Introduction to Electronics

EHB222E
CRN-10748
Dr. H. Bülent YAĞCI
Office: 1202
[Link]@[Link]
Radio Frequency Electronics Lab.
Tuesday 12:30 / 15:30
Location A-202 Mining Faculty
2021 September-2022 January
Introduction to Electronics
EHB222E
Grading
Grading: Midterm Exams 2x 30%, Final Exam 40%
Midterm Exams: 7th and 11th Week

Detailed Course info is uploaded to you Ninona files

Introduction to Electronics
➢ Introduction
➢ Semiconductors & Doping, Basics of pn junction

➢ Diodes

➢ BJT Transistors

➢ MOSFET Transistors

➢ Operational Amplifiers
What is Electricity?
Electricity is generated from the motion of tiny charged
atomic particles called electrons and protons!

Atoms contain
1. Protons (+)
2. Neutrons (0)
3. Electrons (-)
What is Electricity?
Atoms contain
Protons are positively charged and
1. Protons (+)
2. Neutrons (0) electrons are negatively charged.
3. Electrons (-)

The unit of charge is Coulomb (C)

Law of Electric Charges

The law of electric charges states

that like charges repel, and opposite
charges attract.

Protons are positively charged and

electrons are negatively charged, so they
are attracted to each other.

A negative charge has an inward electric

field because it attracts positive charges.

The positive charge has an outward electric

field, pushing away like charges.
Electric Field
An electric field is the region around a charged object.

The force between the charged objects

is an electric force.

The size of the electric force depends on 2 things:

1. The amount of charge (the greater the charge, the greater
the force)
2. The distance between charges (the further the distance, the
less the force)
Charged Objects
Atoms do not have a charge because the number of
electrons and protons cancel each other out.

Example:
3 protons (+) & 3 electrons (-) = 0
Charged Objects
How do objects get charged?
They either gain or lose electrons.
Why not protons?

Example:
3 protons (+) & 5 electrons (-) =

7 protons (+) & 2 electrons (-) =

What is Current?
•When electrons flows through a conductor,
we call this flow as “current.”
Only some materials have free electrons inside and
allow current flow.
glass
YES! Conductors: rubber NO!
silver oil
copper asphalt
gold fiberglass
aluminium porcelain
iron Insulators: ceramic
steel quartz
brass
bronze
No free electrons = No (dry) cotton
(dry) paper
mercury current (dry) wood
graphite plastic
salty water air
diamond
pure water
11
How Does Current Flow?
Current can only flow through conductors. Good
conductors have low resistance so electrons flow
through them with ease.
Metal wires (conductors)

+++
Current
flow

12
When Does Current NOT Flow?
Current cannot flow through insulators.

Plastic material (insulators)

+++
No current
flow

13
Note that Air is an Insulator
Current cannot flow through insulators

+++
Air
No current flow

That’s why a battery doesn’t

discharge if left on its own.

14
What is Voltage? - measured in volts.
Voltage is the difference in energy level from one end of the battery
(or any other energy source) to the other.
The energy difference causes the negative charges to move from a
lover voltage level to higher voltage in a closed circuit

15
 A battery in an electrical circuit plays the
same role as a pump in a water system.

A battery establishes a difference A battery pushes the

of potential that can pump electrons. electrons through the
conductor.

16
Current
➢ Current is the amount of electric charge (coulombs)
flowing through a cross section of a conductor in one
second.
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/second
➢ Electron flow is from a lower potential (voltage) to a
higher potential (voltage).
➢ Current flow is from a higher potential (voltage) to a
lower potential (voltage).

Direction of
higher potential current flow

lower potential

17
Sign Convention for Current Flow
• Electrons carry negative charge

• Current flow is in opposite direction

- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

electron motion

Current direction

18
Current Flow

• The direction of current flow is indicated by an arrow.

DC Voltage
Source
+_
higher potential

Note: The voltage sources in the circuit flow current through

nodes and wires.

Current flow is from a higher potential (voltage) to a lower

potential (voltage).

19
Electric Circuit If two or more nodes are
connected just by wires,
intersection point can be
Intersection
considered as one single
point of wires is
node.
call as a node

Nodes are Connected

by Wires Only
A single node One big node

Electronic
elements
Conducting
+_
wires

Group of nodes
Oneconnected
big node only by wires 20
From Conservation of Charge
Current is the amount of electric charge (coulombs)
flowing through a cross section of a conductor in one
second

The sum of charges flowing into a node

must be equal to the sum of the
charges flowing out of the node.

I1 = I2 + I3
Diagram b shows a mechanical
analogy
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• The sum of currents flowing into a node
must be balanced by the sum of currents
flowing out of the node.
i1
node

i2 i3
Gustav Kirchoff
+_
was an 18th century
German
mathematician
i1 flows into the node
i2 flows out of the node
i3 flows out of the node
i1 = i2 + i3
22
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

i1 = i2 + i3 can also be written in the following form:

i1 – i2 – i3 = 0

The sum of all the currents entering a node is zero.

i1 node
DC Voltage
Source
i2 i3

+_

(i2 and i3 leave the node, hence currents –i2 and –i3 enter the
node.)

23
Example 1: Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
Q: How much is the current Io ?

A: io = 2.5 mA + 4 mA = 6.5 mA

DC Current
2.5 mA
Source 4 mA

io
i4 i2 i3

• The dotted circle is a node with 2.5 mA entering

• Hence i2 = 2.5 mA exits the “node”.
Similarly, i3 = 4 mA.
• From KCL, i4 = i2 + i3 = 6.5 mA, and Io = i4
24
Example 2: Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

Q: How much are the currents i1 and i2 ?

A: i2 = 10 mA – 3 mA = 7 mA
i1 = 10 mA + 4 mA = 14 mA

10 mA
node
i1 3 mA i2
4 mA

+_

25
 Sometimes Kirchhoff’s Current Law is
abbreviated just by

KCL

Review: Different ways to state KCL:

✓ The sum of all currents entering a node must be zero.

✓ The net current entering a node must be zero.

✓ Whatever flows into a node must come out.

more to follow… 26
Voltage (Difference in energy level )
• Voltages are measured across the nodes of a circuit.
• The direction of a voltage is indicated by + and – signs.

+ v2 –
+ + +
v1 +_ v3 v4
– – –

higher potential

lower potential

27
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
The voltage measured between any two nodes does not
depend of the path taken.

voltage

+ v2 – voltage
+ + +
v1 + voltage v3 v4
_ – –
–

Example of KVL: v1= v2 + v3

Similarly: v1= v2 + v4
and: v3= v4

28
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
v1 = v2 + v3
• This equation can also be written in the following form:
–v1 + v2 + v3 = 0

+ v2 –
+ + +
v1 +
_ v3 v4
– – –

A formal statement of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

The sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero.

29
Using the Formal Definition of KVL
“The sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero.”
• Define an arrow direction around a closed loop.
• Sum the voltages that are encountered around the loop.
• If the arrow first encounters a plus sign, enter that voltage with a
(+) into the KVL equation.

• If the arrow first encounters a minus sign, enter that voltage with a
(–) into the KVL equation.

+ v2 –
+ + +
v1 +_ v3 v4
– – –

For the inner loop : –v1 + v2 + v3 = 0

For the outer loop: –v4 – v2 + v1 = 0 30
Example 1: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
Q: How much is the voltage Vo ?

A: Vo = 3.1 V + 6.8 V

+ 3.1V –
+ +
+ 6.8V v4
_ Vo
– _

Q: How much is the voltage v4 ?

A: v4 = 6.8 V

31
 Example 2: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

Q: If v1 = 10 V and v5 = 2 V, what are v2, v3, and v4?

-v1 + v2 = 0  v2 = 10 V
-v2 + v3 + v5 = 0  v3 = 10 V – 2 V = 8 V
-v4 + v5 = 0  v4 = 2 V
+ v3 –

+ + +
+ v5= 2 V
+_ v2 v4
v1 = 10 V
– – – –

32
Electronic Circuits
Circuits are obtained by connecting electronic elements
Typical electronic elements are
•diodes
•resistors,
•capacitors,
•inductors

33
Ohm’s Law & Resistors
Let us remind the Ohm’s Law

V
I = ——
+ R
V _
V
R = —— Georg Ohm
I

• Assume that the wires are “perfect conductors”

• The unknown circuit element limits the flow
of current.

• The resistive element has resistance R

34
Ohm’s Law
Voltage drop across a resistor is proportional to the current
flowing through the resistor

v = iR
If the resistor is a perfect conductor (or a short
circuit)
R = 0Ω, then
v = iR = 0 V

no matter how much current is flowing through

the resistor
Resistors in Series
Resistors in Parallel
Resistors in Parallel
Voltage Divider
Equivalent
Resistance –
Complex Circuit
Example: Calculate the current which is flowing through R4.
CAPACITOR
Energy Storage Device
Maximum Charge on a Conductor
A battery establishes a difference of potential that can pump electrons e-
from a ground (earth) to a conductor

Battery Conductor

Earth - - - - - -
-
e- e- -- -
----

There is a limit to the amount of charge that a conductor can

hold without leaking to the air. There is a certain capacity for
holding charge.
Capacitance

The capacitance C of a conductor is defined as the ratio of

the charge Q on the conductor to the potential V produced.

Battery Conductor

Earth - - - - - -
- Q, V
e- e- -- -
----
Q
Capacitance: C = ; Units : Coulombs per volt
V
The Capacitor
Capacitors are one of the fundamental passive components. In its
most basic form, it is composed of two conducting plates
separated by a dielectric material.
The ability to store charge is the definition of capacitance.

Conductors Dielectric

Q
C = ; Units : Coulombs per volt
V
 Dielec tric

−
Leads + +
Initially uncharged −
+
−
+
Plates

capacitor
−
+ +
− Elec trons
− −
+ +
A B
 + −
− +
+ −
− +
− − − −
+ −
− −
Charging − +

A + − −
− B
− − − + − − − −
 VS
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
Fully
+ −
+ −
charged
+ −
A + − B
+ −

After fully charged, a capacitor behaves as an open circuit

and does not allow current flow.
 VS
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
Source + −
−
removed
+
+ −
+ −
+ −
+ −
A + − B

A capacitor with stored charge can act as a

temporary battery.
INDUCTORs
 Electromagnetism

A wire carrying a
current produces a
magnetic field
 Inductance
Energy Storage Device

Stores energy in an magnetic field created by the electric

current flowing through it.

 The flow of current through an inductor creates a magnetic field

B field

 If the current flowing through the inductor drops, the magnetic

field will also decrease and energy is released through the
generation of a current.
Inductors
Conducting wire is wrapped around a solid core. If no core is
used, then the inductor is said to have an ‘air core’.
Voltage and Current Relation

Consider the circuit shown here

inductor is initially un-energised
current through it will be zero

switch is closed at t = 0
I is initially zero
hence VR is initially 0
hence VL is initially V

as the inductor is energised:

I increases
VR increases
hence VL decreases
we have exponential behaviour
Both the voltage and current have an
exponential forms
dv
ic = C
dt
•C, capacitance, has the
unit of Farad (F)
1 F = 1 [Link]/V

di
vL = L
dt
•L, inductance, has the unit of
Henry (H)
1 H = 1 [Link]/A
Example 1
Determine I, the current flowing out of the voltage source.
 Use KCL
 1.9 mA + 0.5 mA + I are entering the node.
 3 mA is leaving the node.
 V1 is generating 3V.

1.9mA + 0.5mA + I = 3mA

I = 3mA − (1.9mA + 0.5mA)
I = 0.6mA
Example 2
If voltage drops are given instead of currents, you need to
apply Ohm’s Law to determine the current flowing through each of
the resistors before you can find the current flowing out of the
voltage supply.
 Example 2 (con’t)
For power dissipating
components such as resistors,
current flows into the resistor
at the terminal has the + sign on
the voltage drop and leaves out
the terminal that has the – sign.

• I1 is leaving the node. I1 = 2V / 7k = 0.286mA

• I2 is entering the node. I 2 = 4V / 2k = 2mA
• I3 is entering the node.
I 3 = 1.75V / 5k = 0.35mA
• I is entering the node.
I 2 + I 3 + I = I1
2mA + 0.35mA + I = 0.286mA
I = 0.286mA− 2.35mA = −2.06mA
 Example 3
Find the voltage across R1. Note that the polarity of the
voltage has been assigned in the circuit schematic.
First, define a loop that include R1.
Example 3 (con’t)

There are three possible loops in this circuit. Only two of

them include R1. Either loop may be used to determine VR1.
Example 3 (con’t)
If the outer loop is used, follow the loop clockwise.
Example 3 (con’t) Follow the loop in a clockwise direction.
 The 5V drop across V1 is a voltage rise.
 VR1 should be treated as a voltage rise.
 The loop enters on the positive side of the CURRENT source and
exits out the negative side. This is a voltage drop as the voltage
becomes less positive as you move through the component.

−5V − VR1 + 3V = 0
VR1 = −2V
Example 3 (con’t)
Suppose you chose the green loop instead.
Since R2 is in parallel with I1, the voltage drop across R2 is
also 3V.
Example 3 (con’t) Follow the loop in a clockwise direction.

 The 5V drop across V1 is a voltage rise.

 VR1 should be treated as a voltage rise.
 The loop enters R2 on the positive side and exits out the negative
side. This is a voltage drop as the voltage becomes less positive
as you move through the component.

−5V − VR1 + 3V = 0
VR1 = −2V
Example 4
Find the voltage across R2 and the current flowing through it.
First, draw a loop that includes R2.
Example 4 (con’t)
There are two loops that include R2.
The one on the left can be used to solve for VR2 immediately.
Example 4 (con’t) Follow the loop in a clockwise direction.

The 11.5V drop associated with V1 is a voltage rise.

The 2.4V associated with R1 is a voltage drop.
VR2 is treated as a voltage drop.
Example 4 (con’t)
− 11.5V + 2.4V + VR 2 = 0
VR 2 = 9.1V
Example 4 (con’t)
If you use the right-hand loop, the voltage drop across R3
must be calculated using Ohm’s Law.
Example 4 (con’t)
 Since R3 is a resistor, passive convention means that the positive sign of
the voltage drop will be assigned to the end of R3 where current enters
the resistor.
 As I1 is in series with R3, the direction of current through R3 is
determined by the direction of current flowing out of the current
source.
 Because I1 and R3 are in series, the magnitude of the current flowing
out of I1 must be equal to the magnitude of the current flowing out of
R3.

Use Ohm’s Law to find VR3.

VR 3 = 1mA(1.1k) = 1.1V
Example 4 (con’t)
Moving clockwise around the loop:
VR3 is a voltage drop.
The voltage associated with I1 is a voltage drop.
VR2 is a voltage rise.
Again, the same answer is found.
1.1V + 8V − VR 2 = 0
VR 2 = 9.1V
Example 4 (con’t)
Once the voltage across R2 is known, Ohm’s Law is applied to
determine the current.
The direction of positive current flow, based upon passive sign
convention is shown in red.

IR2
Example 4 (con’t)

I R 2 = 9.1V / 4.7 k
I R 2 = 1.94mA

IR2