THE COMMUNICATION

PROCESS

Prepared by G. Boby
What is Communication?
• Communication comes from the Latin word Communicare meaning to
make common.
• When you communicate, you create a common understanding between
yourself and other people.
• Therefore, by using common symbols, you are able to interact with other
people and make yourself understood.
Definitions
• It is the process of people sharing thoughts, ideas, feelings, knowledge,
information and attitudes with each other in commonly understandable
ways.
• “Communication is the process of creating meaning between two or more
people through the expression and interpretation of messages” (Cleary,
2008)
What is Communication? Cont’d
• “Communication is any process in which people share information,
ideas and feelings. It involves not only the spoken and written word
but also body language, personal mannerisms, and style, anything
that adds meaning to a message.” (Hybels and Weaver, 2001)
The Purpose of Communication
1. To initiate some action.
-this may be accomplished by expressing needs and requirements.
- persuading and motivating others e.g marketing
2. To impart information/ideas in order to:
Purpose Cont’d
-Create awareness
-Create understanding
-Persuade others(share a view point)
-influence others(change attitudes/behavior)
3. To establish relations with others e.g
- a nod or a wave to show recognition
- use of a person’s name when speaking or writing
- keeping in touch through phone, letter or visit
The Importance of Communication
• Brings in unity, harmony and peace in an organization.
-keeping in touch on a regular basis leads to coorperation, mutual
understanding and acceptability
-ensures effective teamwork
• Improves customer relationships.
-ensures customers remain happy
-share their needs and make suggestions
-hence reputation of business grows (corporate image is maintained e.g
good public image)
• improves employee relationship/employer and employee relationship
The Importance of Communication- cont’d:
-the more employees communicate, the closer they become naturally
-continuous exchange of information between employers and employees
results into a favourable image of an organization.
• For effective supervision
-communication is the backbone of supervision
-through communication management is able to enforce rules
• Conflict resolution
-communication helps in solving problems
- also helps to prevent conflict situations
• For effective staffing
-it is necessary for staff recruitment , retention and sustainability.
The Importance of Communication- cont’d:
• Coordination and control
-communication is the heart of coordination and quality control
-it enables the organization to have information about actual performance
-corrective actions can be taken in time if need be
• For effective planning
-through wider participation in the decision making
• For motivation of employees
-use of appropriate words to praise and proper appraisal performance
• Helps in negotiating deals with clients
ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION
PROCESS
• Communication is a two-way process that can best be explained as a
cycle (two parties are involved). There is no single beginning and no
single end to interactions. Both parties are engaged in sending and
receiving messages simultaneously.
• For this cycle to be interpreted, one has to understand the elements
of the communication process.
• The elements however, are interrelated and interdependent. They
should not be thought of as existing or occurring separately.
• The elements include: Sender/source, Encoding, Message,
Medium/Channel, Receiver, Decoding, Feedback and Noise.
Elements cont’
1. Sender: this is the person who initiates the communication by thinking of
an idea to communicate to the audience.
-defines the idea, encodes it and chooses the channel of transmission.
-sometimes referred to as the source/communicator/encoder.
-the responsibility for the success of any communication lies with the
sender.
-messages have to be reviewed and put into an appropriate order before
they are articulated. However, messages may not always be organized e.g in
a face-to-face conversation.
2. Encoding: messages have to be put in an appropriate code before they are
sent to the receiver.
-Encoding is the act of making an idea accessible to others or putting an
idea into a code so that it becomes perceptible to the receiver.
-this can be done using verbal code(language) whether spoken or written
or nonverbal code (a code without words).
 Message
Medium
Encoding Decoding

Sender Receiver

Feedback
Elements cont’
-Code: is a set of symbols which when combined and used according to the
rules, conveys meaning.
-the most commonly used code is language which is a verbal code.
3. Message: the message is made up of ideas and feelings that the sender
wants to share (content/subject matter)
-it is the encoded idea or content the sender wishes to convey. It contains
the intended meaning.
4. Medium/Channel: this is what is used to relay the message to the
receiver.
-Medium: is a larger group of communication instruments within which
the message belongs. (the tool/instrument used to carry the message).
Elements cont’
There are three main media:
- Written communication e.g letter, memo,note, report, newspapers and
magazines.
- Oral/spoken communication e.g face-to-face, telephone conversation,
television.
- Visual communication e.g pictures, screen play, charts/graphs
- Channel: the physical means by which the message is communicated
(route)
Elements cont’
• The choice of medium depends on a number of factors:
a. Proximity/geographical distance.
b. The nature and complexity of the message.
c. The need for feedback/written record.
d. Time
e. Cost
f. Need for confidentiality
Elements cont’
5. Receiver: is the person to whom the sender directs the message.
-the receiver has to understand the message heard, read or observed.
-analyses and interprets message to get meaning.
-receivers go through different experiences, hence decodes messages
differently.
-as such, the focus for any communication should be the audience.
6. Decoding: refers to the process of receiving, interpreting and
understanding of an encoded message by the receiver.
- failure to do this results in meaning not being shared.
7. Feedback: it is the receiver’s response to the message.
-it is essential for effective communication as it provides a two-way flow of
messages. Message can be adjusted if misunderstandings occur.
Elements cont’
-it helps sender ensure that the message has been received, interpreted and
understood as intended.
-sometimes feedback may be delayed and in other cases, there is very little
opportunity for feedback. (Hence second chance for conveying message is
not always available).
-in some situations, there is immediate feedback e.g face-to-face and mobile
conversation.
8. Noise: it is the interference that keeps the message from being
understood or accurately interpreted.
-it occurs as the message is being interpreted and comes in different forms.
Levels of Communication
1. Intrapersonal Communication
-communication within oneself
-human body and mind constantly communicating e.g feeling pain,
hungry.
2. Interpersonal Communication
-communication between 2 or more individuals e.g individual to
individual, individual to group and group to individual.
3. Impersonal Communication
-mass communication in which the message is directed to a large diffuse
audience e.g TV show, radio broadcast, rally and circular to a large group.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION

Prepared by G. Boby
Definition
• There are two terms used to describe breakdowns/ problems which occur in
communication.
a. Distortion – way in which meaning of communication is lost in handling. It
largely occurs at the encoding and decoding stages.
-But it can happen at any stage in the communication process
-e.g when message is not properly translated (precise intention of sender not
translated accurately).
-language used is not properly understood because of ambiguous words,
technical jargons, word choice and pronounciation.
b. Noise – distractions and interferences in the environment in which
communication is taking place obstructing communication process.
-e.g Physical noise, Psychological noise, Perceptual noise, Semantic noise,
physiological noise, technical noise, social noise and intercultural noise.
Types of Barriers
• Physical Noise: elements in the external environment that might hinder communication. For example:
- people talking outside your office
- construction noise, noise from traffic
- stench/ stuffy atmosphere in the lecture room
- uncomfortable seats, unbearable heat
• Technical Noise: this results from faults with the medium used e.g:
- a document that looks untidy because of ink smudges
- illegible font size/ bad handwriting
- poor print that develops as a result of a faulty printer
• Psychological Noise: distractions that are experienced in the mind hence restricts the senders/receivers
ability to either express or understand a message clearly e.g
- boredom, stress/pressure, bad attitude, emotional trauma etc
Types cont’d
• Physiological Noise: results from physical condition of the sender/receiver (experienced
internally) e.g
- physical disabilities such as deafness/hearing impairment, blindness/ vision impairment, short
memory, speech disorders
- physical condition like; pain, illness, hunger, sleepness, fatigue (makes it difficult to
concentrate)
• Perceptual Noise: occurs as a result of unique individual perceptions.
- Perception is a way of interpreting information or giving meaning to the world around you.
- factors that may lead to perceptual breakdown include; cultural background, past experience,
selection, needs and education.
- also stereotyping, biasness.
• Semantic Noise: to do with language barriers e.g meaning, use of jargons or difficult words
- incorrect grammar, long sentences, spellings or punctuation errors
- pronounciation, mother tongue interference
- if sender/receiver is not careful with these, communication is impaired.
Types cont’d
• Intercultural Noise: breakdown in communication that happens
between two people of different cultures e.g
- having different values, beliefs, behaviours and ways of
communicating
- hence there is need to establish some common ground/develop
positive attitude towards each other
• Social Noise: breakdown in communication that happens between
two people belonging to different status.
- e.g social or professional status
Types of Barriers cont’d
• Other barriers
-Lack of subject matter/content/Knowledge
-Lack of trust/credibility
-Information overload/inadequate information
-Bad timing of message
-Poor listening Skills/faking attention
-Message ownership
-Failure to seek feedback
- Selective Perception: this is where information or message is distorted simply
because it does not quite fit in your opinion. E.g a chain smoker ignoring
messages about harm caused by smoking.
Types of Barriers cont’d
• Other barriers
- Filtering: any human or technology intervention. It can be both intentional or
unintentional. E.g inhibiting of flow of vital messages, deliberate distortion of
messages to meet one’s needs.
- Competing messages: in many cases you compete with other messages
- channel breakdown: e.g computer server crashing preventing you from
uploading assignment.
- Grandstanding: most people want to talk than listen
- Poor Appearance of speaker/sender and also poor appearance of document:
leads to loss of credibility of message/ affects readability
- unintended nonverbal signals: distracts a receiver
- Halo effect: using one trait of a person (e.g attractiveness) to form an overall
impression of them. E.g seeing an attractive person as also being intelligent.
Strategies of overcoming the Barriers
• Language barriers: Have a good command of the following: basic grammar,
precise vocabulary, syntax (the arrangement of words to form sentences),
sentence structure and paragraph construction.
• Follow basic rules:
-use plain English and avoid jargons/choose words carefully
-vary the length of your sentence
-divide the message into unified paragraphs/each paragraph should be
kept to a single topic
-use transitional words and phrases to unify sentences and paragraphs
-select communication format that best suits your message
-use professional tone at all times
Strategies of overcoming the Barriers cont’d
• Proofread and edit your written work before sending it.
-if it is full of errors, you may be judged harshly within and outside
the organization.
-actually begin with drafting and revising.
-when you revise, you change one word for another, make subtle
changes and improve it.
- check punctuation and spelling errors (otherwise, you may lose
credibility as receiver begins to edit other than focus on the
message).
-look at it from the perspective of the reader.
Strategies cont’d
• In case of ineffective listening skills, the sender should thoroughly analyse the audience before
designing the message.
- planning and organizing the message is quite important
- deliver the message appropriately by engaging the audience throughout e.g ask questions, use
phrases such as take note etc.
- adopt audience-centred approach
• Give constructive other than destructive feedback.
- CF aims at improvement not personal criticism
- DF there is no effort to stimulate improvement e.g this proposal is a total mess. You have failed
to convince me.
- this is different from “ Your proposal could be more effective if you had included an explanation
on how the whole procedure is going to be undertaken”
- Bovee (2016) states that feedback is valuable because it provides an opportunity to learn and
improve.
Conclusion
• Therefore, as an effective communicator, anticipate these barriers that could
prevent your messages from reaching their intended audiences.
• Ensure you do not unintentionally build barriers around yourself so much that
you become unapproachable.
• These are just some of the strategies. It all depends on the barrier you are
focusing on.
ASSIGNMENT 1

a. Identify 5 barriers to effective business communication. (5 marks)

b. Demonstrate how each one of them can hinder communication. (10 marks)
c. Explain what strategy you can use to overcome each of the barriers identified.
(10 marks)
 NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Prepared by G. Boby
What is Nonverbal Communication?
• It can be defined as all intentional and unintentional messages that
are neither written nor spoken. Simply communicating without
words.
• Lucas (2001) states that it is communication that occurs as a result of
body language, appearance and other nonlinguistic factors.
• Bovee et al (2016) defines it as the interpersonal process of sending
and receiving information, both intentionally and unintentionally,
without using written or spoken language.
• Actions speak louder than words – in most cases people choose to
believe nonverbal messages because it is natural/unconscious
language that communicates our true feelings and intentions.
Importance of Nonverbal Communication
• Research has shown that we spend almost 80% of our time at work using
nonverbal communication.
• Therefore, in order to communicate effectively, we need to recognize
nonverbal signals/messages and understand how they work in social
interactions.
• Bovee et al (2016) emphasizes that paying attention to nonverbal signals in
the workplace enhances one’s ability to communicate successfully.
• We should learn to use nonverbal communication because it is a powerful
tool that will help us connect with others, express what we really mean and
build better relationships.
• Even when we keep silent, we communicate nonverbally.
Importance of Nonverbal Communication
cont’d
• The ability to analyse the nonverbal messages helps one to
understand other people’s meanings and also reduce communication
barriers.
• Nonverbal communication is spontaneous as it discloses:
- sender’s inner emotional state
- receiver’s immediate awareness of and response to that state
• This means you cannot control sending these body language signals
as Sigmund Freud said “ No mortal can keep a secret, if his lips are
silent, he chatters with his finger tips”.
• This is an indication that the body sends out very powerful messages.
Functions/Role of Nonverbal Communication
• There are five ways in which nonverbal communication functions. It:
1. Reinforces/ Accents the verbal message.
- supports the verbal message to make it more clearer
- it adds to its meaning just like underlining a word for emphasis
- e.g an angry person thumping on a table and says that’s enough
- a sibling passes with flying colours, you congratulate and hug him/her
2. Complements the verbal message.
- where it conveys the same meaning/ strengthens the verbal
message/nonverbal message matches the word
- e.g when one says “I miss you” and complements that with a hug or
facial expression, the impact becomes greater.
Functions cont’d
3. Contradicts the verbal message.
- this is when the communicator says one thing and does another
- e.g one may say they are not nervous despite their trembling hands and
perspiring forehead.
- hence the more evidence that nonverbal messages are more powerful than
verbal messages
4. Substitutes/replaces the verbal message.
- a situation where nonverbal cues generate meaning without the use of words
- conveys a far more vivid message than words do.
- e.g a wave, a smile, beckoning at someone, signaling, an intense stare
Functions cont’d
5. Regulates the flow of verbal Interaction.
- e.g eye contact, tone of voice, nodding of the head and other
nonverbal behavior guide a partner when to talk, repeat or end a
conversation.
- receiver’s reaction/facial expression may reveal more to the sender

Conclusion: We have looked at definition, importance and functions of

nonverbal communication. In our next presentation, we shall focus on
types of nonverbal communication.
References
• Bovée, C. L., Thill, J. V., & Schatzman, B. E. (2010). Business
communication essentials. Pearson Prentice Hall.
• Cleary, S. (2008). Communication: A Hands-on Approach. Lans Downe:
Juta and Co Ltd
 NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION - 2
Prepared by G. Boby
Types of Nonverbal Communication
1. Kinesics (body language) – “is the study of body movements such as gestures,
posture, and head, trunk and limb movements” (Cleary, 2008 p.24).
- additionally, facial expressions and eye contact are also examples of body
language.
- the body conveys a variety of messages or meanings to the people you
communicate with.
- for example, the facial expressions show your emotions/feelings
- eyes can help one regulate interaction, show interest and attentiveness. A
gaze can also put someone at ease or make someone uncomfortable.
- the role of eye contact in nonverbal communication is called Oculesics.
- messages that can be expressed through gestures and posture may include:
confidence, friendliness, nervousness, hostility, strength and weakness.
Types cont’d
2. Proxemics ( space Language) – the use of space to convey a message.
- Guffey & Loewy (2013) explain that people can tell a lot about us from the way
we order space around us. For instance, the way we arrange our furniture in
our office can signal about how communication should take place.
- they further state that we all have a certain area we feel is our own territory
(territoriality). If someone invades that area, we feel uncomfortable or
threatened.
- distance also affects communication. These have been categorized into four:
intimate, personal, social and public.
- We have to be cautious about the appropriate distance to keep depending on
who we are communicating with as these can be interpreted differently.
- refer to the document on Effective Communication
Types cont’d
3. Tacesics (touch language) – is also known as Haptics meaning the study of
touching.
- According to Bovee & Thill (2010) touch conveys warmth, comfort,
reassurance or control. However, despite it being powerful, it can be
interpreted differently across cultures’
- for example, a manager might feel comfortable to use hugs to
congratulate a female employee but the employee might interpret that as
sexual interest.
- so we need to understand that touch could be misunderstood.
- other forms of touch include: a pat, a kiss, a slap/punch, a shoulder
squeeze, a weak/strong handshake. Think how all these can be
interpreted by different individuals.
Types cont’d
4. Acoustics (sound language) – also referred to as Paralinguistics which “is
the study of variations in pitch, volume, speed and pauses to convey
meaning” [Link] ( p.18).
- accent, articulation/pronounciation, speaking pace, tone, silence and
non-fluencies e.g (ah, um and uh) can reveal a lot about a person that
they are not aware of.
- for example, voice that is too high/low may be distracting while
moderate volume enables you to be heard properly.
- speaking too fast will lead to audience missing some points where as too
slow could lead to audience boredom( better to be moderate)
- tone of voice can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection or confidence.
Types cont’d
5. Chronemics ( time language) – the study of use of time in nonverbal
communication.
- it has to do with the way people value and use time.
- two orientations have been identified i.e monochromic and polychromic
- Monochronemic cultures value time hence they are punctual, complete
tasks on time and strictly follow schedules.
- Polychronemic cultures are more flexible and they emphasize on
relationships more than schedules.
- some people can use time to demonstrate authority e.g showing
disregard for others by being late.
- others may show respect by being on time regardless of their position.
Types cont’d
6. Physical Environment – this has to do with the general appearance of
the place and how one can use that to interpret a message.
- examples could be the ambience (general atmosphere), furniture
arrangement, lighting, colour, temperature, ventilation or bad odour.
- these may reveal a lot about us that we may not be aware of.
- e.g the way you arrange your office may indicate whether you are
organized or disorganized.
- arrangement of furniture may either facilitate or hinder
communication.
Types cont’d
6. Physical Appearance – clothing and personal adornment.
- people can make quick judgments about you basing on your dressing,
grooming and style.
- however, you can control these to make a good impression e.g in an
interview.
- appearance of a speaker can influence an oral message as well as build
credibility of the speaker.
- e.g a lawyer dressed casually while presenting a case, may not be taken
seriously.
- a speaker gains confidence when dressed presentably
- however, overdoing it may also distract the audience
Conclusion
• Nonverbal communication is a powerful tool that can help us express
ourselves appropriately and effectively. It can also enable us to connect
with others and build better relationships.
References
• Bovée, C. L., Thill, J. V., (2013). Business communication today. New Jersey:
Pearson Education.
• Cleary, S. (2008). Communication: A Hands-on Approach. Lans Downe: Juta
and Co Ltd
• Guffey, M. E., & Loewy, D. (2012). Essentials of business communication.
Cengage Learning.
• Krizan, A.C., Merrier, P., Logan, J. & Williams, K. (2010). Business
Communication. Cengage Learning
VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Prepared by G. Boby
Definition
• The transimission of information and ideas using any pictorial
representation.
• Conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or
looked upon.
• Simply, presentation of information using visual aids
• Lannon and Gurak (2014) argue that readers require more than just
raw information; it is therefore necessary to communicate using
visuals as they make data easier to interpret and remember.
What is a visual aid?
• Anything that the audience can see that helps the speaker get a
message across to the audience.
• Any graphical symbol used to support the main message.
• Krizan et al (2008 p. 335) state “ A visual aid is an illustration used to
improve comprehension of a written report or oral presentation”.
• They further explain that effective visual aids help to clarify complex
ideas, retain information and provide interest and variety.
• So your main concern when using visuals should be to enhance the
written or oral message.
Why use visual aids?
a. The audiences attention is focused more completely. In other words it
creates listener interest in both oral and written presentations. Perhaps
the challenge for the speaker is to direct the audience’s attention at
strategic periods.
b. Makes one more persuasive. The presenter appears clearer, concise,
interesting and more professional. One is able to present in less time,
increase audience retention and appear convincing.
c. The receiver retains the message better. Hence saves as a memory aid.
Research has clearly shown that people retain more of what they see and
hear. It is easy to remember information reinforced with visual aid. E.g
research has established that message retention after 3 days is 10%
following an oral presentation and 65% after an oral and visual
presentation.
Why use [Link] cont’d
d. The message is transmitted more efficiently. It improves listener
understanding or enhances comprehension. E.g abstract concepts
are displayed in concrete shapes. Therefore the adage “A picture
paints a thousand words” is very true. The audience understands
better if they see pictures of whatever is being explained.
e. It actually saves you time and many words i.e a wide range of
information is encapsulated in one image.
f. People have come to expect visuals. Today’s world is very visually
oriented compared to a few decades ago. Therefore include visuals
in your oral presentations (PowerPoint) so that they are not boring.
Why use [Link] cont’d
g. Visual aids add variety and emphasis to presentations. This helps
in making the presentation interesting rather than boring and long.
h. Visuals condense and organize information. In other words, visuals
make it easier for one to remember and interpret. E.g a simple table
can summarize a long and difficult printed passage.
i. Message is presented both aurally and visually. Some people
process information best by hearing while others by seeing. As such
you communicate to both types of people when you use visuals.
j. Visuals represent a universal language. They transcend cultural and
language differences in a global work place.
Types of Visuals -Two categories
a. Standard Visual Aids:
• Graphs e.g. Bar graphs and line graphs
• Charts e.g. pie charts, flow charts, tree charts, gantt charts, organization charts and
pictograms.
•Graphic illustrations e.g diagrams, maps, photographs and computer graphics.
• The human body
•Actual objects
•Models of actual objects
•Posters and flip charts
•Chalkboard / Whiteboard
•Symbols and signs
Types of Visuals -Two categories cont’d
b. Electronically Enhanced Visual Aids:
- Overhead projectors
- Slides
-Video
-computer
- LCD projector
- Interactive white board (smart boards)
Challenges in using Visual Aids
• May distract viewer from intended message (get carried away and not
take verbal message seriously)
• May distort intended message i.e viewer may have associations that
the communicator has not anticipated.
• May cause confusion if images are not shared or are ambiguous.
• May overload an audience by conveying too many meanings in a
single impression hence audience can be put off.
Challenges in using Visual Aids – cont’d
• Some may be too heavy to carry around.
• Takes time and effort to prepare (time consuming).
• Sometimes it may be expensive.
Effective Use of Visual Aids
• Show visual aids only when you are talking about them. After which
you keep it out of sight. Note : they compete with you for attention.
• Talk to the audience and not to the visual aid. Maintain eye contact
with the audience. Be sure you know the content of the V.A well.
• Be sure that everyone can see the visual aid. (Remember the purpose
of the V.A is to facilitate understanding)
• Do not pass objects/visuals around the audience while you are
speaking. It may distract the audience.
Effective Use of Visual Aids- cont’d
• Practice using the visual aid before using it in a presentation.
Especially with electronically enhanced visuals. E.g do you know how
to use it? Do not underestimate the problems that can arise.
• Do not overuse visuals as their use may be counterproductive.
• Coordinate audio and visual to help your audience absorb
information.
• If you are using word slides, show one line at a time(Revelation
Technique).
Designing/Preparing Visuals
1. Simplicity
- avoid including any unnecessary elements in the visual
- number of points should be limited (should not be too detailed)
- the visual should be big enough to be read easily
- avoid useless decoration and use artwork selectively
- leave a lot of white space( it focuses readers attention)
Designing/Preparing Visuals – cont’d
2. Harmony
- elements should fit together in a harmonious relationship
- use colour selectively e.g different colours for different sections
3. Emphasis
- Colour, arrows, underlining and bolding help in emphasizing major
elements
- Visuals that vary in size, colour, brightness and shapes attract more
interest than those that remain the same throughout.
Designing/Preparing Visuals – cont’d
4. Readability
- lettering should be legible
- give it a clear title and labels
- should have a key if necessary
- avoid overcrowding the visual
5. Clarity
- the purpose of the V.A should be obvious to the audience
- elements of the visual should form a single unit
References
Lannon, J.M & Gurak, L.J. (2014). Technical Communication. Boston:
Pearson Education
Krizan, A.C., Merrier, P., Logan, J., & Williams, K. (2008). Business
Communication (7th Ed). Canada: Thomson South Western
EFFECTIVE BUSINESS
WRITING

Prepared by G. Boby
Characteristics of Business Writing
• Set rules need to be followed in Business writing in order to communicate
effectively. Hence it should be:
1. Formal – necessary in order to give a corporate image and communicate
in a professional way with the outside world.
2. Impersonal – writer should show impartiality and respect to the receiver.
3. Brief – helps in avoiding excessive and inappropriate communication.
4. Deliberate – entails planning, wording and ensuring that the message is
expressed in the best way possible and that potential misunderstandings
are removed.
Framework for Developing Business Messages
• Some organisations create standard documents for routine communication
tasks. In this case the standard message is simply reproduced and specific
details inserted.
• In other circumstances, writer has to decide what to write. As such it is a
non-routine message. When planning non-routine messages, use the
framework PASS.
• PASS – stands for Purpose, Audience, Structure and Style.
• In order to communicate effectively you need to know:
1. What you want to achieve?
2. Who will read the document?
3. How you will order the points?
4. How you will present the message?
Framework Cont.
• Purpose: if you establish your objective for writing the document, it is easy to
remain focused and provide relevant information.
• Audience: if you know your audience, you use the right level of language, you will
be gender-sensitive in your choice of words and be able to avoid some of the
unnecessary barriers such as intercultural barriers. Most importantly, you will
address their needs. Writer needs the support of the audience for his/her
message to prevail.
• Structure: Writers choice of content is guided by pertinence and relevance. How
you are going to order your points is determined by the attitude of the audience
towards the issue. E.g is the audience hostile, positive or neutral? This helps you
decide whether you should start with the most important or use the
chronological order?
• Style: the most delicate task is choosing the right language. Is it persuasive, clear,
and audience-sensitive? Is it correct (accurate grammar) and concise (precise
words)? Have you used well built sentences and paragraphs?
Principles of Business Writing (7Cs)
• When writing any business document – memos, letters, reports and
proposals, you need to apply the 7Cs. These include: Completeness,
Conciseness, Clarity, Correctness, Concreteness, Consideration and
Courtesy.
1. Completeness: writer should include all facts required by the
reader. Answer all questions implied and stated, check the five Ws
and H. Documents are more acceptable when they answer the
question WHY.
2. Conciseness: it means saying all you have to say in the fewest words
possible without sacrificing completeness and courtesy. In order to
achieve conciseness, you need to:
Principles of Business Writing (7Cs) Cont.
a. Omit trite expressions/clichés e.g
Enclosed herewith please find = enclosed is
It has come to my notice = I have learnt
Under separate cover = separately
b. Avoid unnecessary repetition and wordy statements (unless you have a
good reason for it)
A long period of time = a long time
At this time = now
Due to the fact that = because
In due course = soon
Principles of Business Writing (7Cs) Cont.
c. Include only facts with courtesy
Write concisely but don’t destroy your message
Avoid being so brief that relevant facts are eliminated
3. Consideration: messages should be prepared with the recipient in mind.
Consider their reaction to the message. (Empathy or understanding of
human nature).
Focus on ideas your reader can view favourably
Stress what can be done instead of what cannot be done.
Avoid words like no, never, impossible, cannot
.
Principles of Business Writing (7Cs) Cont.
Avoid expressions that irritate, hurt or belittle the reader e.g I don’t agree
with you, You claim that…, surely you don’t expect….
Be honest and sincere, maintain integrity.
4. Concreteness: avoid using vague expressions like; large, several, soon, a
big sum of money. Use specific figures and facts since general words convey
different meanings to different people. Use active rather than passive words.
5. Clarity: the reader should be able to interpret the message with the same
meaning that you have in mind.
Use short, familiar, conversational words avoiding technical jargons
Write on the level of the readers understanding
Aim for unity, coherence and emphasis
Principles of Business Writing (7Cs) Cont.
6. Correctness: use the correct level of language which is at three levels
Formal – used in legal documents and top level agreements
Informal – used in business letters, proposals, reports etc
Substandard – not acceptable
The writer must include accurate facts, figures and words verifying all
statements before writing.
Writer must proofread and edit their work
Avoid offering misleading information that can create
disappointment and open organization to legal action
Principles of Business Writing (7Cs) Cont.
7. Courtesy: consider any form of communication as a personal address
to the receiver of message.
Be careful with the tone you use; be polite and friendly
Do not be curt while trying to be brief
Be sincere, tactful and appreciative
Omit expressions that irritate/belittle the reader
Use phrases such as we regret, please, I am sorry, we appreciate etc.
Reference
Effective [Link]

Note: I shared with you this document.

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Prepared by G. Boby
1. Memorandum
• Commonly known as Memo (meaning to aid memory).
• Memos are restricted to internal communication (hence should not be used with
clients outside the organisation).
• Mainly conveys information and instructions quickly within an organisation.
• It also has an added advantage of providing a written record.
• It may also be used as a cover document for attached files.
• They are designed to be read and acted on. As such they are generally short and
to the point.
• Mostly discusses a single subject.
• The should be formal in presentation.
• These days, the print memos are gradually being replaced by the E-mail (the
electronic version) – Krizan (2010)
Purpose
• Memos are used to:
- inform
- confirm
- request
- remind
- instruct
- introduce/publicise
- Reprimand
- persuade
Format for Memo
• Memos have no address, salutation (e.g Dear Sir/Madam) and complimentary close (e.g
Yours faithfully).
• Instead of the complimentary close, writer jus initials or signs at the end.
• There are four features that are common in a memorandum.
1. To and From headings – need to note who the recipient and sender is
- it is usual to include the position/title of the sender/receiver
- e.g The Principal, The Registrar
- if the memo is being addressed to a number of people, the TO heading may have a
number of names against it.
- however, if the others are simply to note that the correspondence has taken place,
their names are listed against the notation CC
- job titles are usually used in large organisations in order to avoid confusion or where
writer is not known to the recipient.
Format cont’d
2. Date: is important as it indicates the place of the memo in a sequence of
the correspondence.
- may also help to settle dispute about whether recipient got the memo
before or after action was taken
- necessary for filing purposes
3. Subject heading: it informs the reader at a glance what the memo is
about.
- the wording has to be concise, clear and meaningful
- it has to be written in upper case e.g
SUBJECT: CLOSURE OF COLLEGE
4. Ref: short for Reference. It is also important for filing purposes
Organisation of content
• Opening paragraph: should be short and state the purpose of the
communication( what has prompted the writing of the memo?)
• Second and subsequent Paragraphs: subject is discussed/instructions
given/ action identified.
• Final paragraph: general advice/actions to be taken (usually in a
longer memo)
- otherwise, a goodwill statement is adequate
• Note: the rules of positive and negative messages have to be taken
into consideration.
 Sample Format
Name of organisation and Logo
MEMORANDUM
TO: All Students
FROM: The Registrar
DATE: 8th February 2021
SUBJECT: REOPENING OF COLLEGE

1st P – state purpose (informing about reopening and give date)

2nd P – Reason/s why they have decided so
3rd P - advice/action to be taken

Signature/ initials
Memos use block format hence leave space in between paragraphs as well as TO and FROM, FROM and DATE, DATE and SUBJECT.
REFERENCES
• Cleary, S. (2008). Communication: A Hands-on Approach. Lans
Downe: Juta and Co Ltd
• Krizan, A.C., Merrier, P., Logan, J. & Williams, K. (2010). Business
Communication. Cengage Learning

Exercise for practice purposes:

Imagine you are the PSU president. Write a memo to fellow students
informing them about provision of data bundles by the college for
online learning and the conditions attached to it.
 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Prepared by G. Boby

2. BUSINESS LETTERS
Bovee & Thill (2013 p.98) define letters as brief written messages sent to recipients outside the
organisation.
Cleary (2008 p.151) states that a business letter is usually a principal means used by an
organisation to keep in touch with its customers.
Customers/clients normally form their corporate image of an organisation from the quality of the
letters the organisations send out. For example in terms of :
 The quality of the paper used.
 The attractiveness of the letterhead.
 The nonverbal aspects such as tone.
 The style and format of the letter.
 Most importantly of all these is the message that the letter conveys.
Letters are used for external communication (going outside the organisation). However, they
may be used occasionally where the organisation needs to send an official communication to an
employee. For instance: letter of promotion, salary increment or termination of services.
Business letters have to be drafted and revised before they are dispatched. In business it is
important to write clearly, concisely and politely.
1. CLARITY – can be achieved by:
 being specific other than using vague expressions
 choosing familiar words rather than impressive-sounding ones
 avoiding jargons (technical or specialized terms) unless your audience is
knowledgeable of the term
 using precise words (verbs) and avoiding nominalization (forming a noun
by adding to the verb e.g arrange - arrangement, authorize – authorization
 avoiding long complicated sentences as they are difficult to understand
(length 15 to 18 words). However, it is necessary to vary sentence length.
 using parallel structures (same grammatical structure)
 avoiding ambiguous words (double meanings)
2. CONCISENESS- can be achieved by:
 being direct and to the point
  saying only what you have to say
 avoiding wordy statements/verbosity (using more words than necessary)
 using active rather than passive voice
3. Tone – refers to the writer’s attitude towards the message and audience. It can be
friendly, aggressive, arrogant, pompous, impersonal, neutral and so on. This can
be done through:
 use of please and thank you
 emphasising of favourable aspects other than negative ones
 use of audience-centred approach
 avoiding sexist language (this has become a sensitive issue)
 avoiding stereotyping (showing biasness)
FORMAT OF LETTERS
According to Cleary (2008) formatting of letters ensures that the letter reaches the correct
destination, response to the letter is facilitated and subject-matter is apparent at a glance.
Common Features in a business Letter
1. Heading ( refers to Letterhead)
 The heading includes the name of the organisation and logo, address of the
organisation, contacts, email address and website.
 Where it is not applicable, the heading only consists of the address of the writer
e.g where one is writing to an organisation.
 The heading gives a corporate image and has an immediate effect on the reader.
 It may be centred, or in block format on the left-hand or right-hand side of the
page.
2. Reference
 Necessary for easy filing of the correspondence.
 Enables one to link subject matter to the previous one.
 Letterheads usually contain a caption Ref.
 Otherwise, it can be placed above the receiver’s address.
3. Date
 Date on which the letter is written.
  Some letterheads may also have a caption for the date to be inserted.
4. Receiver’s name and address
 This is the record for the destination.
 In case of damages while in transit, it can be forwarded to the intended recipient.
 It includes the full name, job title and address of the person and organisation to
where the letter is going.
 You need to include the title so that if the person is not available, someone can
still act on it in their absence. You can also use FOR ATTENTION: Ms JB Phiri.
 If the letter is confidential, indicate PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL usually
above the recipient’s name and address.
 Needs to be indicated on the envelope as well.
5. Salutation
 Conventionally the word Dear is used.
 If the name of the addressee is known, it can be used e.g Dear
Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms/Dr/ Prof/Fr/Sr etc.
 Where the name is not known, Dear Sir or Madam is used.
 When writing a general letter to a company or organisation use Dear Sirs or
Mesdames.
 Letters to female individuals should have Dear Ms.
6. Subject Heading
 It tells the reader at a glance what the letter is about.
 It has to be clear, brief and concise.
 It is usually in capital letters and also bold when typed to make it prominent.
 Usually comes after the salutation.
7. Message of the letter
 It includes the introduction – which states the purpose to the reader.
 The body – which fulfills the major purpose. Elaborates the details.
 The conclusion – directs the reader to possible action/goodwill statement.
 This is where you apply the General direct Rule for positive messages and the
General Indirect Rule for negative messages.
 8. Complimentary close
 Formal conclusion to the letter.
 If the name of the addressee has been used, end with Yours sincerely.
 If you have used Dear Sir/Madam, you end with Yours faithfully.
9. Signature
 Written by hand and is placed between yours faithfully and typed name.
 Sender’s position comes after the name.
 You use lower case for the name except first letter and upper case for the position
 E.g James Banda
OPERATIONS MANAGER
10. Enclosures
 It indicate documents enclosed with the letter
11. Copies
 Usually denoted by the letters CC
 It come at the end after the senders name

Three Types of Business Letter Formats

1. Full Block
 All parts of the letter run along the left side of the page (margin)
 Extra space is left between paragraphs
2. Modified Block
 The return address, date, closing and signature run along the right margin
 All the other parts run along the left margin
3. Modified Block with Indented Paragraphs
 This format is the same as the modified block except that the paragraphs and the
senders address are indented.
 However, this format has become obsolete as it is difficult for word processing.
Note: the most commonly used these days is the Block Format as it is easy for word processing.
REFERENCES

Bovée, C. L., Thill, J. V., (2013). Business communication today. New Jersey: Pearson
Education.

Cleary, S. (2008). Communication: A Hands-on Approach. Lans Downe: Juta and Co Ltd

Krizan, A.C., Merrier, P., Logan, J. & Williams, K. (2010). Business Communication. Cengage
Learning
 FORMATS OF BUSINESS LETTERS
Prepared by G. Boby
1. FULL BLOCK – all features aligned on the left hand side of the page.
Senders Address – if using headed paper, address is usually part of the
Letterhead.
Date

Receiver’s Name and Address

Salutation
Subject

Message – has to be arranged in three parts:

 Introduction – opening statement where you state the purpose.
 Body – amplify the objective by providing facts, reasons or pertinent
details that the reader needs to understand the message. This may
be done in one/two/three paragraphs depending on the amount of
information to be provided.
 Conclusion – end with a goodwill statement/ polite closing remark/ a
strong definite statement explaining the outcome or action to be
taken.

Complimentary close
Signature
Typed Name
Title of writer of message (Remove space between name and title)
2. MODIFIED BLOCK – sender’s address, date, closing and signature run along
the right margin. All the other parts, run along the left margin.

Sender’s address

Date

Receiver’s Name and address

Salutation
Subject

Message: use the same three part arrangement as in full block.

Complimentary close

Signature

Typed name
Title/Designation

Note: Spacing is very important in business letters hence after every

feature, there has to be space left in both types of formats. Remember that
appearance of the document speaks volumes about the writer of the
message,

3. INDENTED BLOCK – same as modified but differs in type of paragraph. In

this one you do not leave space to begin a new paragraph. Instead you
indent the first line and the senders address is also indented. However, this
format is no longer used in contemporary business correspondence as it is
 considered obsolete or outmoded. Additionally, it is a lot easier to use the
full block in terms of word processing.

COMMON TYPES OF LETTERS

 Complaint
 Adjustment
 Inquiry
 Request
 Sales
 Application
 Reference
 Appointment
 Termination of Employment
 Circular

Individual Assignment

Read and find out what these letters are. What do you focus on when developing
messages for the different types of letters? Note that the format for all business
letters is the same except for the Circular Letter. However, they differ in terms of
content hence named differently.