Untitled

Introduction of the Subject(05:30 PM)

Relevance:
Prelims:
10 to 15 questions
Mains:
3 to 4 questions(Paper 3)
Sources:
NCERTs:
9th and 10th class
Newspaper:
The Hindu
Indian Express
Monthly Magazines
Topics that will be discussed in the subsequent classes:
Space Technology
Nuclear Technology
IT and Computer
Nanotechnology
Robotics
Defense Technology
Intellectual Property rights
Contribution of Indians to Science and Technology
Miscellaneous topics
Space Technology
Keppler’s Law of Planetary motions:
First law:
All planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one of the
foci of the ellipse.
Second Law:
Planets sweep the equal areas in equal time.
This is the consequence of the conservation of angular momentum:
Conservation of energy
Conservation of linear momentum
 Conservation of Angular momentum.
Third law:
The square of the time period of the revolution of Planets is proportional to
the cube of the semi-major axis.
Mathematically,
T2∝a3
Vector Quantity Scalar Quantity

Magnitude and Direction Magnitude

displacementVelocity DistanceSpeedMass
MomentumForceAcceleration
Orbit and their Types
An orbit is the curved path of an artificial satellite or a celestial object around
another celestial object due to the force of gravity.
Orbits around Earth can be classified based on many criteria:
Criteria 1: Based on height:
a. Low Earth Orbit(180-200 KM)
b. Medium Earth Orbit(2000-35,785 KM)
c. Geosynchronous and High Earth Orbit(>35786 KM)
Criteria 2: Based on inclination:
a. Equatorial Orbit(about 0°)
b. Polar orbit(About 90°)
c. Inclined Orbit
It is more difficult to launch a satellite in polar orbits because the rocket does not
get any help from Earth's rotation.
In the case of Equatorial orbit,the rocket will already have high momentum while
in the case of Polar orbit, the momentum will be about zero.
Polar orbits are very useful because they provide an excellent view of Polar
regionswhich is important for climatic studies.
Also, satellites in Polar Orbit can monitor the entire Earth because Earth rotates
below it.
Criteria 4: Based on Earth's motion:
a. Rotation on its axis: Geo-Synchronous orbit
b. Revolution around Sun: Sun-synchronous orbit
Geo-Synchronous orbit:
In Geo Synchronous orbit, Satellite's orbital motion is synchronisedwith Earth's
rotational motion that is satellite completes one orbit around the Earth in
one sidereal day(23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds).
This orbit is situated at the height of 35,786 Km.
Geostationary orbitis a special case of geosynchronouswhere the orbit lies in
Earth's Equatorial plane.
In this orbit, satellites seem to be fixed over a point on Earth's equator.
Geo-synchronous orbits are used generally for communication satellites.
It can also be used for Earth observation.
Geo-Transfer Orbit
To attain geosynchronous or geo stationery, a spacecraft is first launched into a
highly elliptical orbit with an apogeein the neighborhood of 36000 Km.
At apogee, a boost is provided to change the orbit and reach the desired orbit.
The temporary orbit is called the geo-transfer orbit.
Sun-synchronous orbit
Satellites in Sun-synchronous orbit maintain a fixed orientationwith respect to
the Sun throughout the year.
Whenever a satellite observes a given ground location, the Sun is in the same
position in the sky.
Thus, the satellite will pass over a point on Earth's surface at the same local solar
time.
Consistent lighting is a useful characteristic for satellites that image the Earth's
surface.
Scientists can compare images over several years of extreme changes in light and
shadow.
These orbits are situated at the altitude of 600-800 Km with an inclination of 94 to
98°.
It is also called Polar Sun-synchronous orbit.
How to achieve a Sun Synchronous orbit?
Earth is not a perfect sphere, it has a bulge on the Equator and flatness in
Polar regions because of this inclined orbits are not fixed they themself rotate
which is called orbital precision.
Orbital precision is not desirable.
However, in the case of a Sun-synchronous orbit, we use this challenge as an
opportunity.
 In such orbits, orbital precision cancels out the daily changes in the position of the
Sun because of Earth's revolution around it.
When this happens, Satellite's orientation remains fixed with respect to the Sun.
Types of satellites
1. Communication satellites
2. Earth observation satellites
3. Navigational satellite
4. Space sciences
Communication Satellite:
A communication satellite creates a channel between a source transmitter and
receiver at different locations on the Earth.
The satellite relays and amplifies telecommunication signals via a transponder.
These satellites are generally placed in geosynchronous orbit.
CMS01, GSAT 30, and GSAT 31are the latest communication satellites of ISRO.
Applications:
Radio and Television
Tele-Education
EDUSAT program of ISRO provides satellite-based instructions free of
cost throughout the country.
Tele-medicine:
Connecting remote and rural medical colleges and hospitals to specialty
hospitalsin cities via satellites.
VSAT(Very Small Aperture Terminal):
these are small sat Earth stations that transmit and receive data via a satellite.
Village Resource Centre:
ISROuses satellite communication to provide many services in certain Panchayats
such as Panchayat planning, vocational training, weather information, etc.
COSPAT-SARSAT:
It is a satellite-aided search and rescue program, emergency beacons are
activated by aircraft, ships and people lost in remote areas.
Earth Observation satellites/RADAR imaging
These satellites are designed to observe Earth from an orbit using many
sophisticated techniques such as RADAR imaging, LIDAR, and spectroscopy.
We can determine the physical, chemical as well as biological properties of a
particular location on Earth.
Applications of Remote Sensing Satellites:
 Soil monitoring
Renewable energy capacity
Environmental monitoring such as forest cover
Geology and Geomorphology
Natural resource monitoring
Ocean sciences
Weather prediction and climate modeling
Disaster management
Governance
EOS01, RISAT 2BR1, and CARTOSAT 3are some of the latest Earth observation
satellites of ISRO.
They are generally kept in LEO(lower Earth Orbit), PSLV(Polar Sun Synchronous
Orbit)sometimes even in Geosynchronous orbits.
Data Relay Satellite System:
A Data relay satellite creates an extra channel of communicationwith a satellite
already in orbit.
For example, if a satellite in an orbit cannot maintain a communication channel
with the ground station it can send the signal to a data relay satellite which will
relay the signal to the ground station.
ISRO is planning to launch two data relay satellites in geostationary orbits.
Navigational Satellites
Navigational satellites allow a small electronic receiver to determine its
location(longitude, latitude, and altitude) to high precision.
For example,
GPS-USA
GLONASS-Russia
Galileo- Europe
NAVIC(Navigation of Indian constellation)- Indian.
NAVIC is an independent regional navigation satellite system that provides
location and timing services over India and its neighbourhood(1500 Km beyond
India's border)
Like all other navigational satellite systems,it provides two types of services:
Standard services- available to everyone
Restricted services-Military personnel
It comprises seven IRNSS:
Three in Geostationary
 Four in Geosynchronous
Difference between NAVIC and GPS:
NAVIC GPS
Regional system Global
7 satellites 33 satellites
GEO MEO(around 20000Km)
Low cost High Cost
Application of Navigational Satellite:
Terrestrial
Aerial
Marine navigation
Disaster management
Vehicle tracking
Integration with mobile phones
Precise timings
Launch Vehicles
The purpose of a launch vehicle is to carry manned or unmanned missions to
space.
Rockets have four major components:
a. Engine
b. Fuel
c. Control and command center
d. Payload
Engine:
Engine(Two types):
Non-Air breathing engines:It carries both fuel and oxidizer [Link]
example PSLV, GSLV
Air-breathing engines:It fulfills oxygen requirements from the
[Link] example, RAMJET, SCRAMJET
Fuel:
Rocket fuel is also called propellant.
It can also be divided into two parts:
Solid Fuel:It can be easily stored and transported thus fuel system is
simpler, safer, and cheaper,However, once the solid fuel is ignited the resulting thrust
cannot be regulated For example, Hydroxy Terminated Poly Butadiene
 Liquid Fuel:The fuel flow to the engine and thus thrust can be
[Link], we require dedicated storage and transportation for liquid fuel
which makes them [Link] example, Unsymmetric Dimethyl
Hydrazine+N2OMonomethyl Hydrazine+MON(mix of nitrogen oxides)
Rockets often use a combination of solid and liquid fuel engines to get the best
benefit.
Control and Command system
Payload
Launch Vehicles:
Past SLV ASLV
Present PSLV GSLV Mk II and IIISSLV
Future Reusable Launch Vehicle SCRAMJET
PSLV:
It is one of the world's most reliable vehicles with a success rate of about 98%.
It is capable of placing multiple payloads into orbit.
It comprises four stages that alternate between solid and liquid fuel engines.
They are generally used for Earth observations satellites but can also be used
for Geosynchronous Transfer orbit.
Capacity:
In case of Geo-synchronous Transfer Orbit--->1425 Kg
LEO--->1750 kg
GSLV Mk II and GSLV Mk III
It was developed to launch communication satellites into Geosynchronous
Transfer Orbits.
There are three stages:
Solid
Liquid
Cryogenic
Capacity:
GSLV Mk II GSLV Mk III
LEO 5000 8000Kg
GTO 2500Kg 4000Kg
Cryogenic stage:
 Rocket engine that uses a cryogenic fuel or oxidiser or both at very low
temperatures so that fuel and oxidiser exist in the liquid state(For example, H2
and O2).
It is a very complex system because of associated thermal and structural
problems.
It provides more thrust than solid and liquid fuel
Small Satellite Launch Vehicle
It is a cost-effective launcher that can be assembled in a short span of time.
It consists of three stages using solid fueland a liquid velocity training module.
Its capacity is 500 Kg in low Earth Orbitand 300Kg in Polar Sun-Synchronous
Orbit.
Achievements of ISRO(05:47 PM)
Past Near Future
Proposed Mission
Chandrayaan 1 Gaganyaan Chandrayaan 3 MoM 2
Astrosat MoM Aditya L1 Shukrayaan
Chandrayaan 2 Chandrayaan 3 Exposat
Space station
Aditya L1 Mission:
It is India's first dedicated scientific mission to study the Sun in the halo orbit
around Lagrangian Point 1.
It will carry seven payloads with the following objectives:
To study Sun's Outermost layers which are the photosphere, Chromosphere,
and corona in multiple wavelengths.
To monitor X-ray flares for studying the heating mechanism of Solar corona.
Particle flux emanating from the Sun and traveling through the interplanetary
medium.
To measure the strength of the magnetic field of particles coming out of the Sun.
Corona is an aura of Plasma that surrounds the Sun and other stars.
Halo orbit and Lagrangian points:
Lagrange points are five special points in space where the
combined gravitational forces provide the necessary centripetal force for a
third much smaller body to complete its orbit.
Their peculiar characteristic is that even though they are points in empty space
they can be orbited.
These orbits are called halo orbits.
 It can continuously view the sun without any eclipse.
It already has NASA’s solar SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory).
The L1 point is approximately 1.5 million Km from earth towards the sun’s
direction.
The L2 point is suitable for astronomical observation. A telescope placed around
L2 will observe deep space without coming into the shadow of the earth and the
moon.
The L3 point is not very useful because it always stays behind the sun.
L4 and L5 as of now are not being used but they are examples of stable
equilibrium and may become useful for future endeavors.
James Webb Space Telescope
JWST is a science and engineering marvel because of the following:
The diameter of the primary mirror of telescope is 6.5 meters compared to
Hubble's Telescope which had a 2.4-meter diameter.
It is observing universe in infrared light which can take much better pictures
compred to visible light cameras.

JWST is orbiting around the L2 point which is 1.5 million Km away from the Earth
in the opposite direction of the Sun-Earth line.
JWST has a Sun shade that is as large as a tennis court and protects the Telescope
from Sunlight as well as light reflected by the Earth and the Moon.
Because of its resolution, the telescope can look into the early stages of the
universe when the first set of stars and galaxies emerged.

GAGANYAAN Mission
The plan is to launch a three-member crew for 6 to 7 days in low Earth
orbit(about 400 to 500 KM).
It will use GSLV Mk III
Challenges in GAGANYAAN Mission:
During the launch itself huge amount of heat is generated.
All safety measures and emergency evacuation needs to be there so that all
stages work properly and the orbital module is placed into space safely.
Survival into space, away from civilization with no protection from cosmic
radiation, microgravity conditions, and habitable conditions all of this is
challenging.
Re-entry into the atmosphere is also very challenging because suddenly a huge
amount of heat will be generated due to atmospheric friction.
Any type of deviation or small spark can cause a disaster.

Benefits of GAGANYAAN:
Research and development into space contribute to developments in many other
areas.
Many of the present technologies were a consequence of space research.
For example, the development of laser surgery, and robotic surgery.
Technologies to increase the shelf life of fruits and vegetables.
Water purification and sewage recycling systems, fire resistant materials among
many others.
ISRO or Indian companies can become one of the players in space tourism which
is an emerging sector.
GAGANYAAN will be the first stepping stone to having our own space station
which has the potential for an enormous range of experiments.
 India projects its space capabilities as soft power, a successful manned mission
will further enhance our national prestige.
It will inspire our younger generation to pursue Science and Technology.
Chandrayaan

Discussed from the handout

Private Sector Participation in space

Government has announced private sector participation in space activities even
though ISRO has done a tremendous job private participation will further fuel
our space technology.
For example, with More funds for the space sector, human resources, competition,
and innovation, ISRO can use its resources for its strategic objectives such as
Space stations, MOM2, etc.
Challenges:
A level playing field with predictive regulation is required.
Government has set up space Indian National Space Promotion and
Authorisation Centre(IN-SPAce),a regulatory body under the department of
space.
In space technology, high capital investment is required because of this only a few
players may enter and it can also lead to a monopoly or duopoly.
We need to have mechanisms in place to secure sensitive data which can have
bearing on national security.
Space debris
Human beings have been launching objects into space for more than 50 years
because of this as of now space has a huge amount of debris that pose danger to
space missions.
Space debris travel at a very high speed and even a relatively small piece can
damage satellites or space stations.
The main sources of debris are the following:
Rocket upper stages,
Explosion of satellites and rocket bodies,
Anti-satellite demonstrations,
Abandoned pieces of old satellites.
 Kessler syndrome is a scenario in which an accident in space can cause high-
density debris which may start a cascade of events that will lead to more
accidents and even more debris.
Following steps can be taken:
Space agencies keep track of large debris.
For example, ISRO launched the project NETRA.
Code of Conduct for space agencies can be adopted so that they separate final
stages at lower altitudes.
Dedicated missions to capture and destroy debris have been launched by a few
agencies.
Nuclear Technology
Structure of the topic:
Basics
Energy Production:
Fusion
Fission
Fuel cycle nuclear reactor
Applications in agriculture, space, medicine, and industry.
Basics:
Nuclear Technology is the application of nuclear reactions for various
purposes such as energy production, nuclear medicine, agriculture, defense,
space, industry, etc.
Energy Production(07:15 PM)
Energy production can occur via two very famous reactions:
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Fusion
In Nuclear Fission, a heavy nucleus disintegrates into two or more lighter nuclei.
In Nuclear Fusion,two or more lighter nuclei fuse together to form a heavy
nucleus.
In both the processes, huge amount of energy is released which can be calculated
using Einstein's Equation
E=mc2
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Fission reactions do not occur naturally and unstable nuclei are used and
it is bombarded with neutrons to make it even more unstable.
 Because of this, it disintegrates releases a huge amount of energy, and produces
more neutrons than it consumes.
The excess of neutrons that are produced can continue the reaction which will
produce even more neutrons such Fission reaction is called uncontrolled fission.
It is the mechanism behind nuclear bombs.
If we absorb the excess neutrons, the energy output can be controlled and fission
becomes a controlled chain reaction.
This is the mechanism behind Nuclear reactors.
Nuclear Reactors
Nuclear reactor uses controlled nuclear fission to produce energy for civilian uses.
It has the following major components:
It requires fissile material.
The fissile material is the one that can undergo nuclear fission easily
For example, Ur-235, Ur-233, Pu-239
Moderator:
It slows down the speed of neutrons.
Slow neutrons are better at causing fission.
For example, Water, heavy water(deuterium, D2O)
Coolant:
It ensures that the temperature of the core does not rise too much and also it
transports heat away from the core of the reactor.
Often moderator and coolant are the same.
However, Liquid Sodium is a coolant but not a good moderator.
Control rods:
It absorbs the excess neutrons.
These are made of Cadmium, Boron, and Graphite.
Nuclear Fuel Cycle(05:13 PM)
It comprises of front-end cycle and back-end cycle.
Front end Cycle means:
All the steps till nuclear fission at reactor and
back end cycle means, management of nuclear waste.
Front end comprises of following steps:
Mining
Milling- Uranium ore is purified using Physical and Chemical methods to
recover natural Uranium.
 Enrichment:
Natural Uranium has about 99.3% of Ur-238 and 0.7% of Uranium-235.
Uranium-238 is not a good fissile material.
In the enrichment process using the isotopic separation method, we increase the
percentage of Uranium-235 up to 4-5%.
Fabrication:
Uranium fuel is converted into Spherical pellets and embedded into a metallic
rod.
Many such metallic rods are put together to make a fuel assembly and many fuel
assemblies are used in the core of the reactor together.
Nuclear fission at Reactor
Back end cycle comprises of following steps:
Interim storage
Whatever is left after fission is called Nuclear waste which is dangerous
radioactive waste.
This waste is kept into a pool of water for many years so that water can absorb
the radiation.
Spent Fuel reprocessing:
Useful material is recovered from nuclear waste which can be used in the next
cycle of fission.
Final disposition:
The rest of the nuclear waste is permanently deposited into an underground
depository
Few countries do not use spent fuel reprocessing such type of fuel cycle is called
an open cycle.
India's Nuclear Program is dependent upon Spent fuel reprocessing.
Such a type of cycle is called a closed cycle.
Three staged Nuclear Program of India
This program was envisaged by Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha to overcome the
limitation of the lack of fissile material available to India.
In the Ist stage a Pressurised Heavy Water reactor with Heavy water as a
moderator and coolant will be used.
Enriched natural Ur will be used Ur-235 as the fissile material.
Ur-238 can convert to Plutonium-239 after capturing a neutron.
In the Second stage, Plutonium 239 recovered from the first stage will be used as
the main fissile material.
 It will be a fast Breeder reactor with no moderator and liquid Sodium as
coolant.
Fast neutrons are not good at fission but they can easily convert Thorium-232 to
Uranium-233.
A blanket of Thorium-232 will be used along with Plutonium-239 in the core of
the reactor.
The reason it is called a fast breeder is because of Enrichment of Thorium 233 is
faster than the fission of Pu-239.
In the third stage, Ur-233 recovered from the second will be used as the main
fissile material along with Thorium which can convert into Uranium-233 and the
cycle can go on.
Q. With Growing energy needs, should India keep on expanding its Nuclear
energy program. Discuss the facts and fears associated with Nuclear Energy.
There is fear associated with Nuclear energy such as Reactor Meltdown, Nuclear
waste management, and Nuclear disasters.
Accidents further in om past such as the Chernobyl disaster in Ukraine and the
Fukushima disaster in Japan have further intensified this fear.
There is a strong Pressure group against Nuclear power Production in India.
the cost of renewable energy has reduced significantly while nuclear energy is still
very expensive.
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion is the Fusion of two or lighter nuclei at a very high temperature.
This releases a huge amount of energy and is the mechanism behind energy
production in stars.
Once nuclei are in very close range, the nuclear force can start acting and they will
fuse together.
Before that we require a huge amount of energy and a very high temperature to
start the fusion process.
Tokamak:
It is an experimental device to harness the power of fusion.
Inside a Tokamak, a very high magnetic field exists to contain hot plasma and
enable fusion between deuterium and Tritium.
The energy produced will be absorbed by the walls of Tokamak which can be
transported and used to produce electricity.
Many Tokamak devices across the world are trying to sustain nuclear fusion, for
example, ITER(International Thermo Nuclear Experimental Reactor).
 It is a collaboration among many countries with India as one of the members.
It aims to produce 500 MW of Fusion based energy.
Similarly, Chinese Tokamak EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting
Tokamak, also known as China's artificial Sun), and joint European Torus(JET) are
some other operational Tokamak.
Advantages of Fusion over Fission:
Both Fusion and Fission are sources of clean energy.
However, fusion has many added advantages:
It can produce much more energy than fission.
Deuterium can be easily recovered from all forms of water.
Tritium can be produced using Nuclear reactions.
Fusion does not produce long-lived radioactive waste.
It does not use enriched material.
Hence there is a very limited risk of nuclear proliferation.
Fusion offers prospects of an almost inexhaustible source of energy but it also
presents unresolved engineering challenges.
Fundamental challenge is to achieve a rate of heat as output more than the input
heat.
Application of Nuclear Technology in Agriculture
Plant mutation breeding
Gamma radiation is exposed to seeds or plant buddings so that a mutation can
lead to desirable properties.
For example, Resistance to drought and salinity.
1. Fertilizer Efficiency:
Labelling fertilizers with a particular isotope provides means to ascertain how
much has been taken up by the plants.
For example Nitrogen 15 can be added to Nitrogen-based fertilizers to trace the
amount absorbed.
This allows for better management of fertilizers.
2. Sterile insect’s techniques:
It involves irradiation of insects with gamma or X-rays radiation which makes
them sterile.
These insects are released back and even though they are sexually competitive
they can’t reproduce or can't produce offspring.
Thus used in pest management to control their population.
3. Food Irradiation:
 It is the process of exposingperishabel items to radiations such as gamma or x-
rays to kill microbial organisms.
Exposing perishable food items to high-energy radiation like gamma or X rays kills
microbial organisms that can cause food-borne diseases and increase shelf life.
Nuclear Technology in Medicine:
1. Cancer Treatment:
A. Chemo Therapy Therapy:
Cobalt 60 is used in radiation therapy to prevent cancer.
It releases Gamma rays.
For eliminating or controlling cancerous growth.
It has a lot of side effects
B. Brachy Therapy & Proton beam therapy:
These are advanced cancer treatment methods wherein radioactive seeds are
implanted near the tumour so that a high radiation dose occurs to the tumour
while reducing radiation exposure in the surrounding healthy tissue.
They have fewer side effects.
2. Diagnosis:
A small amount of radioactive material is injected into the bloodstream as a
radiotracer.
Radiotracers emit Gamma rays which are detected by the special cameras on the
computer screens.
It creates an image of the inside of the body which is not possible by any other
method.
3. Radiation sterilization of healthcare products:
The ability of gamma radiation to kill microorganisms is used in radiation
sterilization of various products such as disposable syringes, cotton dressings and
drugs, and related products.
Other Applications:
Defence: In nuclear-powered submarines.
Space Programmes: Space probes often use solar energy, however, that can not
be relied upon continuously.
Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator(RTG):
It uses Plutonium 238 which is a radioactive nucleus for deep-space experiments.
It releases Alpha particles and energy. the thermal energy can be converted into
electrical energy which can become a steady source of power.
Applications in Industries:
 X Rays and Gamma Rays are used in industrial radiography to make images of the
inside of solid products it can be used to inspect and integrity of welds across a
range of industries.
Similarly oil & gas companies use Using radioactive tracers to find any leakages in
pipelines.
Nuclear energy which is a clean source of energy is used for water desalination.
Carbon 14 Dating: To determine the age of rocks by geologists and archaeologists
among others.
Nano-Technology:
Nano Technology is science, engineering and technology conducted at the
nanoscale(about 1 nm to 100 nm).
Matter exhibits unique/unusual chemical, physical and biological properties at the
nanoscale very different from bulk materials. Such as higher strength, lighter
weight, increased control of light spectrum, greater chemical reactivity, and better
electrical conductors among many other properties.
Nanomaterials are unique because of the following reasons.
At such a scale quantum effects rule the behaviour and properties of the particles.
By changing the size of the particles scientists can finetune the properties of the
materials.
Nano Particles have a very large surface area- Nano structures help create better
catalysts.
Nanoparticles in general have high chemical reactivity.
Self Assembly- It describes a process in which a group of components come
together to form an ordered structure beacuse of attractive or repulsive forces.
Nanomaterials are known for self-assembly.
Most of the biology occurs at the nanoscale. For example, the DNA molecule has
a diameter of 2 nm, haemoglobin has a diameter of 5.5 nm.
Nano Manufacturing:
There are two basic approaches for manufacturing nanomaterials:
A. Top-Down Approach:
It involves breaking down or successive fragmentation of bulk materials into nano-
sized particles.
This approach requires a large amount of material, is time-consuming, and surface
characteristics can not be controlled.
Many lithographic techniques such as electron beam lithography, and high energy
milling uses a top-down approach.
 B. Bottom-Up Approach:
In this approach nanomaterials are built/developed atom by atom, molecule by
molecule.
This can be time-consuming, expensive, and technologically more challenging.
A few of these techniques are colloidal precipitation, hydrothermal synthesis, etc.
Generations of Nanotechnology:
Nanotechnology is divided mainly into four generations which also gives a road
map for the future of nanotechnology.
1. First-generation or Passive Nanomaterials:
These materials provide unique properties without altering the properties of the
surrounding. eg nano-coating.
2. Second generation or Active Nanomaterials:
These nanomaterials can induce changes in their surroundings thus they have
huge applications, for example, targeted drug delivery.
3. Third generation or System of Nanosystem:
Here nanoparticles and nono material or advanced nanosystems will work
together to execute the task.
Complex systems such as guided assembling, nanorobotics, etc
4. Fourth-generation or Molecular Nanosystem:
At this level, all the molecules that make up the nanomachine can be controlled
and manipulated.
This is the potential of nanomaterial yet to be realized where nanostructure can
be used to control the growth of artificial organs.
The 3rd & 4th generation nanotechnology is still in the exploratory stage.
A lot of work is happening in the 1st & 2nd generations of nanotechnology.
Applications of Nanotechnology:
A. In daily life:
Glasses and displays: Nono scales films are used in eyeglasses, computers, camera
displays, and others making the water repellent, self-cleaning and scratch
resistant, etc.
Fabrics: nanoscale additives can help fabrics in resisting wrinkling, staining, and
even bacterial growth.
Nanosensors can be used in clothes they can help to measure the vitals of the
body and help monitor health.
Lighweigthing: Nano additives are being used in automobiles, aeroplanes, and
spacecraft that reduce their weight without compromising the material's
properties. This leads to significant fuel savings.
Cosmetics: Nanoscale Titanium Dioxide is used in sunscreen lotions to protect
from sun rays.
B. Medical & healthcare applications:
Cancer treatment: Gold nanoparticles are being investigated as potential
treatments for cancer.
Targeted drug delivery: nanoparticles can help deliver medication directly to
diseased cells and minimize the risk of damage to healthy tissue, side effects, and
medicinal consumption
Disease Diagnosis: better imaging and tools enabled by nanotechnology.
Gene Sequencing: Many gene editing technologies are using nanomaterials.
Vaccine Delivery: Researchers are looking at ways to deliver vaccines without
needles. Nono technology can help in this regard.
Tissue Engineering: Some nanomaterials have regenerative medicinal properties
which can be used in tissue engineering.
Killing Superbugs: Superbugs are those bacterias which have developed resistance
against many antibiotics.
To tackle this issue of antimicrobial resistance quantum dots have proven to be
effective in killing superbugs.
Nonotechnogy may hold the key to ending/fighting antimicrobial resistance.
C. In Information Communication Technology(ICT) & Electronics:
Beacuse of nanotechnology many components such as transistors, switches, etc
have gotten smaller and smaller.
Modern computing technologies such as a normal computer, supercomputer or
quantum computer use man components.
Quantum dots have revolutionised display technology which can produce more
vibrant colours than other display technologies.
Flexible & foldable displays, memory chips for smartphones, etc would not have
been possible without nanotechnology.
D. Environmental Application:
Light weighting of components has led to energy saving.
Nanomembranes are much more effective in water filtration than conventional
filters.
 Certain nanoparticles are being developed to clean industrial pollutants, and oil
spills in oceans.
Magnetic water repellent nanoparticles help remove oil from the water.
Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon NanoTubes(CNT) are cylindrical molecules that consist of rolled-up sheets
of Graphene(a two-dimensional arrangement of carbon atoms).
CNT has the property of Graphene as well as they acquire new properties
depending upon the size and how they are folded.
For example, they have very high strength with low weight.
They can be made into conductors and semi-conductors.
Also their hollow interior can be filled with nanomaterials shielding them from the
surrounding environment.
Because of all of these properties they are being used in many areas such as:
transistors,
Lithium-ion batteriesBiosensors
Biosensors,
Hydrogen storage cells, etc.
Quantum Dots
Quantum dots are nanoscale semiconductors.
They can emit light of various colors depending upon their size.
Their potential applications include display technologies, solar cells, quantum
computers, medical imaging, etc.
Nano Technology in India
The national mission on Nanoscience and technology came to an end in 2020.
It had the objectives of research promotion in nanotech infrastructure
development for nano research, human resource development, industry, and
academic collaboration, and international collaborations.
Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has a nanotechnology
initiative decision with a focus on semiconductor manufacturing in India.
Research in nanoelectronics, developing products and devices to meet societal
requirements and creating world-class facilities in India.
ICT(information and Communication Technology)
Concept of Electromagnetic spectrum:
Spectrum simply means the range of frequencies.
Electromagnetic waves are the vibration of the electric and magnetic field which
travels with the speed of 3Lakh kilometers per second in space.
Depending upon its frequency and wavelength, it can be divided into seven parts:
Gamma rays
X rays
Ultraviolet light
Visible light
Infrared
Microwave
Radio wave:
Radio waves are generated artificially by transmitters and received by radio
receivers using antennas.
To prevent interference between different users the generation and transmission
of the radio waves is strictly regulated by national laws and coordinated by an
international body, the International Telecommunication Union.
For example, the case of satellite designation has been developed for satellite
frequency for different purposes.
The higher frequency bands typically provide access to a wider bandwidth.
However, they are more prone to signal degradation.
They suffer from absorption and scattering.
For example, during rainfall or snowstorm, the signal cannot travel very far.
Modulation(07:29 PM):
IT is the process of encoding the information from a message source in a way that
is suitable for transmission.
This is achieved by altering the characteristics of the wave.
The modulated signal is transmitted by the transmitter and a receiver
demodulates the received signal to get the original information back.
There are mainly two types of modulation:
Analog and
Digital
Analog Modulation:
In this technique, a continuous time-varying wave is used as a carrier wave that
modulates the message signal.
It can occur via three ways:
Amplitude modulation:
In this method, the amplitude of modulated signal varies.
This modulation technique has a lot of background noise.
However, because it occurs at lower frequencies, it can travel more distance.
 Frequency modulation:
FM involves varying frequencies of the modulated signal.
This technique has very less background noise.
However it works at higher frequencies.
Hence the range of the signal is less compared to AM.
Phase modulation:
In this modulation, the phase of the modulated signal varies while frequency and
amplitude remain the same.
Digital Modulation
In digital modulation, the input signal comprises of the binary system(0 and 1).
The benefit of digital modulation is that the signal becomes more accurate, and
secure and less loss occurs as the signal travels through a medium.
In analog modulation, the signal is prone to distortion, interference, security
breach, etc.
Optical fibre Cables
5G
A Cellphone is a very sophisticated device that contains both transmitter and
receiver, can use both of them simultaneously, can understand hundreds of
different frequencies, and can automatically switch between frequencies.
Spectrum management is the process of regulating the use of radio
spectrum and frequency bands for the public.
Each country regulates the use of spectrum in its own territory but similar
technologies are used around the world.
5G is next-generation mobile network technology that promises to provide
seamless coverage, ultra-low latency and reliable communications.
It is not a single technology but an amalgamation of many innovations and
technologies.
It is different from 4G in following ways:

Characteristics 4G 5G

Speed 100 Mbps 500-700mbps

Peak Speed 1 Gbps 20 Gbps

Latency 50-10 ms 1 milli Second

Spectrum 3 GHz 30 GHz

Following are some of the major innovations in 5G:

1. Millimeter waves:
5G spectrum is divided in three parts:
Low band(<1 GHz)
Mid band(1 to 2.4 GHz and 3.5 to 6 GHz)
High band(24 to 40 GHz)
For the first time, millimeter waves(frequency from 30 to 300 GHz) will be used for
mobile communication.
2. Small Cell stations:
Small cells make use of low-power, short-range wireless transmissions that cover
small geographical areas.
3. Multiple and multiple outputs:
One station capable of transmitting and receiving 100s of signals without
interference.
4. Beam Forming:
It focuses the wireless signal in the chosen direction towards a specific receiving
device.
This results in improved signal and less interference between signals.
5. Network slicing:
It divides the single network connection into multiple virtual connections that
provide different amounts of resources to different types of traffic.
5G standards are developed by International Telecommunication Union and
the Third Generation Partnership Project(3GPP).
3GPP unites seven telecommunication standard development organizations of the
world known as organizational partners.
TSDSI(Telecommunication Standard Development Society of India) is one of the
partners which is registered as not for profit society under the Societies
Registration Act of 1860.
Challenges for 5G adoption in India:
Availability of spectrum:
there may be difficulty in availing some bands required for 5G because of
allocation of the same to ISRO for satellites.
 5G supply chain has high import dependency as imports account for about 90%
of India's telecom equipment market.
5G requires a high initial investment and Indian Telecom companies are not doing
particularly well serial processing.
Capacity of super computers are measured in FLOPS(Floating point Operations
per Second).
A typical super computers has the capacity in petaflops.

There are many infrastructural challenges, for example, optical fiber

penetration is very less in India.
5G is going to increase the digital divide between urban and rural India.
5G involves a lot of software components hence there are cyber security
concerns regarding the data of users.
A lot of investments are required to increase the cyber resilience for 5G.
Super Computing and Super Computing Missions
Super Computers are the physical embodiment of high-performance computing
allowing organizations to solve problems that would be possible with regular
computers.
It works much more quickly by splitting problems into pieces and working on
many pieces at once.
This is called parallel processing.
In contrast, an ordinary computer does one thing at a time in a distinct series of
operations which is called serial processing.
Capacity of ordinary computers is measured in MIPS(Million Instructions Per
Second).
Applications of Supercomputers:
Weather Prediction:
Both weather and climate are complex systems that depend upon many factors.
Any type of prediction requires very high computational capacity.
Computational Biology:
It is an interdisciplinary branch involving biology and computer science.
It is used for a certain type of biological data such as genetic sequences,
analysis of protein samples, etc.
Big Data Analytics:
It is the process of extracting useful information by analyzing different types of
big data sets.
 Many experiments such as:
Black hole imaging
Large Hadron Collider
among others require supercomputers to analyze data.
Optimisation:
It is the action of making the most effective use of a situation or resources.
For companies as well as governments optimization problems are very important.
Many types of simulations such as disaster simulations, atomic energy simulations,
etc require supercomputers.
Super Computing in India
The first Indian Supercomputer was Param 8000.
Pratyush and Mihir are two of the fastest supercomputers used for climate
modeling and Weather forecasting.
In 2015, the government announced the national supercomputing Mission
which aims to install supercomputing facilities in major universities of the country.
These supercomputers will be networked on a grid over National Knowledge
Network.
It aims to develop professional human resources.
It is being implemented by the Department of Science and technology and the
department of electronics and information technology through two
organisations:
C-DAC(Centre for Development and Advance Computing) and
IISc(Bangalrur)
Param Siddhi which has been developed as part of this mission is the fastest
supercomputer in India as of now.
Challenges:
Supercomputers are not environmentally friendly because of high power
consumption and cooling requirements.
India is dependent on imports for hardware components.
There is the problem of Brain drain.
Quantum Technologies
Quantum technology is based on the Principles of Quantum mechanics
developed in the Early 20th Century which describe nature at a very small scale
such as atoms, molecules, and elementary particles.
 Government of India announced the National mission of Quantum
Technologies and Applications in Budget 2020 with a total allocation of 8000
Crore rupees.
It will be implemented by the Department of Science and Technology.
There are mainly four domains that are being explored:
Quantum Computing
Quantum Communication
Quantum simulation and
Quantum meteorology
Quantum Computing
In a classical computer, information is stored using binary units or bits which is
either 0 or 1.
Quantum computer takes advantage of quantum mechanical properties to
process information using Quantum bits or qubits.
Qubit can be both 0 and 1 simultaneously with a different probability.
This is called superposition.
Qubits in superposition can be correlated with each other so that the state of 1
qubit depends upon another.
This is called entanglement.
Using the principles of Quantum superposition and quantum entanglement
quantum computers can solve problems much faster than conventional
computers.
The computing power increases exponentially with an increase in the number
of qubits.
Quantum supremacy:
It signifies the capacity of quantum computers to perform a calculation much
faster than the fastest supercomputer in the world.
Google announced Quantum supremacy as Google's Quantum computer
Sycamore was able to do a calculation in a matter of seconds while a super
computer would have taken hundreds of years to do this calculation.
Quantum Computing
Based on the ideas of the Quantum mechanics
Principles of the Superimposition and Entanglement
Superposition is the ability of qubits to be in different states simultaneously,
allowing them to work on a million computations at the same time.
 Entanglement is the ability of two or more quantum systems to become
entangled irrespective of how far apart they are. The correlation between the
entangled qubits gives information about the other qubit.
Qubits- if we represent the data in Qubits the processing capabilities will increase.
Applications
Computational - faster computation
Quantum computers could facilitate secure communications.
Challenges
Quantum information stored in Qubits is very sensitive to external interference,
any fluctuation in external parameters can cause the loss of the quantum
information. Because of this Quantum computers need to be kept in isolated
conditions at very low temperatures.
As the no. of Qubits increases, their manipulation becomes more difficult. The
potential of the Quantum computer will be realized with lakhs of qubits as of now,
IBM has a powerful Quantum computer of 127 Qubits
The Quantum Computer requires ecosystems of supporting software, hardware,
and algorithms
Current cyber security measures need to be relooked at as Quantum Computer
holds the potential to decode the world's Encrypted data
Quantum Communication
In traditional communication systems mathematical problems are used and the
security is usually based on the fact that an eavesdropper cannot solve the
mathematical problem in a reasonable timeframe.
As Quantum computers have the potential to solve such problems in a matter of
minutes the world is preparing itself for post-quantum technologies to establish a
secure communication channel the phenomenon of Quantum Entanglement can
be used. For example, a Pair of entangled photons can be sent to the sender and
receiver, if an eavesdropper tries to hack into this system they will change the
quantum state which will alert both sender and receiver.
Both DRDO and ISRO have announced the success in achieving Quantum Key
Distribution.
Quantum Metrology (17:59:00)
Metrology is the science of measurement, quantum sensors provide the most
accurate measurement at the atomic and molecular scale.
Government schemes
 Department of Science & Technology unveiled a program called Quantum-
Enabled science and technology(QuEST)
QSIM- It is the first-of-its-kind Quantum simulator toolkit, indigenously developed
in India.
National Mission for Quantum Technologies and Applications (NM-QTA)
Blockchain Technology and Cryptocurrency
Cryptographic hashing- It is used to write new transactions, timestamp them,
and ultimately to add a reference to them in the previous block.
Proof of work (PoW) is a form of Cryptographic Proof in which one party proves
to others that a certain amount of a specific computational effort has been
expended
Blockchains are open distributed ledgers that can chronologically record
transactions, It has key characteristics of decentralization, anonymity, and
auditability [transparency]
Every transaction is linked to a chain using cryptographic principles
Blocks have unique identifier codes that connect them to previous and
subsequent blocks.
Blockchain is not owned by any individual, the entire series is managed and stored
across several computer systems because of the underlying cryptography the data
which is added to the blockchain remains accurate and can not be manipulated in
the future.
Because it is decentralized there is no single point of failure transactions are
transparent and incorruptible and they do not require any authentication by the
third party
Blockchain technology has been the backbone of cryptocurrencies, there is a
debate surrounding the utility of cryptocurrency, However, there is a consensus
on potential applications of Blockchain. For Example - Banking and finance, smart
contracts, healthcare, cybersecurity, and even in governance such as tax
monitoring land title registration, national identity management system, etc
[MEITY- national strategy for blockchain technology for 5 years]
Challenges in the adoption of Blockchain
Lack of scalability- The processing speed of the Blockchains is less compared to
traditional transactional networks
Lack of Interoperability- Most of the Blockchain present in the market work in
silos with so many different approaches, Blockchain space remains in a state of
confusion also there is no mechanism for data portability.
 There is limited availability of skilled workforce
Blockchain and Blockchain-based products are not considered environmentally
friendly because of high computational requirements and more power
consumption
Cryptocurrencies
It is a type of digital currency that uses cryptography for security and anti-
counterfeiting measures.
It is not issued by any central authority and it works through distributed ledger
technology called Blockchain. For example- Bitcoin, Ethereum, Ripple, Dogecoin,
etc
Benefits of cryptocurrency
It is almost impossible to counterfeit, it protects identities as it is anonymous, and
there are no transactional fees in cryptocurrency exchanges.
The supply of cryptocurrency is immune to government-led financial decisions
Issues Associated with Cryptocurrency
Concerns have been raised regarding the anonymous nature, it can be used for
many illegal activities such as smuggling of drugs, illegal supply of weapons,
Terror financing, etc
Cryptocurrencies have followed a very volatile up's and down in the market. In last
year alone the price has fluctuated from 67000$ to 15000$ for one bitcoin.
There is no consumer protection scheme in case somebody forgets the password
of the bitcoin wallet and has no backup.
There is an absence of well defined legal framework, The matter of taxation is one
of the main concerns if Bitcoins are used for transactions.
The acceptance of bitcoins and cryptocurrencies has not increased and because of
that it hasn't become a mode of transaction
[El Salvador became the first country which made Bitcoin legal tender]
Internet
Unique numerical address- Internet service provider sends this request in the right
direction
Internet Governance
How the internet should evolve- the principles are part of internet governance
Multistakeholder model- The internet has many stakeholders such as got,
Private, and NGOs ==> all are on equal footing on how the internet should evolve
Multilateral model- Many stakeholders are there but the Countries and nations
are the major stakeholders so they will decide how the internet should evolve
Dark web
The content on the internet can be divided into two parts i.e surface web and
deep web. The surface web is that portion of the internet that is readily available
to the general public and searchable with standard web search engines. The deep
web requires some sort of authentication or payment and the content is not
accessible via search engines. For Example- Internet banking, e-mail servers, OTT
platforms, etc.
Dark web is a smaller part of the deep web which not only is inaccessible via
search engines but also the content can not be accessed using normal web
browsers [safari, mozilla]. A special web browser such as TOR [The Onion Router]
is required to access such content. The dark web can have some benefits such as
activists can use it in authoritarian regimes, and it protects privacy, However, many
concerns have been raised with the use of the dark web
Virtual private network - VPN- is an encrypted connection over the Internet
from a device to a network. The encrypted connection helps ensure that sensitive
data is safely transmitted. It prevents unauthorized people from eavesdropping on
the traffic and allows the user to conduct work remotely. VPNs are not the dark
web, VPNs are perfectly legal.
Concerns
a). It is the hub of illegal activities and cyber criminals For example- the smuggling
of drugs, payment card fraud, Terror networks
b). There are technical challenges to establishing guilt in court as users are tracked
in foreign countries. With the use of cryptocurrencies on the dark web, security
agencies find it very difficult to track criminals
Solution
Capacity building - By strengthening the CERT-in, CDAC
Net Neutrality
It is a principle that internet service providers should treat all lawful data equally
and not discriminate in favor of particular Apps /sites/services. Practices such as
blocking, and granting preferential speeds are considered a violation of net
neutrality. It is considered integral to the evolution of the internet because of
inherent benefits such as
1). It protects innovation and entrepreneurship.
2). It is an important component of the open internet
3). It protects freedom of expression and free speech
 In India telecom regulatory authority of India [TRAI], has regulations and
recommendations regarding net neutrality. Any discriminatory treatment is
prohibited
Recently this issue has been highlighted mainly because of two accounts-
CDN[content delivery network] and Network slicing an integral part of 5G.
CDN refers to a geographically distributed group of servers that work together to
provide fast delivery of internet content. Some experts have highlighted that only
large companies can invest in it. CDN is out of the purview of TRAI regulation
Similarly, Network slicing divides a physical network into many virtual networks
and provides different bandwidths based on requirements.
Way Forward
Dedicated committee to look into this matter
Exception to such services
Engagement of multiple stakeholders
Satellite-based Internet
A wireless connection that uses satellite to get an internet signal from ISPs
[internet service providers] to users. SpaceX, a Private company in the USA is
investing in the program named Starlink. Starlink plans to launch about 42000
satellites in low earth orbit to provide fast internet connections across the planet.
Some issues have been raised-
a). Low speed and high latency compared to optical fiber cables
b). Potential to increase space debris
c). It can adversely affect astronomical observations from telescopes situated on
earth
Web 3.0
Web 1.0 is the world wide web or the internet that was invented in 1989. It
became popular in 1993. It lasted until 1999. The internet in the Web 1.0 days was
mostly static web pages where users would go to a website and then read and
interact with the static information. It was one-way exchange
Web 2.0 started in some form in the late 1990s itself though 2004 was when most
of its features were fully available. It is still the age of Web 2.0 now. The
differentiating characteristic of Web 2.0 compared to Web 1.0 is that users can
create content. They can interact and contribute in the form of comments. It is a
two-way exchange.
Web 3.0- it is an idea based on certain principles, such as decentralization, and the
right to users about the use of the data, they can monetize their data also.
 It is a possible future version of the internet that is user-centric and user-
controlled, it envisages a decentralized internet that checks the monopoly of big
tech companies, and stores data within a peer-to-peer network using blockchain.
It will provide the elimination of intermediaries, users gaining control over their
data, enhanced privacy, and a new dimension to digitalization.
Artificial Intelligence
It is a branch of computer science concerned with making computers mimic
human-like intelligence.
AI enables a machine to perceive and respond to changing environments.
There are many AI technologies such as
a). Computer Vision- it enables computers to derive meaningful information from
digital images,
b). Natural language processing- It refers to the method of communicating with
an intelligent system in a natural language such as English.
c). Knowledge representation - Technologies that lead to reasoning in machines
d). Machine learning- It offers the ability of a system to learn and improve from
experience without human intervention. A computer program uses data sets to
learn from itself.
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning where artificial neural networks are
used to make intelligent tools. It replicates the human brain.
AI can be used in many areas such as healthcare [early detection of diseases,
assign probability], education[assessment], agriculture[best course of action],
manufacturing, energy, financial services[how markets are going to change], and
law enforcement among others
Many concerns have been raised such as the use of Deepfakes, nefarious use of
facial recognition technology, and mass surveillance.
In case of mistake who will be held accountable
An AI can absorb, and adopt the stereotypes that exist in society.
A sufficiently intelligent AI can redesign itself leading to an intelligence explosion.
It is crucial to ensure that this superintelligence will be good for humankind.
Can AI learn emotions?==> the answer to this question is not clear.
India specific challenges- challenges to adoption of AI such as limited availability
of skilled workforce, lack of cloud computing infrastructure, data security and
privacy issues
Data Protection Regime
 Data protection mainly entails two principles empowering citizens so that they
know about their rights over their personal data and holding private companies as
well as governments accountable because of the monopolies of big tech giants as
well as data collection by governments. The issue of data protection is being
debated across the world
European union took a lead and came up with 7 principles known as the General
data protection regulation [GDPR]. These principles are as follows
1). Lawfulness, Fairness, and Transparent- organizations need to ensure their
data collection practices don't break the law and that they are not hiding anything
from the data subjects.
2). Purpose limitation- Organizations should collect personal data for a specific
purpose, clearly state what that purpose is, and only collect data for as long as
necessary to complete that purpose
3). Data minimization- Organisations must only process the personal data that
they need to achieve its processing purposes.
4). Accuracy- Every reasonable step must be taken to erase or rectify data that is
inaccurate or incomplete [Right to be forgotten]
5). Storage limitation- Organizations need to delete personal data when it's no
longer necessary.
6). Integrity and confidentiality- Data must be processed in a manner that
ensures appropriate security against accidental laws, destruction or damage, and
unauthorized or unlawful processing.
7). Accountability- It acts as an overarching set of requirements related to the
other six principles.
Data Protection Regime in India
A draft personal data protection bill was submitted by the Justice B.N. Srikrishna-
headed expert panel.
Data fiduciary- A data fiduciary is an entity or individual who decides the means
and purpose of processing personal data.
The Bill sets up a Data Protection Authority.
Intellectual Property Rights
These are rights given to a person over the creations of their mind. They usually
provide the creator an exclusive right over the use of creation for a certain period
of time.
Patent
 A patent is granted for an invention that is a new product or process that meets
the conditions of Novelty, Non-obviousness, and industrial use. Novelty means
inventive step that involves technical advancement compared t existing
knowledge. Non-obviousness means that someone of ordinary skill could not
easily make the invention based on prior knowledge. Industrial use means an
invention is capable of being made or used in industry. They are granted for 20
years. In India, they are governed by The Patent Act 1970 which was amended in
2005 to make it TRIPS compliant.
As per Indian patent law, many things cannot be patented
Such as a frivolous claim, an invention that is contrary to public order, or morality
and causes serious damage to a human, plant, animal, or environmental health.
For example- one can not get a patent for gambling machines or embryonic stem
cells.
A Scientific discovery or discovery of any living or non-living substance occurring
in nature. For example- Cloning can not be patented but Genetic editing can be
patented.
A substance that has aggregated properties of its components without any new
property- For example- a simple Physical mixture cannot be patented but a
chemical mixture can be patented.
Method of agriculture or Horticulture
Copyright
Copyright is a right given by the law to creators of literary, dramatic, musical, or
artistic work and producers of films and sound recordings. They are generally
given for 60 years. In books, 60 years are counted after the death of authors.
Delhi high court case, Torrent case- if the use is personal and not for commercial
distribution then it is not a violation.
Trademark
Trademark means a mark capable of being represented graphically and
distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other
undertakings. It can be a brand, packaging sign, word, letter, drawing, number, or
combination of colors among others.
They are given for 10 years and governed by Trademarks Act 1999.
Industrial design
An industrial design includes shape, configuration, pattern, and the composition
of colors in 2 dimensions or 3 dimensions which contains the aesthetic value.
In India they are governed by the Design Act 2000 and granted 10 years.
Plant Variety Protection
It refers to the protection granted to plant varieties to encourage the
development of new varieties of plants. This protection is available for plant
breeders and farmers [10 years]. It is governed by the Protection of plant
varieties and farmers rights Act 2001 [PPV&FR]
Pepsico Case- PepsiCo India filed legal cases against nine farmers for growing
and selling the FC5 potato variety over which it claimed it had exclusive rights
under section 28 of the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Right Act 2001
(PPVFR). In the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, seeds are not
considered as a patent. However, it is considered a sui generis right for the
farmers. In India, bio-materials are not allowed to be patented.
Geographical Indication
It is a sign used on agricultural, natural, or manufactured goods originating in a
particular region of a country. It denotes its origin where a specific quality or
reputation of the product is attributable. In India, it is governed by The
geographical indication of goods (registration and protection ) Act 1999 [GI
Act]
It is given for 10 years and can be renewed.
Trade Secrets
These are confidential information that provides a competitive advantage to a
company. It can be an invention, idea, survey method, Recipe, financial strategy,
client database, etc. Because they are protected without registration, theoretically
the protection is for an unlimited period.
Trade secrets can be preferred over patents in the following cases
1). If secrets are not-patentable
2). Patent protection is limited to 20 years
3). The secret can be kept beyond that period
4). When it is difficult to reverse engineer
In India there is no dedicated law for trade secrets nonetheless judiciary has used
other laws such as the Indian contract Act 1872 for trade secrets
Semiconductors and integrated layout design
A layout design signifies transistors, wires, switches, and other circuitry elements
in semiconductors integrated circuits. The protection is granted for 10 years under
the semiconductors and integrated layout design Act 2000.
Trade-related aspects of Intellectual property rights TRIPS
 It is an international agreement administered by WTO that sets down minimum
standards for IP revolutions for WTO member nations
WTO also ensures a degree of flexibility for developing nations to have a balance
between IP protection and developmental needs.
WTO also becomes an arbitrator in case of disputes on Intellectual property.
World intellectual property organization [WIPO]
It is a specialized agency of the United Nations with the objective of promoting
intellectual activity and facilitating the transfer of technology.
Marrakech treaty- it provides an exception to domestic copyright laws for the
visually impaired. The objective is to facilitate access to published works for the
Blind without the need to ask permission from the holder of the copyright. India
was the first country to ratify this treaty.
BONN convention - It is an international agreement governing copyrights for
literary and artistic works.
Paris Convention- International agreement for the protection of industrial
property
Global innovation index- It ranks the innovation performance of about 130
countries based on 82 indicators. It is published by WIPO in collaboration with
Cornell University and INSEAD. India's rank is 48
IPR issues
The US and other developed countries are big critiques of India's IPR regime, US
trade representative publishes an annual report 'Special 301' in which India has
been Put on the priority watch list. This is because of the following reasons
1). There is no dedicated trade secrets law.
2). Trademark violations are rampant and there are excessive delays in obtaining
trademarks.
3). India applies restrictive patentability criteria to reject pharma patents- For
example- Evergreening
4). High import duties on IP-intensive products such as medical devices, solar
energy equipment, capital goods, etc.
5). As per an OECD report, India is one of the top 5 sources of fake goods.
Evergreening
Evergreening of patents means making minor changes and claiming as Novelty
for Re-patent. This is adopted by many pharma companies.
Section 3(d) of the Indian patent Act does not allow evergreening- For
example- in 2013 SC rejected the patent of Novartis Drug Glivec
Compulsory licensing
It empowers the government to allow the manufacture of a patented product
without the prior permission of the patent holder in the larger public interest. For
Example- The government allowed the Indian company Natcopharma in 2012 for
a drug Nexavar whose patent belonged to a company named Bayer
Section 84 of the Indian patent Act empowers the government to allow
compulsory licensing
Compulsory licensing is provided under the TRIPS provision.
Patent Waiver and Patent Pool
Patent waiver- It is an extreme version of technology transfer which is sharing of
innovative products, processes, and other relevant knowledge for the greater
good. For example- India and South Africa demanded patent waivers for COVID-
19 vaccines.
Patent Pool- It is an agreement between two or more patent holders for sharing
their intellectual property rights. It is often made for complex technologies which
necessitate complementary patents. It is an efficient tool to bring together new
technologies, it ensures innovation and sharing of knowledge. However, there can
be a downside as patent polling can become anti-competitive in nature and can
promote cartelization.
Protection of Traditional Knowledg
Placebo effect- The placebo effect is when a person's physical or mental health
appears to improve after taking a placebo or 'dummy' treatment.
Randomized control trials- Randomized controlled trials (RCT) are prospective
studies that measure the effectiveness of a new intervention or treatment.
Biopiracy- Often, in the search for new bioresources, researchers draw on local
people’s traditional knowledge about the properties of a particular plant, animal,
or chemical compound. When researchers use traditional knowledge without
permission or exploit the cultures they’re drawing from, it’s called Biopiracy.
Traditional knowledge is integral to the identity of most local communities. The
traditional medicine system is the sum total of Knowledge, skill, and practices
based on Theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures. Such
knowledge is used for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of physical and
mental illness.
 India has rich traditional medicinal knowledge in the form of AYUSH [Ayurved,
Yoga, Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy, Naturopathy, and Sowa Rigpa]. In the past
India has fought two famous cases where foreign pharma companies were trying
to misappropriate traditional knowledge of India. For example- In the USA, A
company wanted to patent would healing properties of turmeric, Similarly in
Europe Anti-Fungal properties of Neem. In both instances India won the cases,
however, a need was felt to protect our traditional knowledge.
TKDL[Traditional knowledge digital library]- It is a pioneering initiative of the
Ministry of AYUSH where Traditional knowledge has been translated into 5
international languages- English, French, German, Japanese, and Spanish, Into a
digital database.
About more than 0.4 million medicinal formulations are part of this database and
it is available to all patent offices that have signed the TKDL access agreement.
This agreement has non-disclosure mechanisms to safeguard India's interests and
counter any possible misuse.
Convention on Biological Diversity [UNCBD]
Rio conference 1992- Three outcomes- UNFCCC, UNCBD, and UNCCD
India is a signatory of the convention on biological diversity and as an obligation
has enacted the Biological Diversity Act 2002. One of the objectives of the Act is
the Equitable sharing of benefits arising out of Biological resources. This has a
direct bearing on the Rights of indigenous people and the protection of
traditional knowledge.
Global Center for Traditional Medicine[GCTM]- first-of-its-kind World Health
Organisation (WHO) Global Centre for Traditional Medicine (GCTM) in Jamnagar,
Gujarat.
Defence Technology
Homework/Assignment/self-read topics
Contribution of ISRO and DRDO and the fundamental difference.
ISRO was placed under the Department of Space (DOS), which saved ISRO from
cumbersome bureaucratic procedures. Whereas DRDO, which functions under the
Ministry of Defence and is entrenched in the bureaucratic culture, suffers delays in
project clearances and fund acquisition.
ISRO also benefited from the presence of specialists and technocrats, starting
from Vikram Sarabhai himself at the upper echelons of the organization. DRDO,
on the other hand, lacked such expertise in its formative years.
 ISRO has been able to work with the international scientific community since its
inception such as NASA. Whereas, DRDO, on the other hand, faced far greater
barriers. This has partly to do with geopolitics and international restrictions on
sharing defense-related technology during the Cold War and thereafter.
Accountability- While DOS submits an outcome budget that contains a detailed
breakdown of ISRO projects while DRDO which functions under the Ministry of
Defence is exempted from such accountability.
Timely completion of the project - ‘Chalta Hai' attitude of DRDO for its inability to
finish projects on time. Whereas ISRO delivers the project on time.
The other key problem with DRDO is its inability to realize its areas of core
competence and concentrate on them, On the other hand, ISRO identified its
strength and worked on it.
Why indigenization of defense has not occurred?[Running notes]
Defence expenditure is very less. Most of the expenditure goes to the salary and
pension and very less goes to R&D.
Skillforce required is lacking.
Private sector participation is very less. The product developed by the private
sector is rejected by the public sector company.
Too much regulation, lack of startups, Bureaucratic red-tapism.
Availability of raw materials.
Many defense deals have resulted in opaqueness, and many corruption
news/scandals were evident.
Nexus between the private contractors- government resulted in corruption.
Proper national security doctrine is still not there.
Long-term vision is not there.
Missiles
Missile is a rocket-propelled weapon designed to deliver an explosive warhead
with great accuracy and high speed. Missiles can be categorized on many criteria.
For example-
Based on launch platform and target - Surface to Surface [Prithvi], Surface to
Air[Aakash], Air to Air [Astra], Anti-tank missile [can be surface to surface or air to
the surface also, NAG missile (in case it is used by Army). NAG when used by the
airforce then it is called HELINA Missile]
 Based on speed [Mach no.- Speed of object/Speed of sound. The speed of sound
is 330-340 m/s at NTP(normal temperature and pressure)]- Subsonic [Speed less
than Mach 1], Transsonic [Mach 1]. Supersonic [1-5 Mach], Hypersonic [More than
Mach 5]
Based on the range- Short-range missiles (less than 1000 Km), Medium range
missiles (1000-3000 Km), Intermediate-range missiles(3000-5000 Km), Long range
missiles (More than 5000 Km.) Long-range missiles are also called Inter-
continental ballistic Missiles [ICBMs].
Based on Trajectory- Ballistic missiles, and Cruise missiles.
Ballistic missiles- these missiles are guided for a brief duration in starting phase,
the rest of the path is like a free-falling projectile under the earth's gravitational
force. They are very useful to deliver a warhead to a Pre-determined target. They
can have a longer range with less consumption of Fuel, However, These missiles
are suitable for stationary targets and can be intercepted by radar systems. For
example- Agni and Prithvi.
Cruise missiles- These are guided missiles that remain in the atmosphere and fly
almost at a constant speed. They consume more fuel. Their path is not guided by
gravity. They can not have a range comparable to Ballistic missiles. However,
Cruise missiles are useful even for moving targets because they fly at low
altitudes, and their interception is difficult by radar systems. For example-
Brahmos and Nirbhay
Missile Development In India
Integrated Guided Missile Development Plan [IGMDP]
It was envisaged by Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam in 1983 to attain self-sufficiency in the
field of missile technology. 5 missile systems have been developed under this
program, i.e. Prithvi, Akash, Trishul, Nag, and Agni [PATNA mnemonic].
Ballistic Missile Defense Program
DRDO is developing a two-tier ballistic missile defense system, that provides a
multilayer shield against ballistic missile attacks. This Two-tier system is intended
to destroy an incoming missile at a higher altitude in the exo-atmosphere and if
that miscarries an endo-atmospheric will take place. It consists of Prithvi Air
Defence [PAD] and Advanced Air defense which is going to use Ashwin missiles.
S-400 system which India is importing from Russia is an Air defense system that
can neutralize many types of targets such as missiles, and drones in the air itself.
Hypersonic missile
Fractional deorbiting bombardment system- A Fractional Orbital Bombardment
System (FOBS) is a warhead delivery system that uses a low earth orbit towards its
target destination. Just before reaching the target, it deorbits through a
retrograde engine burn. [China has already achieved this].
Hypersonic weapons can travel with more than Mach 5, such weapons are very
difficult to intercept and neutralize.
For hypersonic missiles, Often Air-breathing engines are used such as Ramjet and
Scramjet. Air-breathing engines do not carry oxidizers, the oxygen requirement is
fulfilled from the atmosphere.
Doppler effect- The Doppler effect or Doppler shift is the change in frequency of
a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the wave source. For
example- The expansion of the universe [Red shift and Blue shift]
Sonic Boom- A sonic boom is a sound associated with shock waves created when
an object travels through the air faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms
generate enormous amounts of sound energy, sounding similar to an explosion or
a thunderclap to the human ear.

There can be three types of Air-breathing engines- A jet engine, a Ramjet, and a
Scramjet engine.
A jet engine uses rotating parts to create enough pressure so that combustion is
possible. However, it can not achieve high supersonic speeds [2-2.5 Mach].
Both Ramjet and Scramjet have no moving parts. They use the vehicles forward
motion to compress incoming air for combustion without the requirement of a
rotating compressor. Ramjet works efficiently between Mach 3 and Mach 6. Its
efficiency reduces when the vehicle reaches Hypersonic speeds.
In scramjet engines, often hydrogen is used as fuel, the combustion can occur at
supersonic speeds and it can efficiently operate at hypersonic speeds.
 Recently, DRDO successfully tested solid fuel ducted Ramjet technology.
Submarines
Submarines are submersible vehicles i.e. capable of propelling beneath the water
as well as on the water surface.
They can be diesel-electric powered or nuclear-powered submarines.
In India, earlier diesel-powered submarines were imported from Russia. For eg:
INS Sindhughosh
Recently, India commissioned six Scorpene-class submarines which were built as
part of the Government-2-Government agreement between India and France.
INS Kalvari, INS Kandheri, INS Karanj, INS Vela, INS Vageer, and INS Vagsheer have
been inducted as a part of Project 75.
Scorpene class submarines are fast attack submarines, that can sustain high
pressure, have low acoustics, and can remain underwater for a longer duration.
Nuclear Powered Submarine -
These are powered by a small nuclear reactor that uses Fission.
INS Arihant and INS Arighat are examples of nuclear power submarines.
INS Arihant is an indigenized nuclear-powered submarine.
It uses a pressurized water reactor.
It is capable of carrying a nuclear-tipped ballistic missile (K4 Missile).
With INS Arihant, India has achieved nuclear triad capability.
Torpedos are underwater missiles, which follow a straight path like a cruise missile.
Eg: Varunastra
Mareech is an advanced torpedo defense system for Torpedo detection and
countermeasure.
Stealth Features/Technology -
The goal of stealth technology is to make an airplane or a ship invisible to radars.
This can be done in the following ways -
Use of radio jammers
Airplanes can be covered in materials that absorb radar signals.
Airplanes can be shaped so that radar signals are reflected away from radar
equipment.
Naval Warships
Warships can be categorized into four major categories -
(i). Destroyer: Large warships equipped with missiles, torpedos, Radars, Sonars,
etc. Eg: INS Vishakhapatnam
(ii). Frigates: They are smaller but faster than the Destroyer class of ships.
 They often provide crucial support to other ships. INS Sahyadri, INS Shivalik
Indian Navy under Project 17 to induct more frigate ships.
(iii). Corvette: It is a battleship ranking below a Frigate in size.
They are used in patrolling, minor tensions, and defense of a large ship. Eg: INS
Kavaratti
(iv). Aircraft Carriers: They are floating air bases in the sea.
Fighter aircraft operate from their decks.
They are often accompanied by Destroyers, Frigates, and submarines with support
carriers operations.
Eg: INS Vikrant, INS Vikramaditya
Aircraft Careers have a short airstrip and still fighter crafts can take off and land.
This is because of the following: STOBAR and CATOBAR.
STOBAR: Short Takeoff But Arrested Recovery
In this type of carrier frontal part of the deck is elevated forming a curve.
This mechanism is called ski jump.
Aircraft uses its own power and is assisted by a ski jump.
CATOBAR: Catapult Assisted Takeoff But Arrested Recovery
It works like a catapult i.e. the stored energy in a catapult is used and converted
into kinetic energy.
Catapults are placed under the deck of the ship.
There are two types of systems to power the catapult: Steam engine and
Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System.
For arrested recovery, high-strength arrester wires are placed on the deck.
Aircraft have tail hooks. This tail hook gets arrested in one of the wires and the
aircraft is decelerated rapidly over a short distance.
Fighter Crafts [06:27 PM]
Hindustan Aeronautic Limited (HAL) has developed Tejas which is one of the
lightest and smallest supersonic fighter aircraft of its class.
It has air-to-air refueling capability.
It can carry a payload of about 4000kg and can achieve the speed of Mach 2.
Contributions of Indians to Science and Technology
Dr. C.V. Raman and Spectroscopy
Dr. Raman was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930 for the discovery of an
effect named after him.
He was also awarded Bharat Ratna in 1954.
India celebrates 28th February as National Science Day to commemorate the
discovery of the Raman Effect.
Raman Effect is the inelastic scattering of light after interaction with a molecular
sample.
When light particles strike molecules their frequency can increase or decrease,
This was observed and explained by Dr. Raman.
Application of Raman Effect in Spectroscopy is called Raman's Spectroscopy.
Different Materials emit and interact with different wavelengths of light in
different ways depending upon properties like temperature and composition.
The goal of spectroscopy is to study these patterns.
Raman Spectroscopy is used in many industries such as chemical,
pharmaceutical, glass, electronics, etc.
It has many benefits such as -
(i). It can provide key information such as the chemical composition and structure
of a sample in a shorter time period.
(ii). It is sensitive to small changes in material structure.
It works on almost all materials. It can work on a very small sample.
It does not compromise the integrity of the sample.
Dr. [Link]
He was an Indian-American astrophysicist who spent his professional life in the
United States.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983 for theoretical studies of the
structure and evolution of stars.
Chandrashekar Limit: This limit hypothesizes that a massive star (more than 1.4
times the mass of the Sun) will not end in a stable white dwarf star.
It can further collapse because of its own gravity which leads to supernova
explosions, one of the brightest events in the Universe.
Such stars can evolve into neutron stars or black holes.
Stars under the limit will remain stable as a white dwarf, For eg: Sun
Dr. S.N. Bose
[Link] was one of the world's pioneer theoretical physicists known for his
discovery of a class of particles that is named after him.
It was Bose who figured out how a group of identical photons would behave.
He employed a technique in his calculation that led to the foundation of quantum
statistics.
 He sent his paper to Einstein who recognized the value of this calculation and got
it published.
All particles who follow the same law of distribution are called Bosons and this law
is called Bose-Einstein Statistics.
Einstein generalized the idea and extended it to atoms.
He propounded that at very low temperatures close to absolute Zero, most of the
atoms will occupy the lowest energy and this will lead to a new state of matter.
This new state is called Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC).
It is considered the 5th state of matter.
BECs are related to many remarkable phenomena such as Superconductivity, Super-
Fluidity, it reduces the speed of light significantly, it can have possible applications
in light-based communications, quantum computing, etc.
Standard Model
Fundamental particles- Earlier these three were called fundamental i.e Electrons,
protons, and neutrons.
Quarks- Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks.
They interact with forces like gravitation, electromagnetic, and strong and
weak interaction.
Peter Higgs explained how particles get their masses.
It is a theory of fundamental particles and how they interact.
It incorporated all that was known about sub-atomic particles and predicted the
existence of additional particles which were later confirmed.
The basic building block of the universe comprises two sets of particles called
Leptons and Quarks.
There are six Leptons- Electron, Muon, Tau, Electron nutrino, Muon nutrino, Tau
nutrino.
There are six Quarks- up, down, top, bottom, charm, strange.
These Fundamental particles interact via electromagnetic interaction, strong
interaction, and weak interaction.
These interactions occur because of Bosons.
The standard model does not account for gravitational interactions.
Fundamental particle acquires their masses because of their interaction with the
Higgs field.
Scientists have been able to prove the existence of this field because Higgs Boson
another fundamental particle was discovered in a large Hadron collider an
experimental setup of CERN.
Fundamental interactions

Affected Exchanged
Interactions Strength Impact
Particles Particles

Motion of
Gravitational Mass Graviton 4
planets, stars.

Electromagnet Entire
Charge Photons 2
ic Chemistry

Nuclear
Strong Quarks, Gluon Gluon 1
stability

Radioactive
Quarks, decay, some
Weak W & Z Bosons 3
Lepton reaction in
stars.

Neutrinos- They are the second most abundant particle in the Universe (after
photons), they are chargeless and almost massless and they do not interact with
most of the things in the universe.
There are three neutrinos- These neutrinos change their form among each other
as they travel.
This phenomenon is called Neutrino Oscillation.
Indian Neutrino observatory is under construction in Tamil Nadu, it will use an iron
calories meter to detect neutrinos.
Grand Unified theory
A theory that combines three fundamental interactions i.e electromagnetic,
strong, and weak interaction.
Theory of everything- The most accepted theory of fundamental particles
follows postulates of Quantum mechanics, and the most accepted theory of
gravity is a general theory of relativity both of these theories are very successful
in their own domain however any attempt to combine them has been proven to
be futile.
A theory that can combine all four fundamental forces i.e Quantum mechanics
with the general theory of relativity is called the theory of everything.
 Two popular candidates for such theory are String theory and Quantum loop
gravity.
Dark matter and dark energy
Visible matter does not have enough gravitational strength to hold galaxies
together.
Scientists believe that a type of matter which does not interact with light exists in
the universe even though it has not been detected till now.
The scientific community is confident of its existence because of its gravitational
effects such matter is called dark matter.
We know that universe is expanding scientists had assumed that because of
attractive forces between galaxies should slow down the expansion.
However many studies have pointed out that expansion is actually speeding up.
To explain the accelerated rate of expansion the term dark energy has been
coined.
Roughly 68% of the universe is dark energy, 27% is dark matter and only 5% is
visible matter.
Dr. Vikram Sarabhai
Dr. Sarabhai was an Indian astrophysicist who is considered the father of the
Indian program.
He contributed to the establishment of ISRO which was originally known as the
Indian national committee for space research.
He was the first chairman of this body.
India's first rocket launching station at 'Thumba' was established by doctor
Sarabhai, Dr. Bhabha, and Dr. Kalam.
The first Indian satellite Aryabhatta which was launched by the Russian space
agency was the brainchild of Dr. Sara Bhai.
He also contributed to the development of India's nuclear power plants and was
appointed chairman of the atomic energy commission of India after the death of
Dr. Bhabha.
He founded a physical research laboratory in Ahemdabad which was one of the
first research institutes in India.
A satellite instructional television experiment was launched in India in 1976 based
on his dialogue with NASA.
Dr. Homi Jahangir Bhabha
He was the first person to become chairman of the atomic energy commission.
He is acknowledged as the father of India's nuclear program.
 Three-stages nuclear program was envisaged by him to effectively utilize thorium
reserves.
He contributed to the development of nuclear physics as well as an understanding
of cosmic radiation.
He was instrumental in setting up the Tata institute of fundamental research.
He advocated for the prohibition of atomic bombs worldwide.
He also helped in India's first rocket launching station.
He was nominated for the noble prize in physics thrice.
Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam-
Dr. Kalam was an Indian scientist who also served as the 11th President of India.
He was successful in developing the first Indian hovercraft.
He was instrumental in setting up Thumba equatorial rocket launching station.
He was the project director of India's first satellite launch vehicle.
He also led an integrated guided missile development program.
The Pokhran-II nuclear tests were conducted under his leadership.
He served as the first principal scientific advisor to the government of India.
He was awarded Bharat Ratna in 1997.
S. Ramanujan
With almost no formal training in pure mathematics, Ramanjun made an
extraordinary contribution.
He is known for several mathematical concepts such as infinite series, number
theory, continued fractions, and real analysis among many others.
He introduced a method of summation known as Ramanujan Sum which is used
in signal processing such as music, DNA sequences, etc.
He introduced the mock theta function used in string theory.
His mathematical ideas were also used to develop an understanding of black
holes.
His birth anniversary on December -22 is celebrated as national mathematics day.
Dr. Hargobind Khurana
Dr. Khurana was given a noble prize for medicine in 1968 for interpreting genetic
code and its function in protein synthesis.
He constructed the world's first synthetic gene paving the way for development in
genetic engineering.
He discovered the structure of transfer RNA (t-RNA) which plays an important role
in protein synthesis.
 He contributed to the science of polymerase chain reaction which is used to
detect genetic material from a specific organism such as a virus.
Dr. Meghnath Saha-
He is best known for his work related to the thermal ionization of elements which
led him to formulate the Saha equation.
This equation is one of the basic tools to interpret the spectra of stars in
astrophysics.
By studying the spectra of stars one can find the temperature and state of various
elements making up the stars.
He was also the chief architect of river planning in India.
Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar
It is considered as the father of research labs in India in 1942 under his leadership
council of scientific and industrial research (CSIR) was formed.
1943 five national labs of CSIR were set up.
After Independence, he became chairman of CSIR and many more labs were set
up.
He was the first chairman of UGC.
The government of India to honor his legacy instituted the Shanti Swaroop
Bhatnagar prize for scientists who have made significant contributions to various
branches of science.
Robotics
A robot is a programmed machine and robotics is the science and technology of
robots including their design, manufacture, and application.
It is an interdisciplinary branch that includes mechanical engineering, information
sciences, electronics, and computer science among others.
Applications:
Agriculture-
Farming in harsh terrain areas.
Use of drones for spraying pesticides.
To prevent the attack of wild animals.
Logistics- For warehouse management as well as delivery of goods
Hazardous work- For mining nuclear waste management, chemical waste
management, manual scavenging, bomb disposal squads, etc.
Exploration of the moon, mars, or any other planet is not possible without robots.
Defense- Surveillance of streets, Maoist areas, and national borders.
Medical application- robotically assisted surgery.
Jobs vs. Automation
India is in a race against demography as well as intelligent machines.
It will have to figure out how to create jobs for the millions to join the labor force
everywhere at a time when robots are becoming important in performing a range
of human tasks.
Robots can become a perfect substitute for human labor because of their
efficiency, productivity, less cost in terms of wages among many other benefits.
At the same time, growing automation leads to job losses, social unrest,
inequality, etc.
Therefore the impact of automation is very difficult to predict.
We need to understand a few basic ideas:
1. Fear of disruptive technology is not new for example Luddite movement in
England called for the destruction of machines to save jobs.
2. When the computerization of banks started there was a fear of job losses but in
hindsight, we know that nothing of this sought happened and our banking
experience improved.
3. There is often a common mistake to assume that only limited work can be done
in an economy.
Human desires are virtually unlimited compared to the supply of labor.
The introduction of robots in the long run and its impact is difficult to predict, we
have to be cautious while promoting automation at the same time skill
development programs need to be upgraded and ideas such as universal basic
income need to be debated.
Drone regulation in India
Drones are unmanned aerial vehicles that can fly autonomously or pilot remotely.
They have many applications in survey, disaster management, delivery of goods,
commercial photography, and soil health monitoring among others.
There are concerns also about security threats, malfunction of a drone, invasion of
privacy, etc.
The government has come up with drone rule 2021 under the aircraft act 1934. It
has the following salient features:
Classification of drones based on mass in five categories.
Air space has been partitioned into Red zone (no-fly zone), yellow zone
(controlled air space and required clearance), and green zone (unrestricted air
space).
However, even for the green zone, there is a need to get clearance from the
digital sky platform.
This platform is a software-based self-enforcement unmanned traffic
management system.
It facilities registration and licensing of drones.
It also provides instant clearances to operators for every flight.
Thus India has a no permission no takeoff clause.
Drone operators require a license and foreigners are not allowed to fly drones in
India.
For commercial purposes, they need to lease the drone to an Indian entity who in
turn will obtain a unique identification and number and unmanned aircraft
operator permit from DGCA.