Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
CIV 0323A – HYDRAULICS (LEC)
MODULE 1.0:
Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics
Lecture slides by: Engr. Lance Joseph A. Esquejo
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Properties of Fluids
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Introduction:
What is Fluid Mechanics?
Fluid mechanics is the science of the mechanics of liquids and gases and is based on
the same fundamental principles that are employed in the mechanics of solids.
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Introduction:
Three Branches of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics can be divided into three branches:
a. Fluid statics is the study of the mechanics of fluids at rest
b. Kinematics deals with velocities and streamlines without considering forces or
energy
c. Fluid dynamics is concerned with the relations between velocities and
accelerations and the forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion.
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Introduction:
Hydrodynamics vs Hydraulics
Classical Hydrodynamics Hydraulics
deals with an imaginary ideal fluid when dealing with real fluids
that is completely frictionless (liquids)
without consideration of all the from experiments, and from these
properties of real fluids, limited developed empirical formulas that
practical value supplied answers to practical
problems
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Solid vs Fluid
Solid Fluid
Attractive forces between the The attractive forces between the
molecules of a solid are so large molecules are smaller. May either
that a solid tends to retain its be a gas or liquid.
shape
An ideal elastic solid will deform The intermolecular cohesive
under load and, once the load is forces in a fluid are not great
removed, will return to its original enough to hold the various
state. elements of the fluid together.
A plastic solid will deform under Hence a fluid will flow under the
the action of sufficient and, when action of the slightest stress and
the load is removed, does not flow will continue as long as the
return to its original state stress is present
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Gas vs Liquid
Gas Liquid
The molecules of a gas are much farther A liquid is relatively incompressible.
apart than those of a liquid. Hence, a gas is
very compressible.
When all external pressure is removed, it If all pressure, except that of its own vapor
tends to expand indefinitely. A gas is pressure, is removed, the cohesion
therefore in equilibrium only when it is between molecules hold them together, so
completely enclosed. that the liquid does not expand indefinitely.
Therefore, a liquid may have a free surface,
i.e., a surface from which all pressure is
removed, except that of its own vapor.
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Vapor
• Vapor is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near the
liquid phase. Thus, steam is considered a vapor because its state is not far from that
of water.
• A gas may be defined as a highly superheated vapor; that is, its state is far removed
from the liquid phase. Thus, air is considered a gas because its state is normally very
far from that of liquid air.
• The volume of a gas or vapor is greatly affected by changes in pressure or
temperature or both.
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Density
Density, 𝝆 (rho), or more strictly, mass density of a fluid is its mass per unit volume.
Property Formula English Units SI Units
slugs per cubic foot ( ) kilograms per cubic meter( ) or
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density, ρ= or
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
since 1 lb = (1 slug)(1 ft/sec ) since 1 N = (1 kg)(1 m/sec )
1 lb = 4.448 N and 1 slug = 14.59 kg
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Specific Weight
Specific Weight, 𝜸 (gamma), of a fluid is its weight per unit volume. It represents the
force exerted by gravity on unit volume of fluid.
Property Formula English Units SI Units
Specific 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 Newtons per cubic meter
𝛾= pounds per cubic foot ( )
Weight 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ( )
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Density vs Specific Weight
Density Specific Weight Remarks
Absolute since it depends Not absolute since it depends on
on mass, which is the value of the gravitational
independent of location acceleration 𝑔, which varies with
location, primarily latitude and
elevation above mean sea level.
𝛾 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 Relationship
𝜌=
𝑔
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Specific Volume
Specific Volume, 𝒗, is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. Commonly applied
to gases. It is the reciprocal of density.
Property Formula English Units SI Units
1 cubic feet per slug cubic meters per
Specific 𝑣=
𝜌
Volume ( ) kilogram ( )
where 𝜌 = mass density
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity, 𝒔, of a liquid is the dimensionless ratio between the density of liquid
and water at standard temperature. Since the density of a fluid varies with temperature,
we must determine and specify specific gravities at particular temperatures.
Property Formula
𝜌
Specific Gravity 𝑠=
𝜌 ∗
𝑔 𝑔
∗𝜌 ° = 1.00 (𝑜𝑟 1.00 )
𝑐𝑚 𝑚𝐿
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Sample Problem 1
The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 62.4 lb/ft³. The
specific gravity of mercury is 13.56. Compute the density of water and the specific
weight and density of mercury.
Solution:
slug ft
γ 62.4 lb/ft lb sec ( ) × sec 𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠
ρ = = = 1.938 = 1.938 sec = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟑𝟖 𝟑
g 32.2 ft/sec ft ft 𝒇𝒕
𝐥𝐛
γ =s γ = (13.56)(62.4 lb/ft ) = 𝟖𝟒𝟔. 𝟏𝟒𝟒
𝐟𝐭 𝟑
𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠𝐬
ρ =s ρ = (13.56)(1.938 slugs/ft ) = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟐𝟕𝟗
𝐟𝐭 𝟑
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Sample Problem 2
The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 9.81 kN/m³. The
specific gravity of mercury is 13.56. Compute the density of water and the specific
weight and density of mercury.
Solution:
kg m
γ 9.81 kN/m kN sec 1000 N sec ( ) × sec 𝐤𝐠
ρ = = =1 =1 = 1000 sec = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑
g 9.81 m/sec m m m 𝐦
𝐤𝐍
γ =s γ = (13.56)(9.81 kN/m ) = 𝟏𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝐦𝟑
kg 𝐤𝐠 𝐌𝐠
ρ =s ρ = 13.56 1000 = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝟑 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝟑
m 𝐦 𝐦
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Exercise 1
1. If the specific weight of a liquid is 52 lb/ft³, what is its density? 1.615 slugs/ft³
2. If the specific weight of a liquid is 8.1 kN/m³ , what is its density? 826 kg/m³
3. If the specific volume of a gas is 375 ft³/slug, what is its specific weight in lb/ft³? 0.0859 lb/ft³
4. If the specific volume of a gas is 0.70 m³/kg, what is its specific weight in N/m³? 14.01 N/m³
5. A certain gas weighs 16.0 N/m³ at a certain temperature and pressure. What are the values of
its density, specific volume, and specific gravity relative to air weighing 12.0 N/m³? 1.631
kg/m³, 0.613 m³/kg, 1.333
6. The specific weight of glycerin is 78.6 lb/ft³. Compute its density and specific gravity. What is
its specific weight in kN/m³? 2.44 slugs/ft³, 1.260, 12.36 kN/m³
7. If a certain gasoline weighs 43 lb/ft³, what are the values of its density, specific volume, and
specific gravity relative to water at 60°F (Specific Weight=62.37lb/ft³)? 1.335 slugs/ft³, 0.749
ft³/slug, 0.689
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Exercise 1
1. If the specific weight of a liquid is 52 lb/ft³, what is its density? 1.615 slugs/ft³
2. If the specific weight of a liquid is 8.1 kN/m³ , what is its density? 826 kg/m³
3. If the specific volume of a gas is 375 ft³/slug, what is its specific weight in lb/ft³? 0.086 lb/ft³
4. If the specific volume of a gas is 0.70 m³/kg, what is its specific weight in N/m³? 14.014 N/m³
5. A certain gas weighs 16.0 N/m³ at a certain temperature and pressure. What are the values of
its density, specific volume, and specific gravity relative to air weighing 12.0 N/m³? 1.631
kg/m³, 0.613 m³/kg, 1.333
6. The specific weight of glycerin is 78.6 lb/ft³. Compute its density and specific gravity. What is
its specific weight in kN/m³? 2.441 slugs/ft³, 1.260, 12.346 kN/m³
7. If a certain gasoline weighs 43 lb/ft³, what are the values of its density, specific volume, and
specific gravity relative to water at 60°F (Specific Weight=62.37lb/ft³)? 1.335 slugs/ft³, 0.749
ft³/slug, 0.689
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Compressible and Incompressible Liquids
• Fluid mechanics deals with both incompressible and compressible fluids, that is,
with liquids and gases of either constant or variable density.
• Although there is no such thing in reality as an incompressible fluid, we use this
term where the change in density with pressure is so small as to be negligible. This
is usually the case with liquids.
• We may also consider gases to be incompressible when the pressure variation is
small compared with the absolute pressure.
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Compressible and Incompressible Liquids
Incompressible Compressible
The flow of air in a ventilating system For a gas or steam flowing at high
is a case where we may treat a gas velocity through a long pipeline, the
as incompressible, for the pressure drop in pressure may be so great
variation is so small that the change that we cannot ignore the change in
in density is of no importance density.
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Compressibility of Liquids
• Fluid mechanics deals with both incompressible and compressible fluids, that is,
with liquids and gases of either constant or variable density.
• Although there is no such thing in reality as an incompressible fluid, we use this
term where the change in density with pressure is so small as to be negligible. This
is usually the case with liquids.
• We may also consider gases to be incompressible when the pressure variation is
small compared with the absolute pressure.
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Compressibility of Liquids
The compressibility, 𝜷 (beta) (change in volume due to change in pressure) of a liquid
is inversely proportional to its volume modulus of elasticity, 𝑬𝒗 (also known as bulk
modulus) and is defined as the ratio of the volumetric stress to the volumetric strain.
Property Formula English Units SI Units
𝑑𝑝 −Δ𝑝 kiloNewtons per
𝐸 = −𝑣 = pounds per square
𝑑𝑣 Δ𝑣/𝑣 square meter
Bulk Modulus
where 𝑣 = specific volume inch ( or psi)
( or kPa)
and 𝑝 = pressure
1 square inch per square meter per
Compressibility 𝛽=
𝐸 pound ( ) kiloNewton ( )
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Compressibility of Liquids
Table 1. Bulk modulus of water 𝐸 , psi
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Sample Problem 3
At a depth of 8 km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8 MPa. Assume that the specific
weight of seawater at the surface is 10.05 kN/m³ and that the average volume modulus
is 2.34 x 10⁹ N/m² for that pressure range. (a) What will be the change in specific
volume between that at the surface and at that depth? (b) What will be the specific
volume at that depth? (c) What will be the specific weight at that depth?
Solution: γ 10.05 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 10050 𝑁/𝑚
𝜌 = = =
𝑔 9.81 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 9.81 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑁 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑘𝑔
= 1024.465 = 1024.465 = 1024.465
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
1 1 𝑚
𝑣= = = 976.119 × 10
𝜌 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
1024.465
𝑚
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Sample Problem 3
Solution (cont.): 𝑁 𝑚
𝑁 (−81.8 × 10 )(976.119 × 10 )
∆𝑝 𝑁 81.8 𝑀𝑃𝑎 −81.8 × 10 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝐸 =− ; 2.34 × 10 =− = 𝑚 =
∆𝑣 𝑚 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑣 ∆𝑣
𝑣 𝑚 𝑚
976.119 × 10 976.119 × 10
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑁 𝑚
(−81.8 × 10 )(976.119 × 10 ) 𝒎𝟑
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝟔
∆𝑣 = = −𝟑𝟒. 𝟏𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑁 𝒌𝒈
2.34 × 10
𝑚
𝑚 𝑚 𝟔
𝒎𝟑
𝑣 =𝑣 + ∆𝑣 = 976.119 × 10 + −34.122 × 10 = −𝟗𝟒𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
1 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝑣 = = −941.997 × 10 ;𝜌 = 1061.575
𝜌 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑚
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑁 𝒌𝑵
γ =𝜌 𝑔 = 1061.575 9.81 = 10414.051 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 10414.051 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟒 𝟑
𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚 𝑚 𝒎
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Exercise 2
1. To two significant figures what is the bulk modulus of water in MN/m² at 50°C under
a pressure of 30 MN/m²? Use Table 1.
2. At normal atmospheric conditions, approximately what pressure in psi must be
applied to water to reduce its volume by 2%? Use Table 1.
3. Water in a hydraulic press is subjected to a pressure of 4500 psia at 68°F. If the
initial pressure is 15 psia, approximately what will be the percentage decrease in
specific volume? Use Table 1.
4. At normal atmospheric conditions, approximately what pressure in MPa must be
applied to water to reduce its volume by 3%?
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem
Properties of Fluids:
Exercise 2
5. A rigid cylinder, inside diameter 15 mm, contains a column of water 500 mm long.
What will the column length be if a force of 2 kN is applied to its end by a frictionless
plunger? Assume no leakage.
PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA CIV 0323A – Hydraulics
College of Engineering and Technology Engr. L.A. Esquejo; 2nd Sem