it to capture footage with high-
quality graphics and minimal shaking. These are considered the cream of the crop when it comes to
drones because of their high performance value. They're utilized for highly specialized tasks that may
require them to travel through rain or heavy gusts. The machine's robustness allows it to withstand
severe weather without being thrown off course. Even if two or three propellers are destroyed, the
drone will continue to fly.

When it comes to attaching costly cameras or delicate cargo to drones, the octocopter is the greatest
option because it has the best chance of keeping the payload secure and completing the job on
schedule. The octocopter is frequently used in movies and television shows that require high-altitude
shots. Because the equipment is so enormous, keeping it in your home might be a hassle.
Additionally, caution should be exercised when carrying the drone in your car or truck to avoid
damage. Because the octocopter consumes a lot of power, it can't stay in the air for very long before
needing to land to recharge. If you want to use the octocopter, keep extra batteries in case the drone
runs out of power before the job is finished.

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Conclusion
As you can see, each of these drone types has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. While the
quadcopter is inexpensive and small in size which makes it ideal for amateurs and carrying small
electronics, it lacks the strength to handle greater payloads. The hexacopter is more stable and can
continue to fly even if one of its motors fails. It can also fly higher and carry heavier payloads than a
quadcopter. Finally, the octocopter is the most powerful of the three drones and is capable of reaching
enormous heights while transporting large cargoes. However, it is the most expensive drone to
purchase and requires continual charging.

1. Propellers/ Wings
The Drones/ UAVs use either propellers/ wings or both (depending on the availability) to direct them.
Propeller driven Drones have two types of propellers onboard for direction and thrust. These are
 Standard Propellers
 Pusher Propellers
 Standard Propellers
These are located in the front of Quadcopter. These propellers provide direction to the Drone.
Pusher Propellers
These are located in the back of Quadcopter. These propellers provide forward and backward thrust to
the Drone.
2. Chassis
This is the main body of Quadcopter which provides the housing facility to all other components.
3. Flight Controller
The flight controller is usually referred to as the brain of the drone. The flight controller controls the
power supply to the electronic speed controller. It is also used to detect orientation changes in the
drone. It controls the motors and ensures that the drone is in air.
4. Electronic Speed Controller
Electronic speed controllers (ESC) are the electronic circuits that regulate the speed of the DC motors.
It also provides dynamic braking and reversing options.
5. DC Motors
To ensure that the drone is airborne for a good amount of time, we need high torque motors. The high
torque also helps to change the speed of the propellers. Brushless DC motors are preferred as they are
lighter than the brushed ones.

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6. Landing Gear
Landing gears are not required for small drones. However, bigger drones need a landing gear to avoid
any damage while landing. The requirement of landing gear varies with functionality of the drone. For
example – Delivery drones which carry parcels require a spacious landing gear as they need space to
hold the items.
7. Transmitter
The transmitter send signals from controller to the drone to generate command of direction and thrust.
8. Receiver
The receiver receives the signals sent by the transmitter and passes it to Flight Controller PCB.
9. GPS Module
The GPS module provides the navigational data (longitude, latitude and elevation) to the Controller.
This module assists the controller in recognizing the taken path and safely return to the initial point in
case of lost connection.
10. Battery
It provides power to the drone. Generally, rechargeable battery is used in drone.
11. Camera
There is normally an attached inbuilt camera with drones. If the drone is not provided with inbuilt
camera, then it will have a provision of detachable camera.

How Drones/ UAVs Work

When the controller provide the lift off instruction to the receiver of drone, it forwards it to the Flight
Controller Board, which in turn actuates the propeller. The propellers provide the lift off thrust and
the drone becomes airborne. It is these propellers, which provide the direction as well as speed to the
drone.

The Drones have a complex multi propeller system that assists in reduction of failures. The propellers
work in group and even if any one of them fails, the drone is capable to get support form its available
propellers and navigate/ land safely. The GPS module helps the drone to identify its travelled path and
get real time data such as location, speed and elevation.

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APPLICATIONS OF UAS

Before looking into UAS in more detail, it is appropriate to list some of the uses to which they are, or
may be, put. They are very many, the most obvious being the following:

Civilian uses
 Aerial photography Film, video, still, etc.
 Agriculture Crop monitoring and spraying; herd monitoring and driving
 Coastguard Search and rescue, coastline and sea-lane monitoring
 Conservation Pollution and land monitoring
 Customs and Excise Surveillance for illegal imports
 Electricity companies Powerline inspection
 Fire Services and Forestry Fire detection, incident control
 Fisheries protection
 Gas and oil supply companies Land survey and pipeline security
 Information services News information and pictures, feature pictures, e.g. wildlife
 Lifeboat Institutions Incident investigation, guidance and control
 Local Authorities Survey, disaster control
 Meteorological services Sampling and analysis of atmosphere for forecasting, etc.
 Traffic agencies Monitoring and control of road traffic
 Oil companies Pipeline security
 Ordnance Survey Aerial photography for mapping
 Police Authorities Search for missing persons, security and incident surveillance
 Rivers Authorities Water course and level monitoring, flood and pollution control
 Survey organisations Geographical, geological and archaeological survey
 Water Boards Reservoir and pipeline monitoring

Military roles
Navy
 Shadowing enemy fleets
 Decoying missiles by the emission of artificial signatures
 Electronic intelligence
 Relaying radio signals
 Protection of ports from offshore attack
 Placement and monitoring of sonar buoys and possibly other forms of anti-submarine
 warfare
Army
 Reconnaissance
 Surveillance of enemy activity
 Monitoring of nuclear, biological or chemical (NBC) contamination
 Electronic intelligence
 Target designation and monitoring
 Location and destruction of land mines
Air Force
 Long-range, high-altitude surveillance
 Radar system jamming and destruction
 Electronic intelligence
 Airfield base security
 Airfield damage assessment
 Elimination of unexploded bombs

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UAVs in INDIA
India is developing UAVs that are capable of flying on solar power.]Developed by DRDO (Defence
Research and Development Organisation, New Delhi and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Bangalore)

i. DRDO Abhyas
ii. DRDO Fluffy
iii. DRDO Imperial Eagle
iv. DRDO Kapothaka
v. DRDO Lakshya
vi. DRDO Netra
vii. DRDO Nishant
viii. DRDO Rustom
ix. DRDO Ulka
x. NAL Slybird
xi. NAL / ADE Black Kite
xii. NAL / ADE Golden Hawk
xiii. NAL / ADE Pushpak
xiv. Dhaksha
xv. Pawan UAV
xvi. ADE Nishant

1.1.1. Lakshya: The Lakshya ("target" in Sanskrit) is an Indian remotely piloted high speed target
drone system developed by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) of DRDO.
The drone, remote piloted by a ground control station provides realistic towed aerial sub-
targets for live fire training.

Fig. 2.1 Lakshya UAV

India's Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) has just announced the successful
flight test of a Lakshya-2 pilotless targeting drone. According to a DRDO statement on 21 dec
2010, "Users have indicated their requirement of flying pilotless target aircraft at very low
altitudes (15 to 25 metres above sea level) to simulate the trajectory of low-level cruise
missiles. Accordingly ADE has prepared Lakshya-2 with necessary hardware and software to
meet those requirements."

The Lakshya is powered by a single PTAE-7 turbojet engine rated at 3.7kN of thrust. The
engine is designed and manufactured by HAL in Bangalore. It features a four stage transonic

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axial flow compressor, single stage turbine, an annular flow combustion chamber, digital
electronic fuel control system and 16 fuel flow burners. The length and diameter of the engine
are 1.27m and 0.33m respectively. The dry weight is 65kg.

1.1.2. SEARCHER I & II

The Searcher Mk II is a multi mission tactical UAV system used for surveillance, reconnaissance,
target acquisition, artillery adjustment and damage assessment.
The Indian Army has reportedly deployed its first batch of 25 Israeli-made Searcher Mark II
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) over its frontiers with Pakistan and China. I India has purchased
100 of the reconnaissance drones at a cost of $750 million and may double this order. The Searcher
Mark II is produced by Israel Aircraft Industries. It can remain airborne for 16 hours and has a
maximum range of 150 kilometers at the relatively high altitude of 18,500 feet, making it especially
suitable for missions over the Himalayas.

Fig 2.2 Searcher-II UAV (Israel)

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1.1.3. HERON

The Heron UAV System is an operational fourth generation long-endurance medium-altitude system
based on leading-edge technology with new fully automatic take-off and landing features. It provides
deep-penetration, wide-area, real-time intelligence to national agencies, theater commanders and
lower echelons. The Heron provides ample modular space up to 250 kg for customer furnished
equipment, is interoperable with other MALAT UAV systems and has demonstrated 52 hours of
continuous flight.

The Heron UAV system has been developed by IAI / Malat, to carry out strategic reconnaissance and
surveillance. Initially deployed with the Indian defense forces, for high altitude land surveillance and
maritime patrol missions, the Heron has been acquired by the Israel Air Force and Turkish defense
Forces, for similar applications.

Fig. 2.3 Heron UAV

The Indian Army sign the contract for the Heron unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) after identifying
the Israeli aircraft as the best for use in the Himalayas. Other bidder's UAVs failed in the height test.

The Indian Army already has a fleet of 12 Heron UAVs and their efficiency has been established

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beyond doubt, source said. They point out that a deal worth over $210 million was almost struck in
early 2004 but it fell through because of the change of government at the centre.

1.1.4. NISHANT

The DRDO Nishant is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) developed by India's ADE (Aeronautical
Development Establishment) a branch of DRDO for the Indian Armed Forces. The Nishant UAV is
primarily tasked with intelligence gathering over enemy territory and also for recon,training,
surveillance, target designation, artillery fire correction, damage assessment, ELINT and SIGINT.
The UAV has an endurance of 4 h 30 min. Nishant has completed development phase and user trials.

The 380 kg (840 lb) Nishant UAV requires rail-launching from a hydro-pneumatic launcher and
recovered by a Parachute System. Launches at a velocity of 45 m/s are carried out in 0.6 second with
100 kW power and subsequent launches can be carried out in intervals of 20 minutes. The Mobile
Hydro-Pneumatic Launcher (MHPL) system mounted on a Tatra truck weighs 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)
and boasts of a life cycle of 1000 launches before requiring overhaul. Nishant is one of the few UAVs
in the world in its weight-class capable of being catapult-launched and recovered by using parachute,
thus eliminating the need for a runway as in case of conventional take-off and landing with wheels.

Fig. 2.4 Nishant UAV

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1.1.5. Rustom-1 & Rustom-H

Fig. 2.5 Rustam UAV

Rustom (English: Warrior) is a Medium Altitude Long Endurance Unmanned combat Aerial Vehicle
(UCAV) being developed by DRDO for the three services, Indian Army, Indian Navy and the Indian
Air Force of the Indian Armed Forces. Rustom is derived from the NAL's LCRA (Light Canard
Research Aircraft) developed by a team under the leadership of late Prof. Rustom B. Damania in the
1980s. The UAV will have structural changes and a new engine. Rustom will replace/supplement the
Heron UAVs in service with the Indian armed forces.

Rustom-1 Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is being
developed by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE), a DRDO lab engaged in R&D
work in the field of aeronautics. The UAV is designed for an endurance of 14 hrs and altitude ceiling
of 8000 meters.

The Rustom UAV is being developed in two phases. In Phase I, an unmanned version of NAL's
LCRA (Light Canard Research Aircraft), a Long-EZ design built in the 80s for research purposes, will
be used as the Rustom-I. As it is a single engine system which does not have the endurance or payload

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that would meet the DRDO requirements, it is only used to develop technologies and subsystems.
This technology initiative project is under progress, and a lot of subsystems are currently being
qualified on the unmanned version of LCRA, which is basically a Rutan Long-EZ derivative. It was
publicly displayed at Aerosem 2008, a celebration for the golden jubilee of DRDO at ADE in
Bangalore, along with sub-scaled RC models of both Phase I and II articles. Low speed trials were
done on Sept 22, high speed ones followed in October and flight testing followed suit.

Phase II concerns a totally different design, the Rustom-H, that owes nothing to Burt Rutan's design.
It is a Medium-Altitude Long-Endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (MALE UAV), a twin engine
system designed to carry out surveillance and reconnaissance missions. It is being developed for all
three services of Indian Armed Forces. DRDO and the services have been interacting extensively to
arrive at a mutually acceptable qualitative requirement that would meet the long-term requirements of
the services. Rustom is supposed to match the performance and requirements of similar international
UAVs such as the Heron.

The Rustom-H UAV has already been displayed in full-scale model form at Aero India '09. A 1:2
model of the Rustom has already completed control surface tests and low speed taxi trials, but it will
be three years to the first flight of the real FSD article, however. The program is expected to
culminate in a viable operational system by the end of 2012. As a side note, it is worthy of mention
that the Rustom UAVs have been named after Rustom Behram Damania, a former professor of IISc,
Bangalore who died in 2001 and who forming the starting point and nucleus of small aircraft design at
National Aeronautical Laboratories (NAL) during the 1980s. Indeed, the Rustom-1's forerunner, the
LCRA, was the first design built under his auspices.

Variants: There will be three variants of the Rustom UAV.

Rustom-1: tactical UAV with endurance of 12 hours
Rustom-H: Larger UAV with flight endurance of 24 hours.
Rustom-C: Armed version of the Rustom-H UAV.

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OVERVIEW OF UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEM (UAS)

What are UAS?
An unmanned aircraft system is just that – a system. The system comprises a number of sub-systems
which include the aircraft (often referred to as a UAV or unmanned air vehicle), its payloads, the
control station(s) (and, often, other remote stations), aircraft launch and recovery sub-systems where
applicable, support sub-systems, communication sub-systems, transport sub-systems, etc. It must also
be considered as part of a local or global air transport/aviation environment with its rules, regulations
and disciplines.
The way a pilotless aircraft is controlled determines its categorization. In general, there are three main
names for pilotless aircraft:
1. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV): a pilotless aircraft that is either manually controlled with
a joystick or a mouse or autonomously flown by following a preprogrammed mission. The
acronym UAV is the most widely used term in describing a civilian pilotless aircraft.
2. Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV): a pilotless aircraft that is steered or controlled from a
remotely located position. Manually controlled pilotless aircraft means manually controlling
the aircraft position by manually adjusting its heading, altitude, and speed. In many cases, the
terms UAV and RPV are interchangeably used to describe any pilotless aircraft.
3. Drone: one of the oldest terms used to describe a pilotless aircraft. A drone is defined as a
pilotless aircraft controlled by radio signal. Even with the emerging of the UAV and RPV
names, the name “drone” is still used even for civilian pilotless aircraft. For the purpose of
this course, the word drone is used to describe a pilotless aircraft equipped with lethal
payload. It is usually used by defense apparatus.

Whether it is named a UAV, an RPV, or a drone, at a minimum, the pilotless aircraft should include
the following elements:
 Air vehicle
 Mission planning element
 Command and control element
 Communication link
 Launch and recovery element (for some of them)
 Payload

Missions of the UAVs

In this section, we will discuss the different missions of the UAS.
Naming the different missions for UAVs is a difficult task, as there are so many possibilities and there
have never been enough systems in use to explore all the possibilities. However, the two main
classifications for UAS missions are the following:

1. The military mission: Military applications focus on weapons delivery and guided missile
support as well as directing artillery and spotting enemy positions.
2. The civilian mission: Civilian applications of UAS are open to the imagination, and only
time will tell of the future missions of UAVs for civilian applications. As of today, civilian
missions include various applications such as:

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 security awareness;
 disaster response, including search and support to rescuers;
 communications and broadcast, including news/sporting event coverage;
 cargo transport;
 spectral and thermal analysis;
 critical infrastructure monitoring and inspection, including power facilities, ports,
bridges, and pipelines;
 commercial photography, aerial mapping and charting, and advertising.
On the geospatial and mapping applications side, the UAS can be used for the
following activities:
 aerial photography
 mapping
 LIDAR
 volumetric surveys
 digital mapping
 contour mapping
 topographic mapping
 digital terrain modeling
 aerial surveys
 photogrammetry
 temporal/spatial correlation for terrain reconstruction
 geophysical survey

Military and civilian missions of UAS overlap in many areas. They both use UAS for reconnaissance
and surveillance. In addition, they both use UAS as a stationary platform over a point on the ground
from which to perform many of the communications or remote sensing satellite functionalities with a
fraction of the cost.

Figure 2.1: UAS Components

Source: Unmanned Aircraft Systems Report, Connecting Globally, December 2011

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Image showing one large circle surrounded by seven smaller circles, depicting the UAV components.
The large circle at the center is labeled "Unmanned Aircraft System". The seven-circle surrounding it
are: "Unmanned Aircraft", "Payload", "Human Element", "Control Elements", "Data Links", "Support
Element", and "System User".

The elements that combine to create an operational Unmanned Aerial System (UAS). Most UASs
consist of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), human elements, payload, control elements (for
a larger system it will be a ground control station (GCS) or mission planning and control station
(MPCS)), and a data link communication unit (Figure 2.1). Military versions of the UAS will have an
additional weapon system platform and supporting soldiers as part of the human element.
Components of Unmanned Aerial System
 Air vehicle
 Mission Planning and Control Station
 Launch and Recovery Equipment
 Payloads
 Data Links
 Ground Support Equipment’s

Generic UAV system

An unmanned aircraft system is an unmanned aircraft and the equipment necessary for the safe and
efficient operation of that aircraft. An unmanned aircraft is a component of a UAS.

As a minimum, a typical UAV system is composed of air vehicles, one or more ground control station
(GCS) and/or mission planning and control stations (MPCS), payload, and data link. In addition,
many systems include launch and recovery subsystems, air-vehicle carriers, and other ground
handling and maintenance equipment. A very simple generic UAV system is shown in Figure 1.1.

There are three kinds of aircraft, excluding missiles, that fly without pilots. They are unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs), remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs), and drones. All, of course, are unmanned so the
name “unmanned aerial vehicle” or UAV can be thought of as the generic title.

 Some people use the terms RPV and UAV interchangeably, but to the purist the
“remotely piloted vehicle” is piloted or steered (controlled) from a remotely located
position so an RPV is always a UAV, but a UAV, which may perform autonomous or
pre-programmed missions, need not always be an RPV.
 Whether the UAV is controlled manually or via a preprogrammed navigation system,
it should not necessarily be thought of as having to be “flown,” that is, controlled by
someone that has piloting skills. UAVs used by the military usually have autopilots
and navigation systems that maintain attitude, altitude, and ground track
automatically.
 Manual control usually means controlling the position of the UAV by manually
adjusting the heading, altitude, speed, etc. through switches, a joy stick, or some kind
of pointing device (mouse or trackball) located in the ground control station, but
allowing the autopilot to stabilize the vehicle and assume control when the desired
course is reached. Navigation systems of various types (global positioning system
(GPS), radio, inertial) allow for preprogrammed missions, which may or may not be
overridden manually.

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1. Air Vehicle
The air vehicle is the airborne part of the system that includes the airframe, propulsion unit,
flight controls, and electric power system. The air data terminal is mounted in the air vehicle,
and is the airborne portion of the communications data link. The payload is also onboard the
air vehicle, but it is recognized as an independent subsystem that often is easily interchanged
with different air vehicles and uniquely designed to accomplish one or more of a variety of
missions. The air vehicle can be a fixed-wing airplane, rotary wing, or a ducted fan. Lighter-
than-air vehicles are also eligible to be termed UAVs.

The air vehicle is the airborne part of the system. The air vehicle here means the aircraft, in
conjunction with the payload, that forms an Unmanned Aerial System (UAS). In general, the
unmanned aircraft is usually called an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and can be either a fixed-
wing or rotary airplane that flies without a human on board.

The UAV is a complicated system including structures, aerodynamic elements such as wings and
control surfaces, propulsion systems, control systems, communication elements, and launch and
recovery subsystems.

Larger UAVs use fuel-powered engines in order to attain flight, while smaller UAVs typically use
either gasoline-powered engines or electrically powered engines.
When the UAV has sensors and payloads, it is customarily called an Unmanned Aerial System
(UAS). In this course, the terms UAS and UAV will be used interchangeably to mean the same. Due
to inclusion of the word "unmanned," there has been some resistance in recent years to use of the
names Unmanned Aircraft and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. There is a push to adopt the term Remotely

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Piloted Aircraft (RPA) or Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV) because of the crucial human involvement
related to the operation of the system.
UAVs come in all different sizes and shapes; however, the following are the major factors to be
considered in designing a UAV:
 take-off weight
 wing span
 length
 endurance speed
 endurance time
 weight of fuel
 engine power
 engine capacity
 engine weight
 airframe weight

Categories of Systems based upon Air Vehicle Types

Although all UAV systems have many elements other than the air vehicle, they are usually
categorised by the capability or size of the air vehicle that is required to carry out the mission.
However, it is possible that one system may employ more than one type of air vehicle to cover
different types of mission, and that may pose a problem in its designation. However, these definitions
are constantly being changed as technology advances allow a smaller system to take on the roles of
the one above. The boundaries, therefore, are often blurred so that the following definitions can only
be approximate and subject to change.
The terms currently in use cover a range of systems, from the HALE with an aircraft of 35 m or
greater wing span, down to the NAV which may be of only 40 mm span.
The terms currently in use cover a range of systems, from the HALE with an aircraft of 35 m or
greater wing span, down to the NAV which may be of only 40 mm span.

Micro Air Vehicle (MAV)

A micro UA (MAV) is an unmanned aircraft with a maximum physical length of 6 in., according to
the definition in the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) MAV program.
However, manufacturers have claimed UA having wing spans up to 2.5 ft as falling within this
category.
New categories of progressively smaller unmanned aircraft have been dubbed “pico air vehicles” and
“nano air vehicles.” For the purposes of this discussion, MAVs will be considered to capture a range
of the smallest unmanned aircraft. MAVs tend to have several common characteristics. The
challenging low-Reynolds-number flight regime yields poor aerodynamic efficiency compared with
larger, unmanned aircraft. Small size, weight, and power (SWAP) budgets necessitate miniature
avionics, communications systems, and payloads with significant performance limitations. Finally,
MAVs hold promise of low unit costs in production. MAVs generally weigh less than 0.5 lb, which
leaves little provision for avionics or mission systems. These systems might need to be tightly
integrated into custom electronics, driving up the development costs. Low-RF radiated power
generally limits the communications range to 1–15 km. Example: Aerovironment WASP, Skate etc.

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FIG. : A US Navy Seal Operative Launching a WASP III by using a hand-held catapult.

Small Unmanned Aerial Aircraft System

Small unmanned aircraft systems (SUAS), as defined here, range from 1–55 lb gross weight. These
are larger than MAVs and smaller than small tactical UASs. Sometimes this general category is also
called Mini UAS. The lowest weight systems are generally electric powered, 0.5–2 hr endurance
aircraft that are launched by hand or with the aid of elastic lines. The middle- and upper-weight UA
are medium- to long-endurance, low-altitude aircraft that are taking over the missions of older tactical
UAS. SUAS are the most prolific category in terms of the most distinct systems flown. The simplest
explanation is that the cost and technical barriers to entry are low. Many systems referred to as
unmanned aircraft never progress beyond radio control. Many autonomous small UASs are simply
model aircraft with low-cost autopilots. Lightweight, GPS-based autopilot technologies originally
demonstrated on MAVs offer SUAS the ability to carry high useful loads. Very small gimbaled
camera payloads weighing 1–5 lb were developed specifically for this class of UA using new design
approaches. Example: RQ-11B Raven.

FIG : RQ-11B Hand Launch

Tactical UAV (TUAV)

The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) defines the tactical class with takeoff gross weight between
55 and 1320 lb. The TUAS category has been a major focus of system development and operational
employment since the 1970s. The flight performance of most systems in this category has generally
held constant at 5–12 hrs at altitudes less than 20,000 ft despite the impressive progression of enabling
technology state of the art across multiple disciplines. The experience with these systems in the 1980s

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and 1990s varies from numerous U.S. acquisition failures to successful widespread operational
employment by Israel in the same period. The United States fielded the Israeli-developed Pioneer
UAS starting in 1988. The U.S. Army and Marine Corps now operate the IAI Shadow 200, which has
performed well in the field.

FIG.: IAI Shadow 200 Tactical UAS

Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE)

Medium-altitude long-endurance (MALE) UASs generally have substantially greater mission

capabilities than TUAS and other smaller systems. Gross weights may vary from 1,000–10,000 lb,
with payload capacities of 200–1,000 lb, and an endurance range of 12–40 hrs. This category of
aircraft closely matches the DOD definition of Theater UAS, which has a takeoff gross weight greater
than 1,320 lb. The operational altitude varies by propulsion type with 15,000–30,000 ft service ceiling
for reciprocating engines and 30,000–50,000 ft with turboprops. The line between high-altitude long-
endurance and MALE UASs is blurred for heavy turboprop systems such as the MQ-9 Reaper or the
BAE Mantis. Many MALE systems are capable of carrying high-bandwidth satellite communications
systems and external weapons loads. Using external payloads tends to increase drag significantly,
effectively turning long endurance platforms to medium-endurance platforms.

Today’s MALE systems typically perform ISR, SIGINT, and strike missions, though they are capable
of expanded roles. Relative to smaller UASs, there is greater operational utility and payload
flexibility. New payload types generally start off large and are then miniaturized over time. Therefore,
MALE systems can be the first adopters of new mission capabilities. The large size gives a larger
footprint. Hangars are usually required to shelter these UA and enable maintenance activities. Support
equipment is needed to assemble and disassemble the airframe. Most MALE systems must be
transported in large containers that are manipulated by heavy ground equipment. These systems
usually employ a conventional runway launch and recovery technique. So far, the large launch and
capture energy for these large systems have precluded runway independent techniques for non-
vertical-takeoff-and-landing (VTOL) systems. There have been relatively few MALE programs
compared to smaller UAS categories. The development investment is high, and there are more
technical barriers to entry. Despite these hurdles, many of today’s operational MALE systems were
developed largely on company funding. MALE system development can take several years. Example:
MQ-1C Gray Eagle, MQ-9B Predator, IAI Herron, DRDO Rustom.

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FIG : General Atomics MQ-1C Gray Eagle

FIG: MQ-1C Gray Eagle

High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE)

High-altitude long-endurance (HALE) UASs are sophisticated, high performance systems. HALE
systems typically fly above 50,000 or 60,000 ft with a total endurance greater than 24 hrs. The system
weight is above 5,000 lb in most cases. Today Global Hawk is the sole HALE system in the U.S.
arsenal. No discussion of HALE would be complete without the Northrop Grumman Global Hawk.
This UA was developed by Teledyne Ryan starting with a 1994 DARPA ACTD contract, building
upon its vast heritage of high-performance jet-powered UASs such as the Firebees and Compass
Cope-R. Teledyne Ryan was later acquired by Northrop Grumman. The first Global Hawk flight
occurred in 1998. The ACTD systems were essentially prototypes intended to prove the system
capabilities, though the 9/11 attacks spurred their rapid deployment in support of Operation Enduring
Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. The systems became strategic assets, proving their worth with
broad area coverage and target location capabilities. Global Hawk generated 55% of the time-
sensitive targeting used to attack the Iraqi air defenses.

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The Global Hawk underwent a more robust development in what became the RQ-4B. The wing span
increased from 116.2 to 130.9 ft, and the payload capacity grew, among many changes. The RQ-4B
was more operationally supportable than its predecessor. A variant of the Global Hawk won the
Navy’s Broad Area Maritime Surveillance (BAMS) program, which will provide shore-based ISR
missions. Numerous nations have expressed interest in procuring the Global Hawk.

FIG. : Northrop Grumann RQ-4B Global Hawk

Expendable UAV
Expendable UAVs are not designed to return after accomplishing their mission. In the military world,
this often means that they contain an internal warhead and are intended to be crashed into a target
destroying it and themselves. There is a considerable area of overlap between guided missiles and
UAVs, as illustrated by the fact that the first “UAVs” of the aviation era were mostly guided weapons.
An alternative definition of an expendable is that it can (and should) be recovered if possible, but can
have a very high loss rate. Example: Raytheon Coyote

FIG. : Raytheon Coyote

Brief Explanation of Air vehicle types:
a) HALE – High altitude long endurance. Over 15 000 m altitude and 24+ hr en-durance. They carry
out extremely long-range (trans-global) reconnaissance and surveil-lance and increasingly are
being armed. They are usually operated by Air Forces from fixed bases.
b) MALE – Medium altitude long endurance. 5000–15 000 m altitude and 24 hr endurance. Their
roles are similar to the HALE systems but generally operate at somewhat shorter ranges, but still
in excess of 500 km. and from fixed bases.
c) TUAV – Medium Range or Tactical UAV with range of order between 100 and 300 km. These
air vehicles are smaller and operated within simpler systems than are HALE or MALE and are
operated also by land and naval forces.
d) Close-Range UAV used by mobile army battle groups, for other military/naval operations and for
diverse civilian purposes. They usually operate at ranges of up to about 100 km and have
probably the most prolific of uses in both fields, including roles as diverse as reconnaissance,

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target designation, NBC monitoring, airfield security, ship-to-shore surveillance, power-line

inspection, crop-spraying and traffic monitoring, etc.
e) MUAV or Mini UAV – relates to UAV of below a certain mass (yet to be defined) probably
below 20 kg, but not as small as the MAV, capable of being hand-launched and operating at
ranges of up to about 30 km. These are, again, used by mobile battle groups and particularly for
diverse civilian purposes.
f) Micro UAV or MAV. The MAV was originally defined as a UAV having a wing-span no greater
than 150 mm. This has now been somewhat relaxed but the MAV is principally required for
operations in urban environments, particularly within buildings. It is required to fly slowly, and
preferably to hover and to ‘perch’ – i.e. to be able to stop and to sit on a wall or post. To meet this
challenge, research is being conducted into some less conventional configurations such as
flapping wing aircraft. MAV are generally expected to be launched by hand and therefore winged
versions have very low wing loadings which must make
g) NAV – Nano Air Vehicles. These are proposed to be of the size of sycamore seeds and used in
swarms for purposes such as radar confusion or conceivably, if camera, propulsion and control
sub-systems can be made small enough, for ultra-short-range surveillance.
Note: Long-range UAV – replaced by HALE and MALE Medium-range UAV – replaced by
TUAV
h) Close-range UAV – often referred to as MUAV or midi-UAV.

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2. Mission Planning and Control Station

The MPCS, also called the GCS, is the operational control centre of the UAV system where video,
command, and telemetry data from the air vehicle are processed and displayed. These data are usually
relayed through a ground terminal, which is the ground portion of the data link. The MPCS shelter
incorporates a mission planning facility, control and display consoles, video and telemetry
instrumentation, a computer and signal processing group, the ground data terminal, communications
equipment, and environmental control and survivability protection equipment.

The MPCS can also serve as the command post for the person who performs mission planning,
receives mission assignments from supported headquarters, and reports acquired data and information
to the appropriate unit, be it weapon fire direction, intelligence, or command and control, for example,
the mission commander. The station usually has positions for both the air vehicle and mission payload
operators to perform monitoring and mission execution functions.

A cut-away view of a typical field MPCS is shown in Figure 1.2.

Function of MPCS:
a) The mission planning and control station, or MPCS, is the “nerve center” of the entire
UAV system.
b) It controls the launch, flight, and recovery of the air vehicle (AV)
c) Receives and processes data from the internal sensors of the flight systems and the
external sensors of the payload
d) Controls the operation of the payload (often in real time)
e) Provides the interfaces between the UAV system and the outside world.

The planning function can be performed at some location separate from the control function and the
MPCS sometimes is called the ground control station or GCS.

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To accomplish its system functions, the MPCS incorporates the following subsystems:

 AV status readouts and controls.

 Payload data displays and controls.
 Map displays for mission planning and for monitoring the location and flight path of
the AV.
 The ground terminal of a data link that transmits commands to the AV and payload
and receives status information and payload data from the AV.
 One or more computers that, at a minimum, provide an interface between the
operator(s) and the AV and control the data link and data flow between the AV and
the MPCS.
 They may also perform the navigation function for the system, and some of the “outer
loop” (less time sensitive) calculations associated with the autopilot and payload
control functions. Communications links to other organizations for command and
control and for dissemination of information gathered by the UAV.
A block diagram of an MPCS is shown in Figure 8.1. Most of the elements of the MPCS will be
connected by a high-bandwidth bus.

Figure MPCS block diagram

In summary, the functions of an MPCS can be described as follows:

PLANNING
 Process tasking messages
 Study mission area maps
 Designate flight routes (waypoints, speeds, altitudes)

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 Provide operator with plan

OPERATION
 Load mission plan information
 Launch UAV
 Monitor UAV position
 Control UAV
 Control and monitor mission payload
 Recommend changes to flight plan
 Provide information to the commander
 Save sensor information when required
 Recover UAV
 Reproduce hard copy or digital tapes or disks of sensor data

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3. Launch and Recovery Equipment

Launch and recovery can be accomplished by a number of techniques ranging from conventional
take-off and landing on prepared sites to vertical descent using rotary wing or fan systems.

The launch and recovery element is an area that requires the most human interaction. Some UASs
require elaborate launching procedures, while others can be hand thrown toward the sky. Some large
UASs require long runways and other field support equipment such as fuel trucks, ground power
units, and ground tugs. Similarly, the requirements for recovery procedures vary widely. Most small
UASs that are used for geospatial projects require simple procedures and can be hand held or
launched with the use of a catapult.

Some UASs, such as target drones, are air-launched from fixed-wing aircraft. Usually, large UASs are
equipped with wheels for takeoff and landing and do not need special equipment, while smaller UASs
need a variety of launch and recovery strategies depending on the complexity of the system.

A truck driven at a speed of 60 mph can be used to launch a small UAS assuming that the launching
site contains a smooth surface for the truck to use. In this type of launching method, the UAS is held
in a cradle above the truck cab with its nose pointed high toward the launching path, Figure 2.13.
Once speed is sufficient for takeoff, the UAS is released and lifts upward toward its takeoff path.

Figure 2.13 Truck Launcher

Many small and medium sized UAS launch systems have a requirement to be mobile, or in other
words, to be mounted on a truck or a trailer. Such mobile launchers fall within one of the following
types:

1. Rail Launchers: The UAS is held fast to a guide rail while it is accelerated to launch speed.

2. Pneumatic Launchers: Compressed air or gas is used to provide the necessary force for
launching the UAS.

3. Hydraulic/Pneumatic Launchers: Compressed gaseous nitrogen is used as the power source

for launch.

4. Zero Length Rocket Assisted (RATO) Launching: There is no rail or track used in this mode
of launching. The UAS rises directly from a holding mechanism and it will be in free flight
once the rocket is fired.

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For more details on these launchers, refer to chapter 17 of the supplemental textbook Introduction to
UAV Systems, 4th edition

Launch equipment: This will be required for those air vehicles which do not have a vertical
flight capability, nor have access to a runway of suitable surface and length. This usually
takes the form of a ramp along which the aircraft is accelerated on a trolley, propelled by a
system of rubber bungees, by compressed air or by rocket, until the aircraft has reached an
airspeed at which it can sustain airborne flight.

Recovery equipment: This also will usually be required for aircraft without a vertical flight
capability, unless they can be brought down onto terrain which will allow a wheeled or skid-
borne run-on landing. It usually takes the form of a parachute, installed within the aircraft,
and which is deployed at a suitable altitude over the landing zone. In addition, a means of
absorbing the impact energy is needed, usually comprising airbags or replaceable frangible
material. An alternative form of recovery equipment, sometimes used, is a large net or,
alternatively, a carousel apparatus into which the aircraft is flown and caught.

Types of UAV Launching System:

 Hand Launch
 Pneumatic Ramp Launch
 Catapult Launch
 Launching by landing gears

Types of UAV Recovery System:

 Runway Recovery
 Parachute recovery
 Belly Landing
 Wire & Net Arresting Recovery

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The method of launching the aircraft may be considered within three types, each with an
appropriate means of recovery:
a) a horizontal take-off and landing (HTOL), on a wheeled undercarriage, where there is
a length of prepared surface (runway or strip) available;
b) a catapulted or zero-length rocket-powered launch when the aircraft has no vertical
flight capability and where the operating circumstances or terrain preclude availability
of a length of runway;
c) vertical take-off and landing (VTOL).

HTOL
The length of run required to achieve launch is dependent upon the acceleration of the aircraft
to lift-off speed. The thrust available to accelerate the aircraft is a major issue which depends
upon the power available for thrust and the efficiency of the propulsor from stationary to lift-
off speed.

On the assumption that the wing incidence is kept such as to generate no lift during the run
until lift-off speed is reached, the profile drag of the aircraft will be negligible compared with
the propulsor thrust. The drag will build up from zero to typically only 3% of available thrust
at lift-off speed.

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VTOL
A controlled vertical take-off is the most elegant mode of launch. It enables the UAV system
to be operated from almost any type of terrain, requiring no runway, airstrip or cumbersome
catapult equipment. The launch is totally independent of wind direction and the aircraft can
be airborne within minutes of the system arriving on site.
It is merely required, after initial start-up and check-out via the UAV on-board monitoring
system display in the GCS, for the controller to input height (or altitude) and rate of climb
and press the ‘go’ button.

Recovery
Recovery of the UAV requires not only a safe landing, but the return of the UAV to its base
or hangar.

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4. Payloads
Payload: The Definition

In short, the payload is the weight a drone or unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) can carry. It is usually
counted outside of the weight of the drone itself and includes anything additional to the drone – such
as extra cameras, sensors, or packages for delivery.

Payload refers to air vehicle (aircraft) cargo. It is also defined as the amount of cargo weight an air
vehicle can safely carry. Carrying a payload on board is the sole purpose for most UASs. Payloads
come in a variety of sizes, weights, and functions. In our business of geospatial remote sensing, we
focus on remote sensing sensors and the necessary navigation systems accompanying them.

What are the different types of drone payloads?

Aside from the drone itself (i.e., the ‘platform’) various types of payloads can be distinguished,
including freight (e.g., mail parcels, medicines, fire extinguishing material, flyers, etc.) and different
types of sensors (e.g., cameras, sniffers, meteorological sensors, etc.).

Different Types:

A. Reconnaissance/Surveillance Payloads
B. Weapon Payloads

Reconnaissance payloads are by far the most common used by UAVs and are of the highest priority
for most users. Even if the mission of a UAV is to gather some specialized information, such as
monitoring pollution, it often is essential that it be able to locate specific “targets” on the ground for
the purpose of collecting data in the vicinity of those “targets.” These payloads, or sensors as they
often are called, can be either passive or active.

Passive sensors do not radiate any energy. For instance, they do not provide their own illumination of
targets. Photographic and TV cameras are examples of passive sensors. Passive sensors must rely on
energy radiated from the target, for example, heat in the case of an infrared (IR) sensor, or reflected
energy, such as sun, star, or moon light for a TV camera.

Most important kinds of reconnaissance sensors are:

1. Day or night-vision TV
2. IR imaging
The purpose of these sensor payloads is to search for targets and, having found (“detected”) possible
targets, to recognize and/or identify them. Additionally, in conjunction with other sensors, such as
rangefinders, and the UAV’s navigation system, the sensor payload may be required to determine the
location of the target with a degree of precision that depends on the use to which the information will
be put.

Three key terms used to describe the operation of the sensor are as follows:

 Detection: Defined as determining that there is an object of interest at some particular

point in the field of regard of the sensor.
 Recognition: Defined as determining that the object belongs to some general class,
such as a truck, a tank, a small boat, or a person.

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 Identification: Defined as determining a specific identity for the object, such as a

dump truck, an M1 tank, a cigarette-class speedboat, or an enemy soldier.

For all sensors, the ability to detect, recognize, and identify targets is related to the individual target
signature, the sensitivity and resolution of the sensor, and environmental conditions. Design analysis
of these factors for imaging sensors (both TV and IR) follows the same general procedure, described
in detail in the following sections.

Remote Sensing Sensors for the Unmanned Aerial System

 Electro Optical Sensors: such as cameras (still and video, film and digital). Aerial imaging is
considered one of the most acceptable applications for UASs. Recent cameras are all digital
cameras (versus film). Digital aerial cameras are categorized as follows:

o Large Format Cameras: These are mainly used on board manned aircraft and large
UASs. They are very heavy for small and medium sized UASs. Large format cameras
are used to cover large areas such as entire counties or states. Figure 2.3 illustrates a
few of the most common aerial cameras used today.

Infrared Sensors: An infrared sensor operates in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Infrared sensors for remote sensing are designed to operate in two regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum (EMS)

Auxiliary Sensors for the Unmanned Aerial System

Auxiliary sensors here mean the navigation sensors that are necessary to determine the location and
the orientation of the UAS and its remote sensors that are mentioned earlier in this section. For the
UAS and onboard sensor position determination, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is used, and
for the attitudes or orientation of the UAS and the onboard sensors, the Inertial Measurement Unit
(IMU) is used.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The GPS does not need introduction, as everyone is familiar with its definition. It is the same GPS
that you might use to drive around town. However, GPS that is used to determine a remote sensor
position usually undergoes a post processing to enhance the accuracy of the position.

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UAS are offered with two grades of GPS accuracies. The most common one is the single frequency
GPS receivers as it is cheaper and it does not require post processing or real-time correction service.
Such receivers provide location accuracy of around 1 to 2-meter. For more accurate geospatial
products generation, the more accurate dual frequency receiver and precise services are need needed.
The latter receivers offer two modes of operations both of which yield positional accuracy of 1 to 3
cm with little or no ground controls required for the project. UAS vendors are fielding systems with
two operational modes, those are:

1. The real-time kinematic GNSS (RTK) mode: This mode of operation allows the UAS to
receive in real time GPS positions corrections from GPS correction services. This mode of
operation has particular requirements:

 RTK requires a GNSS base station equipped with a transmitter with a reliable link to
a fairly dynamic moving platform such as UAS.

 The rover (on the UAS) itself requires a dedicated receiver for the corrections.

2. The post-processed kinematic (PPK) mode: This mode of operation does not require the real
time GPS positions correction as the acquired GPS data can be post-processed at a later date.
RTK operations not only require a stationary base station during the UAS mission, but the
location of such base station should be surveyed and located before the UAS flies the project,
something may complicate the deployment of the mission in some circumstances. Although
PPK requires a base station as well, the base station’s precise location can be determined later
after leaving the project area.

In principle, both RTK and PPK promise positional accuracies at the 1-3cm level. The main purpose
of RTK and PPK is to minimize or eliminate the need for ground control points, thereby reducing
cost.

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)

An inertial measurement unit, or IMU(link is external), is an electronic device that measures and
reports on aerial vehicle velocity, orientation, and gravitational forces using accelerometers and
gyroscopes. IMUs are typically used to control and maneuver manned aircraft, unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs), and satellites. Another important use for the IMU is that it helps IMU-
enabled GPS devices to maintain positioning information when GPS-signals are unavailable, such as
in tunnels, inside buildings, or when electronic interference is present.

The IMU is the main component of inertial navigation systems (INS) used in aircraft, spacecraft,
watercraft, and guided missiles in Geo-spatial mapping activities. The data collected from the IMUs
sensors allows us to determine the orientation of the sensor, which is an important aspect in geo-
locating on the ground each pixel of the sensor. The IMU, like other components necessary for the
operation of UASs, is miniaturized in weight and size to make it fit on small UASs. An example of
these small IMUs, which are mainly designed for UASs, is the SBG 500E, illustrated in Figure 2.12.

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Weapon Payloads

Three classes of unmanned “aircraft” that may deliver some lethal

warhead to a target:
1. UAVs that are designed from the beginning to operate in an intense surface-to-air and air-to-air
combat environment as a substitute for the present manned fighters and bombers,
2. General-purpose UAVs that can be used for civilian or military reconnaissance and surveillance but
also can carry and drop or launch lethal weapons, and
3. Single-use platforms such as guided cruise missiles that carry a warhead and blow themselves up
either on or near the target in an attempt to destroy that target.

Note: "The lethal autonomous weapons systems were programmed to attack targets without requiring
data connectivity between the operator and the munition: in effect, a true 'fire, forget and find'
capability." "Fire, forget and find" refers to a weapon that once fired can guide itself to its
target.

5. Data Links
The data link is a key subsystem for any UAV. The data link for a UAV system provides two-way
communication, either upon demand or on a continuous basis. A data link may use either a radio-
frequency (RF) transmission or a fiber-optic cable. An RF data link has the advantage of allowing the
AV to fly free of any physical tether to the control station. It also avoids the cost of a fiber-optic cable
that usually will not be recoverable at the end of the flight.

The term data link is used to describe how commands are communicated back and forth between the
ground control system and the autopilot. The data link is a key subsystem for any UAS, as it provides
a two-way communication to ensure that missions are executed safely and according to plan. A good
data link is illustrated in Figure 2.2:
 An uplink (or command link) with a bandwidth of a few kHz that allows the ground
station to control the AV and its payload. The uplink must be available whenever the
ground control unit wants to transmit a command, but may be silent during periods
when the AV is carrying out a previous command (e.g., flying from one point to
another under autopilot control).
 A downlink that provides two channels (which may be integrated into a single-data
stream). A status (or telemetry) channel transmits to the ground control unit such
information as the present AV airspeed, engine RPM, etc., and payload status
information such as pointing angles. The status channel requires only a small
bandwidth, similar to the command link. The second channel transmits sensor data to

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the ground. This channel requires a bandwidth sufficient to deal with the amount of
data produced by the sensors, typically anywhere from 300 kHz to 10 MHz.
Normally the downlink operates continuously, but there may be provisions for
temporary onboard recording of data for delayed transmission.
 The data link may also be used to measure the range and azimuth to the AV from the
ground antenna, which will assist in navigating the AV and to increase the overall
accuracy of target locations measured by the sensors on the AV.

Figure Elements of a Data Link System for a UAS operation.

This schematic drawing illustrates the workings of a data link system. The system is composed of
four elements:
 the Ground Antenna (which looks like a truck with an antenna extended from the back),
 the Ground Control Station (a satellite dish mounted on an unattached, flat-bed truck trailer),
 the UAS (airborne above the Ground System, which is the Ground Antenna and Ground
Control Station together) and
 a Satellite, floating in space.

Between the Ground Antenna and the Ground Control Station is a two-way arrow containing the
words "Wire, fiber optics, RF"
An arrow points from the Ground Control Station to the UAS. It contains the words "Uplink
commands - few kbs"
An arrow points from the UAS to the Ground Control Station. It contains the words "Status - few
kbs; Sensor data - about 10Mbs."
A two-directional arrow bewteen the UAS and the Satellite contains the words "Alternate via satellite
or other relay."
A two-directional arrow between the Ground Control Station and the Satellite contains the words
"Alternate: satellite or other relay."

There are two different modes for operating a UAS. Those are:
1. The radio frequency line of sight (LOS) operation, where a direct communication link is
established between the UAS and the ground station, and

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2. The beyond line of sight (BLOS) operation. This mode of operation is used when the UAS is
controlled from far distances beyond the LOS capability. Communications satellites are
usually used in this mode of communication.

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6. Control Station
The CS is the man–machine interface with the unmanned air vehicle (or air vehicles) system. From it
the operators may ‘speak’ to the aircraft via the communications system up-link in order to direct the
flight profile or to update a pre-flight-entered flight programme. Direct operation of the alternative
types of mission ‘payload’ that the UAV carries may also be required.

The launching and recovery of the aircraft may be controlled from the main CS or from a satellite
(subsidiary) CS which will be in communication with the main control station by radio or ground-
based cable (wired or fibre-optic), but have its own direct radio link with the aircraft.
The CS will usually also house the systems for communication with other external systems. These
may include:
(a) means of acquiring weather data,
(b) transfer of information from and to other systems in the network,
(c) tasking from higher authority, and
(d) the reporting of information back to that or other authorities.

Fig. UAS architecture

7. Ground Support Equipment’s (GSE)

Ground support equipment (GSE) is becoming increasingly important because UAV systems are
electronically sophisticated and mechanically complex systems. GSE may include: test and
maintenance equipment, a supply of spare parts and other expendables, a fuel supply and any
refueling equipment required by a particular air vehicle, handling equipment to move air vehicles
around on the ground if they are not man-portable or intended to roll around on landing gear, and
generators to power all of the other support equipment.

If the UAS ground systems are to have mobility on the ground, rather than being a fixed ground
station located in buildings, the GSE must include transportation for all of the things listed earlier, as
well as transportation for spare air vehicles and for the personnel who make up the ground crew,
including their living and working shelters and food, clothing, and other personal gear.

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