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CHAPTER 4
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

Introduction –
• We have learnt about human reproductive system and its functions in
previous chapter.
• Now, let’s discuss a closely related topic – reproductive health.
• The term reproductive system simply refers to healthy reproductive organs
with normal functions.
• However, it has a broader perspective and includes the emotional and social
aspects of reproduction also.
• According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), reproductive health
means a total well-being in all aspects of reproduction, i.e., physical,
emotional, behavioural and social.
• Therefore, a society with people having physically and functionally
normal reproductive organs and normal emotional and behavioural
interactions among them in all sex-related aspects might be called
reproductively healthy.
1.0 Reproductive health – problems and strategies –
• India was amongst the first countries in the world to initiate action plans
and programmes at a national level to attain total reproductive health as
a social goal.
• These programmes called ‘family planning’ were initiated in 1951 and were
periodically assessed over the past decades.
• Improved programmes covering wider reproduction-related areas are
currently in operation under the popular name ‘Reproductive and Child
Health Care (RCH) programmes’.
• Creating awareness among people about various reproduction related
aspects and providing facilities and support for building up a
reproductively healthy society are the major tasks under these
programmes.
• With the help of audio-visual and the print-media governmental and non-
governmental agencies have taken various steps to create awareness
among the people about reproduction-related aspects.
• Parents, other close relatives, teachers and friends, also have a major role
in the dissemination of the above information.
• Introduction of sex education in schools should also be encouraged to
provide right information to the young so as to discourage children from
believing in myths and having misconceptions about sex-related aspects.
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• Proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence and related

changes, safe and hygienic sexual practices, sexually transmitted
diseases (STD), AIDS, etc., would help people, especially those in the
adolescent age group to lead a reproductively healthy life.
• Educating people, especially fertile couples and those in marriageable
age group, about available birth control options, care of pregnant
mothers, post-natal care of the mother and child, importance of breast
feeding, equal opportunities for the male and the female child, etc.,
would address the importance of bringing up socially conscious healthy
families of desired size.
• Awareness of problems due to uncontrolled population growth, social
evils like sex-abuse and sex-related crimes, etc., need to be created to
enable people to think and take up necessary steps to prevent them and
thereby build up a socially responsible and healthy society.
• Successful implementation of various action plans to attain reproductive
health requires strong infrastructural facilities, professional expertise
and material support.
• These are essential to provide medical assistance and care to people in
reproduction-related problems like pregnancy, delivery, STDs, abortions,
contraception, menstrual problems, infertility, etc.
• Implementation of better techniques and new strategies from time to time
is also required to provide more efficient care and assistance to people.
• Statutory ban on amniocentesis (a foetal sex determination test based
on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid surrounding the developing
embryo) for sex-determination to legally check increasing female
foeticides, massive child immunisation, etc., are some programmes that
merit mention in this connection.
• Research on various reproduction-related areas are encouraged and
supported by governmental and non-governmental agencies to find out
new methods and/or to improve upon the existing ones.
• Do you know that ‘Saheli’–a new oral contraceptive for the females–was
developed by scientists at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) in
Lucknow, India?
• Better awareness about sex related matters, increased number of
medically assisted deliveries and better post-natal care leading to
decreased maternal and infant mortality rates, increased number of
couples with small families, better detection and cure of STDs and overall
increased medical facilities for all sex-related problems, etc. all indicate
improved reproductive health of the society.
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1.2 Population explosion and birth control –

• In the last century an all-round development in various fields significantly
improved the quality of life of the people.
• However, increased health facilities along with better living conditions
had an explosive impact on the growth of population.
• The world population which was around 2 billion (2000 million) in 1900
rocketed to about 6 billion by 2000 and 7.2 billion in 2011.
• A similar trend was observed in India too. Our population which was
approximately 350 million at the time of our independence reached close
to the billion mark by 2000 and crossed 1.2 billion in May 2011.
• A rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant
mortality rate (IMR) as well as an increase in number of people in
reproducible age are probable reasons for this.
• Through our Reproductive Child Health (RCH) programme, though we
could bring down the population growth rate, it was only marginal.
• According to the 2011 census report, the population growth rate was less
than 2 per cent, i.e., 20/1000/year, a rate at which our population could
increase rapidly.
• Such an alarming growth rate could lead to an absolute scarcity of even
the basic requirements, i.e., food, shelter and clothing, in spite of
significant progress made in those areas. Therefore, the government was
forced to take up serious measures to check this population growth rate.
• The most important step to overcome this problem is to motivate smaller
families by using various contraceptive methods.
• You might have seen advertisements in the media as well as posters/bills,
etc., showing a happy couple with two children with a slogan Hum Do
Hamare Do (we two, our two).
• Many couples, mostly the young, urban, working ones have even adopted an
‘one child norm’.
• Statutory raising of marriageable age of the female to 18 years and that of
males to 21 years, and incentives given to couples with small families are
two of the other measures taken to tackle this problem.
• Let us describe some of the commonly used contraceptive methods, which
help prevent unwanted pregnancies.
• An ideal contraceptive should be user-friendly, easily available, effective
and reversible with no or least side-effects.
• It also should in no way interfere with the sexual drive, desire and/or the
sexual act of the user.
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• A wide range of contraceptive methods are presently available which

could be broadly grouped into the following categories, namely
Natural/Traditional, Barrier, IUDs, Oral contraceptives, Injectable,
Implants and Surgical methods.
2.0 Contraceptive methods –
• There are several contraceptive methods to control the birth.
2.1 Natural methods –
• i) Calendar or periodic abstinence method or rhythm method –
• Work on the principle of avoiding chances of ovum and sperms meeting.
Periodic abstinence is one such method in which the couples avoid or
abstain from coitus from day 10 to 17 of the menstrual cycle when
ovulation could be expected.
• As chances of fertilisation are very high during this period, it is called the
fertile period. Therefore, by abstaining from coitus during this period,
conception could be prevented.
• ii) Withdrawal or coitus interruptus –
• It is another method in which the male partner withdraws his penis from
the vagina just before ejaculation so as to avoid insemination.
• iii) Lactational amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) –
• This method is based on the fact that ovulation and therefore the cycle do
not occur during the period of intense lactation following parturition.
• Therefore, as long as the mother breast-feeds the child fully, chances of
conception are almost nil.
• However, this method has been reported to be effective only up to a
maximum period of six months following parturition.
• Note: As no medicines or devices are used in these methods, side effects
are almost nil. Chances of failure, though, of this method are also high.
2.2 Barrier methods,
• In barrier ovum and sperms are prevented from physically meeting with
the help of barriers.
• Such methods are available for both males and females.
• i) Male condoms –
• Condoms are barriers made of thin rubber/ latex sheath that are used to
cover the penis in the male.
• Just before coitus so that the ejaculated semen would not enter into the
female reproductive tract.
• This can prevent conception. ‘Nirodh’ is a popular brand of condom for
the male.
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• Use of condoms has increased in recent years due to its additional benefit
of protecting the user from contracting STDs and AIDS.
• ii) Female condoms –
• Condoms are barriers made of thin rubber/ latex sheath that are used to
cover or vagina and cervix in the female.
• Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults are also barriers made of rubber that
are inserted into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during
coitus.
• They prevent conception by blocking the entry of sperms through the
cervix. They are reusable.
• Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams are usually used along with these
barriers to increase their contraceptive efficiency.
• Note: Both the male and the female condoms are disposable, can be self-
inserted and thereby give privacy to the user.

Female Condom Male Condom

• ii) Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs) –
• These devices are inserted by doctors or expert nurses in the uterus
through vagina.
• IUDs are ideal contraceptives for the females who want to delay
pregnancy and/or space children.
• It is one of most widely accepted methods of contraception in India.
• These Intra Uterine Devices are presently available as –
• a) Non-medicated IUDs –
• IUDs increase phagocytosis of sperms within the uterus e.g., Lippes loop.
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• b) Copper releasing IUDs –

• The Cu ions released suppress sperm motility and the fertilising capacity
of sperms e.g. CuT, Cu7, Multiload 375.
• c) Hormone releasing IUDs –
• The hormone releasing IUDs, in addition, make the uterus unsuitable for
implantation and the cervix hostile to the sperms e.g. Progestasert, LNG-
20.

2.3 Contraceptive pills –

• Oral administration of small doses of either progestogens or
progestogen–estrogen combinations is another contraceptive method
used by the females.
• They are used in the form of tablets and hence are popularly called the
pills.
• i) Daily pills –
• Pills have to be taken daily (Mala –D) for a period of 21 days starting
preferably within the first five days of menstrual cycle.
• After a gap of 7 days (during which menstruation occurs) it has to be
repeated in the same pattern till the female desires to prevent
conception.
• They inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as alter the quality of
cervical mucus to prevent/ retard entry of sperms.
• Pills are very effective with lesser side effects and are well accepted by the
females.
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• ii) Saheli –
• Saheli –a new oral contraceptive for the females–was developed by
scientists at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) in Lucknow, India
• It contains a non-steroidal preparation.
• It is a ‘once a week’ pill with very few side effects and high contraceptive
value.
• iii) Implants –
• Progestogens alone or in combination with estrogen can also be used by
females as injections or implants under the skin.
• It prevents ovulation.
• Their mode of action is similar to that of pills and their effective periods are
much longer.

Figure: Implants
• iv) Emergency pills –
• Administration of progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combinations or
IUDs within 72 hours of coitus have been found to be very effective as
emergency contraceptives as they could be used to avoid possible
pregnancy due to rape or casual unprotected intercourse e.g. i-Pill,
unwanted 72, preventol.
2.4 Sterilization –
• Surgical methods, also called sterilisation, are generally advised for the
male/female partner as a terminal method to prevent any more
pregnancies.
• Surgical interventions blocks gamete transport and thereby prevent
conception.
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• Vasectomy & Tubectomy –

• Sterilisation procedure in the male is called ‘vasectomy’ and that in the
female, ‘tubectomy’.
• In vasectomy, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied up through
a small incision on the scrotum (Figure 4.4a) whereas in tubectomy, a
small part of the fallopian tube is removed (Figure 4.4b) or tied up through a
small incision in the abdomen or through vagina.

Figure : (a) Vasectomy (b) Tubectomy

• These techniques are highly effective but their reversibility is very poor.
• It needs to be emphasised that the selection of a suitable contraceptive
method and its use should always be undertaken in consultation with
qualified medical professionals.
• One must also remember that contraceptives are not regular requirements
for the maintenance of reproductive health. In fact, they are practiced
against a natural reproductive event, i.e., conception/pregnancy.
• One is forced to use these methods either to prevent pregnancy or to delay
or space pregnancy due to personal reasons.
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• No doubt, the widespread uses of these methods have a significant role in

checking uncontrolled growth of population.
• However, their possible ill-effects like nausea, abdominal pain,
breakthrough bleeding, irregular menstrual bleeding or even breast
cancer, though not very significant, should not be totally ignored.
3.0 Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) –
• Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is
called medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or induced abortion.
• Nearly 45 to 50 million MTPs are performed in a year all over the world
which accounts to 1/5th of the total number of conceived pregnancies in
a year.
• Obviously, MTP has a significant role in decreasing the population
though it is not meant for that purpose.
• Whether to accept / legalise MTP or not is being debated upon in many
countries due to emotional, ethical, religious and social issues involved in
it.
• Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions
to avoid its misuse.
• Such restrictions are all the more important to check indiscriminate and
illegal female foeticides which are reported to be high in India.
• Why MTP? Obviously the answer is –to get rid of unwanted pregnancies
either due to casual unprotected intercourse or failure of the
contraceptive used during coitus or rapes.
• MTPs are also essential in certain cases where continuation of the
pregnancy could be harmful or even fatal either to the mother or to the
foetus or both.
• MTPs are considered relatively safe during the first trimester, i.e., up to
12 weeks of pregnancy.
• Second trimester abortions are much more riskier.
• One disturbing trend observed is that a majority of the MTPs are
performed illegally by unqualified quacks which are not only unsafe but
could be fatal too.
• Another dangerous trend is the misuse of amniocentesis to determine the
sex of the unborn child.
• Frequently, if the foetus is found to be female, it is followed by MTP- this
is totally against what is legal.
• Such practices should be avoided because these are dangerous both for
the young mother and the foetus.
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• Effective counseling on the need to avoid unprotected coitus and the risk
factors involved in illegal abortions as well as providing more health care
facilities could reverse the mentioned unhealthy trend.
4.0 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDS) –
• Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse are
collectively called sexually transmitted diseases (STD) or venereal
diseases (VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTI).
• Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts,
trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B and of course, the most discussed infection in
the recent years, HIV leading to AIDS are some of the common STDs.
• Some of these infections like hepatitis–B and HIV can also be transmitted
by sharing of injection needles, surgical instruments, etc., with infected
persons, transfusion of blood, or from an infected mother to the foetus
too.
• Except for hepatitis-B, genital herpes and HIV infections, other diseases
are completely curable if detected early and treated properly.
• Early symptoms of most of these are minor and include itching, fluid
discharge, slight pain, swellings, etc., in the genital region.
• Infected females may often be asymptomatic and hence, may remain
undetected for long.
• Absence or less significant symptoms in the early stages of infection and the
social stigma attached to the STDs deter the infected persons from going
for timely detection and proper treatment.
• This could lead to complications later, which include pelvic inflammatory
diseases (PID), abortions, still births, ectopic pregnancies, infertility or
even cancer of the reproductive tract.
• STDs are a major threat to a healthy society. Therefore, prevention or
early detection and cure of these diseases are given prime consideration
under the reproductive health-care programmes.
• Though all persons are vulnerable to these infections, their incidences are
reported to be very high among persons in the age group of 15-24 years –
the age group to which you also belong. Don’t panic. Prevention is in your
hands.
• You could be free of these infections if you follow the simple principles
given below.
• (i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
• (ii) Always use condoms during coitus.
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• (iii) In case of doubt, go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get
complete treatment if diagnosed with disease.
[Link] Name of STD Pathogen
1. Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoeae (bacteria)
2. Genital herpes Herpes simplex (virus)
3. Genital warts Human papilloma virus
4. Syphilis Treponema palladium (bacterium)
5. Trichomoniasis Trichomonas vaginalis (protozoan)
6. Chlamydiasis Chlamydia trachomatis (bacterium)
7. Hepatitis B Hepatitis B[HBV]
8. HIV infection/AIDS HIV
5.0 Infertility –
• A large number of couples all over the world including India are infertile,
i.e., they are unable to produce children inspite of unprotected sexual co-
habitation.
• The reasons for this could be many–physical, congenital, diseases, drugs,
immunological or even psychological.
• In India, often the female is blamed for the couple being childless, but
more often than not, the problem lies in the male partner.
• Specialised health care units (infertility clinics, etc.) could help in
diagnosis and corrective treatment of some of these disorders and enable
these couples to have children.
• Reason of infertility in females –
• Polycystic ovary syndrome.
• Hypothalamic dysfunction.
• Blockage or swelling in fallopian tube.
• Hormonal imbalance in body.
• Reason of infertility in males –
• Less sperm count & less motile sperm in semen.
• Health problem like diabetes sexually transmitted disease, cryptorchidism
etc.
5.1 Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) –
• Infertile couples could be assisted to have children through certain special
techniques commonly known as assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
• Several assisted reproductive technologies are explained below.
• i) In vitro fertilization –
• IVF–fertilisation outside the body in almost similar conditions as that in
the body followed by embryo transfer (ET) is one of such methods.
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• In this method, popularly known as test tube baby programme, ova from
the wife/donor (female) and sperms from the husband/donor (male) are
collected and are induced to form zygote under simulated conditions in the
laboratory.
• ii) Zygote intra fallopian transfer –
The zygote or early embryos (with upto 8 blastomeres) could then be
transferred into the fallopian tube (ZIFT–zygote intra fallopian transfer).
• iii) Intra uterine transfer –
• Embryos with more than 8 blastomeres, into the uterus (IUT – intra
uterine transfer), to complete its further development.
• Embryos formed by in-vivo fertilisation (fusion of gametes within the
female) also could be used for such transfer to assist those females who
cannot conceive.
• iv) Gift (GIFT – gamete intra fallopian transfer) –
• Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian tube (GIFT
– gamete intra fallopian transfer) of another female who cannot produce
one, but can provide suitable environment for fertilisation and further
development is another method attempted.
• v) Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) –
• Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is another specialised
procedure to form an embryo in the laboratory in which a sperm is
directly injected into the ovum.
• vi) Artificial insemination (AI) technique –
• Infertility cases either due to inability of the male partner to inseminate
the female or due to very low sperm counts in the ejaculates, could be
corrected by artificial insemination (AI) technique.
• In this technique, the semen collected either from the husband or a
healthy donor is artificially introduced either into the vagina or into the
uterus (IUI – intra-uterine insemination) of the female.
• Though options are many, all these techniques require extremely high
precision handling by specialised professionals and expensive
instrumentation.
• Therefore, these facilities are presently available only in very few centres
in the country.
• Obviously their benefits are affordable to only a limited number of
people.
• Emotional, religious and social factors are also deterrents in the adoption
of these methods.
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• Since the ultimate aim of all these procedures is to have children.

• In India we have so many orphaned and destitute children, who would
probably not survive till maturity, unless taken care of.
• Our laws permit legal adoption and it is as yet, one of the best methods
for couples looking for parenthood.
AMNIOCENTESIS:
⚫ A foetal determination test based on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic
fluid surrounding the developing embryo is called
‘AMNIOCENTESIS’[Prenatal diagnostic technique].

⚫ A small amount of amniotic fluid that contains foetal skin cells and a number of
proteins,especially enzymes is called.
⚫ The cells can be cultured in-vitro for further examination.
⚫ Significance of amniocentesis:
[Link] disorders:
⚫ By the analysis of amniotic fluid, different types of inborn metabolic disorders
like phenylketonuria, alkaptonuria etc. can be detected.
⚫ These inborn disorders are caused by the absence or inactivity of specific
enzymes due to gene mutations.
2. Congenital disease:
⚫ By karyotypic studies of somatic cells, abnormalities due to changes in
chromosome number like Down's syndrome, Turner's syndrome, Klinefelter's
syndrome etc. can be determined.
⚫ Determination of sex by amniocentesis is banned. This checks increasing
female foeticides.
 DINDIGUL NADAR URAVINMURAI
SMB MANICKAM NADAR PACKIATHAMMAL
NATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL
NCERT WORK SHEET[QUESTIONS]
SUB: ZOOLOGY REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
CLASS: XII DATE: 017-04-2024
1. What is amniocentesis? How is it misused?

2. If implementation of better techniques and new strategies are required to provide more efficient care and assistance to
people, then why is there a statutory ban on amniocentesis? Write the use of this technique and give reason to justify
the ban.

3. Why are copper containing intrauterine devices considered an ideal contraceptive for human females?

4. What do oral pills contain and how do they act as effective contraceptives?

5. How do ‘implants’ act as an effective method of contraception in human females? Mention its one advantage over
contraceptive pills.

6. At the time of Independence, the population of India was 350 million, which exploded to over 1 billion by May 2000. List
any two reasons for this rise in population and any two steps taken by the government to check this population explosion.

7. (a) List any four characteristics of an ideal contraceptive.

(c)Name two intrauterine contraceptive devices that affect the motility of sperms.

8. Name two hormones that are constituents of contraceptive pills. Why do they have high and effective contraceptive value?
Name a commonly prescribed non-steroidal oral pill

9. (a) Name any two copper releasing IUDs.

(b) Explain how do they act as effective contraceptives in human female.

10. A woman has certain queries as listed below, before starting with contraceptive pills. Answer them :
(a) What do contraceptive pills contain and how do they act as contraceptives?
(b) What schedule should be followed for taking these pills?

11. Name and explain the surgical method advised to human males and females as a means of birth control. Mention its one
advantage and one disadvantage.

12. Name an IUD that you would recommend to promote the cervix hostility to the sperms.
13. State one reason why breast-feeding the baby acts as a natural contraceptive for the mother.

14. Expand : GIFT and ICSI.

15. After a brief medical examination, a healthy couple came to know that both of them are unable to produce functional
gametes and should look for an ‘ART’ (Assisted Reproductive Technique). Name the ‘ART’ and the procedures
involved that you can suggest to them to help them bear a child.

16. An infertile couple is advised to adopt testtube baby programme. Describe two principle procedures adopted for such
technologies.
17. A couple where both husband and wife are producing functional gametes, but the wife is still unable to conceive, is
seeking medical aid. Describe any one method that you can suggest to this couple to become happy parents.

18. “Intra-Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection” and ‘Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer’ are two assisted reproductive technologies.
How is one different from other?

19. State any four methods to overcome infertility in human couples.

20. A large number of married couples over the world are childless. It is shocking to know that in India the female partner is
often blamed for the couple being childless.
(a) Why in your opinion the female partner is often blamed for such situations in India? Mention any two values that
you as a biology student can promote to check this social evil.
(b) State any two reasons responsible for the cause of infertility.
(c) Suggest a technique that can help the couple to have a child where the problem is with male partner.
 DINDIGUL NADAR URAVINMURAI
SMB MANICKAM NADAR PACKIATHAMMAL
NATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL
NCERT WORK SHEET [ANSWERS]
SUB: ZOOLOGY REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
CLASS: XII DATE: 17-04-2024
1. Amniocentesis is a prenatal diagnostic technique used to determine sex and metabolic disorder of an unborn
foetus. This technique is often misused to kill an unborn normal female foetus.

2. Better techniques and new strategies provide more efficient care and assistance to people but these are often
misused by the people for their benefit. Best example of this is amniocentesis. Amniocentesis is a prenatal sex
and disorder determining test which can be used to determine any chromosomal, biochemical and enzymatic
abnormality in an unborn foetus. But, this technique is often misused to kill the normal unborn female foetus
therefore it is banned. Yes, the ban is fully justified so as to prevent the growing number of female foeticides in
the country

3. Copper containing intrauterine devices (CuT, Cu7, etc) are considered an effective contraceptives for human
females as the Cu ions released by them suppress sperm motility and fertilising capacity of the sperms. Hence,
they act as effective birth control method.

4. Oral pills contain either progestin (progestogen) alone or a combination of progestogen and estrogen both. Oral
pills inhibit ovulation motility and secretory activity of oviducts and changes the cervical mucus that impairs
transport of sperms and also alter the uterine endometrium and makes it unsuitable for implantation. Hence, they
act as effective contraceptives for human females.

5. Subcutaneous ‘implants’ are under the skin implantation of synthetic progesterone. They are an effective contraceptive
method as they check ovulation and thicken cervical mucus to prevent sperm transport. ‘Subcutaneous implants’ are more
advantageous than contraceptive pills as they are long lasting, once implanted they are effective upto 5 years.

6. All round development in various fields and increased health facilities along with better living conditions has
significantly improved the quality of life of people and has resulted in explosive growth of the population. Two
major steps taken by the government to check this population growth are:
(i)People are educated a front the advantages of a small family try using various contraceptive methods.
There is statutory raising of marriageable age of females to 18 years and of males to 21 years.
7. A: (a) An ideal contraceptive must have the following four characteristics:

(i)It must be safe and user friendly.

(ii)It must be easily available.

(iii)It must be reversible with little or no side effects.
(iv)It must in no way interfere with the sexual drive, desire or sexual act of the user.
(b) CuT and Multiload 375 are two copper releasing IUDs that affect the motility of the sperms

8. Two hormones that are constituents of contraceptive pills are progestogen (progesterone) and estrogen. Oral pills
may contain either progestogen alone or a combination of both progestogen and estrogen. Oral (contraceptive)
pills have high and effective contraceptive value as they help to prevent pregnancy by inhibiting body’s natural
cyclical hormones. They usually stop the body from ovulating, change cervical mucus to make it difficult for
 sperm to go through cervix, and prevent implantation of the fertilised egg. ‘Saheli’ is a commonly prescribed
non-steroidal oral pill.

9. (a) Two copper releasing IUDs are CuT and Multiload 375.
(b) Copper containing intrauterine devices (CuT, Cu7, etc) are considered an effective contraceptives for human
females as the Cu ions released by them suppress sperm motility and fertilising capacity of the sperms. Hence, they
act as effective birth control method.

10. (a) Two hormones that are constituents of contraceptive pills are progestogen (progesterone) and estrogen. Oral
pills may contain either progestogen alone or a combination of both progestogen and estrogen. Oral
(contraceptive) pills have high and effective contraceptive value as they help to prevent pregnancy by inhibiting
body’s natural cyclical hormones. They usually stop the body from ovulating, change cervical mucus to make it
difficult for sperm to go through cervix, and prevent implantation of the fertilised egg. ‘Saheli’ is a commonly
prescribed non-steroidal oral pill.
(b) Contraceptive pills have to be taken daily for 21 days starting within the first five days of menstrual cycle and this
has to be repeated after a gap of 7 days in the same pattern till the female desires to prevent conception.

11. Surgical methods of birth control advised to human males and females are vasectomy and tubectomy
respectively. In vasectomy a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied up through a small cut on the
scrotum while in tubectomy a small part of the Fallopain tube is removed or tied up through a small cut in the
abdomen or through vagina. Both vasectomy and tubectomy are permanent birth control methods with no side
effects but one disadvantage of this procedure is that their reversibility is very poor.

12. Progestasert is a hormone releasing IUD (intrauterine contraceptive device) which makes the cervix hostile to the
sperms.

13. Ovulation, and therefore the menstrual cycle, does not occur during intense lactation period (following parturition).
Therefore, breast feeding the baby act as a natural contraceptive for the mother but that too upto a maximum period of six
months.
14. GIFT : Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer. ICSI : Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection.

15. Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) help to solve infertility problems in infertile couples. In the given case, both
the partners are unable to produce functional gametes so, the technique that we would suggest to them is Gamete Intra
Fallopian Transfer (GIFT). In this procedure the superovulation is done as in IVF. Two collected oocytes alongwith about
200,000-500,000 motile sperms for each Fallopian tube are placed in a plastic tube container. It is then transferred through
laproscope and inserted 4 cm into the distal end of the Fallopian tube where the combination is injected. This method is
better than IVF. Its success rate is 27-30%

16. Two principle procedures adopted for test tube baby programme are ZIFT (Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer) and
IUT (Intra Uterine Transfer). In this procedure fusion of ovum and sperm is done outside the body of a woman, in
the laboratory to form a zygote. The zygote is then allowed to divide forming 8 blastomeres and is transferred
into the Fallopian tube (ZIFT - Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer). If the embryo is with more than 8 blastomeres it
is transferred into the uterus (IUT - Intra Uterine Transfer) to complete its further development. Thus , this is in
vitro fertilisation (IVF - fertilisation outside the body in almost similar conditions as that in the body) followed by
embryo transfer (ET).
17. In the given case, both the partners are producing normal gametes but female is unable to concieve. This
means that there is some problem with Fallopian tube or uterus or hormonal levels of the female. Thus, the
method that we suggest to the couple is of surrogacy. In this method the ova from the wife and sperms from
 the husband are induced to form zygote in the laboratory. The zygote is then allowed to divide to form
embryo. A developing embryo is then implanted in the uterus of another female (surrogate mother). The
surrogate mother then gives birth to the child.

18. The differences between ICSI and GIFT are :

19. Following are the four methods to overcome infertility problems in human couples:

(i)Test tube baby programme : In this method, the fusion of ovum and sperm is done outside the body of
a woman (in vitro fertilisation), to form zygote which is allowed to divide to form embryo. The embryo is
then implanted in the uterus where it develops into a foetus and then into the child.

(ii)Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) : In this technique, embryo is formed in the laboratory by
directly injecting the sperm into the ovum followed by embryo transfer.
(iii)Artificial Insemination Technique (AIT) : Semen (containing sperms) from husband or donor is
artificially introduced into vagina or uterus (IUI).
(iv)Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT) : Sperm and unfertilised ova are transferred into the Fallopian
tube of the female to complete fertilisation and further development.

20. (a) There is a common myth prevailing in our society that inability of a couple to have child is due to the
infertility of female partner only, it is because female carries the child in her womb. Being a biology student we
should create awareness among people that both male and female partners equally contribute for having a child.
This is because baby is formed from zygote that is formed by fusion of both male and female gametes. Hence,
infertility in either male or female can be responsible for inability to have child. Infertility in both males and
females can be easily cured as there are so many specialised infertility clinics which provide treatments to
childless couples. In case treatment is not possible, the couples can be assisted to have children through certain
special techniques called the assisted reproductive technologies.
(b) Infertility can be due to following reasons:
(i) Infertility in males can be due to low sperm count, blockage of vasa deferentia and vasa efferentia affecting sperm
transport, hormonal deficiency, impotency (inability to erect and penetrate penis into vagina of female) and presence
of anti-sperm antibodies in semen.
(ii) Infertility in females can be due to ovulation disorders, abnormality in uterus, blockage or damage to Fallopian
tubes, chronic endometritis, fibroid in uterus, etc.
(c) If the problem is with a male partner then artificial insemination technique can be adopted. In this technique the
sperms collected either from the husband or a healthy donor are artificially introduced either into the vagina or into
the uterus (IUI-IntraUterine Insemination) of the female.