The Institution of Structural Engineers

Stability of
buildings

Roof
• and Loor Oct 05
horizontal girders taking
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todo so.

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r This document
contains25 pages
DECEMBER1988 L

Published by the Institution of Structural Engineers

The Institution of Structural Engineers

Stability of buildings

DECEMBER 1988

The Institution of Structural Engineers

11 UPPER BELGRAVE STREET, LONDON SWIX 8BH

I
Constitution of ad hoc Committee

K. C. White, BSc(Eng). CEng. FlStructE. FICE. FIHT. Chairman (Director,Travers Morgan Ltd.)
P. R. Bartle, CEng. FlStructE
G. Davison, BSc. CEng. MlStructE, MICE (London Borough of Wandsworth)
B. H. Fisher, BSc, CEng. FlStructE. FICE. (Chairman, Editorial Panel)
(Cooper Macdonald & Partners)
H. B. Gould, CEng. FiStructE. FICE. (Consultant, G. Maunsell & Partners)
R. Hankin. BSc(Hons). CEng, MlStructE, MICE (G. Maunsell & Partners)
T. W. Hill, CEng, MlStructE. MICE. FIAS (previously District Surveyor)
M. W. Manning, MA(Cantab). CEng. MlStructE (Ove Arup & Partners)
J. F. A. Moore, MA(Cantab). BSc(Eng). ARSM, DIC. PhD, CEng, MlStructE
(Building Research Establishment)
R. Narayanan, BE. MSc. DIC. PhD. CEng. FlStructE. FICE, MASCE (The Steel
Construction Institute, previously with University College, Cardiff)
F. H. Needham, BSc. FlStructE. FICE (The Institution of Structural Engineers, previously
with CONSTRADO)
.1.B. Price, BSc(Eng). CEng, FlStructE (FC Precast Concrete Ltd.)
D. W. Quinion, BSc(Eng). FEng, FiStructE. FICE (Tarmac Construction Ltd.)
J. G. Sunley, BSc. MSc. CEng. FlStructE. FIWSc (TRADA)
R. J. M. Sutherland. BA. FEng. FiStructE. FJCE. FIHT (Consultant. Harris & Sutherland)
D. J. Wilson, BSc(Eng). CEng. MlStructE (Travers Morgan Ltd.)

R. J. W. Milne, BSc. Secretary (The Institution of Structural Engineers)

© 1988: The Institution of Structural Engineers

The Institution of Structural Engineers, as a body is not responsible for the
statements made or the opinions expressed in the following pages.
This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the International
Copyright Convention. All rights [Link] from any copyingunder the UK
Copyright Act 1956, part 1, section 7, whereby a single copy of an article may be
supplied, under certainconditions,forthe purposesofresearchor privatestudy by a
library or a class prescribed by the UK Board of Trade Regulations (Statutory
Instruments,1957 no. 868), no part ofthis publicationmaybe reproduced,storedin a
retrievalsystemortransmittedinany form or byany meanswithout prior permission
of the Institution of Structural Engineers. Permissionis not, however, required to
copy extracts on condition that a full reference to the source is shown. Multiple
copying of the contents of the publication ',%'ithout permission contravenes the
aforementioned Act.
2 IStruciEStability
Contents
Foreword 5

1 Introduction 7
1.1 Aimsofthereport 7
1.2 Definition ofstability 7
1.3 Actions 7
1.4 Scope 7

2 General considerations 9
2.1 Responsibilityforbuilding structure 9
2.2 Structural planning 9
2.3 Quality ofmaterials andworkmanship 9
2.4 Movements 9
2.5 Tolerances 9
2.6 Deterioration and fire 9
2.7 Alterationandchangeofuse 9
2.8 Standard designs and factory production
ofstructural components 11
2.9 Construction onsite II
3 Actions—designstage 11
3.1 Permanent actions II
3.2 Variable actions 11
3.3 Accidental actions 11

4 Stability—designstage 12
4.1 Permanentand variable sections 12
4.2 Accidentalactions 15
4.3 Otheractions 17

5 Stability duringalteration orchangeofuse 19

6 Actions—construction stage 20
6.1 Worksbelowground 20
6.2 Worksaboveground 20
6.3 Partially orcompleted buildings 20

7 Stability—construction stage 21
7.1 General 21
7.2 Exchange ofinformation 21
7.3 Otherconsiderations 21

8 Summary 22

Appendix Further guidance for stability

duringconstruction 23
1 Single-storeysteelstructures 23
2 Multistorey steelstructures 23
3 Heavy industrial buildingswith cranes 23
4 Other steel structures 23
5 Wind loadingon steelskeletons 23
6 Effectofcladdingon steel structures 23
7 Concrete cast insituframed construction 23
8 Precast concrete framed andpanelconstruction 24
9 Other concrete structures 24
10 Structures of timber, laminated plywood.
aluminium and composite materials such
asGRPandGRC 24
11 Masonry 24

References 24
IStructE Stability 3
4 IStructEStability
 Foreword

In 1971 the Institution ofStructural Engineers publisheda reporton the Stabilityof

modern buildingsas a resultofits conference on industrializedbuildings, the collapseof
prefabricated buildingsundererectionat Aldershotandthe aftermath of thetragic
accident at Ronan [Link] reportwas largelyconcerned with high-riseconstruction,
anditwas in 1984that the Institution formed a Committee to prepare asuccessor todeal
with stabilityofall types ofbuilding whetherhigh or lowrise.
The new report wasto describe the disturbing forces, to adviseon stability formost
forms ofconstruction, andtoconsider stability during construction.
Oneofthe difficultiesfacingthe Committee was to arriveat a definition ofstability
for buildingsandhow to separateconsiderations ofstabilityfrom those ofstrength.
Expressions such as 'sensitivity', 'structural integrity', 'robustness'and 'lack ofobvious
orhiddenwobbliness' were putbeforethe Committee but rejected in favourof
'stability' with a definition in the text.
The reportsets outthe many aspects of design andconstruction that have to betaken
into account so that structures remain in a stablestateat all times. It is hopedthat itwill
make apositive contribution togoodpractice in the office andonsite.
During the preparation,many people havecommented, andthe Institution wouldbe
grateful ifanyfurthercomment could be forwarded toit.
Lastly, I would express my thanks to the members ofthe Committee andtheir
organizations andalso to the Committee Secretary, Mr. R. J. W. Milne, for all their
efforts, carried out in an enthusiastic andharmonious mannerwhich characterized the
work.

June 1988 K. C. White, Chairman, adhocCommittee

IStructEStability 5
 (

6 IStructE Stability
 Introduction

1.1 Aims of the report 1. permanent actions, i.e. dead and permanently imposed
Structural engineering is the science and art of designing loads
andmaking with economy and elegance buildings,bridges, 2. variable actions, i.e. imposed, wind, snow, dynamic
frameworks and other similar structures so that they can loads and predictable impacts
3. accidental actions. e.g. unpredictable impact, explosion
safely resist the forces towhich they may be subjected. This and seismic
report confines itself to buildings. 4. other actions, i.e. temperatue,moisture, deterioration,
Structural safety depends on both material strength and
stability. It is vital that designers should distinguish be- creep, fire and foundation movements
tween the two. This report deals with stability not strength, 5. actions resulting from alterations or change of use.
anddescribes the actions to be considered at thedesign and Permanent and variable actions may both be classed as
construction stages and subsequently so that the building normal loads because they occur commonly, and are
remains stable throughout its life. defined in Codes of Practice, as opposed to accidental
Stability is essentially an [Link] largely actions where the likelihood of occurrence is small and the
independent ofstrength. Yet lack of stability has probably magnitude is largely unknown. Temperature, moisture,
caused more structural problems than have shortcomingsin deterioration, creep, and fire actions can affect all build-
material strength. Stability is susceptible to numerical ings, and an assessment of their magnitude can be made.
analysis only to a limited extent. Foundation movement may induce an action on a building
Fig. 1 aims to convey at a glance the essence ofstability. or occur as a result of the action of a building.
A house of cards is unstable, but the material is not Stability should not be jeopardized by combinations of
seriously stressed. Those masonry buildings that fail do so the actions.
mostly by instability rather than by overstressing. Slender
beams,or columns may become unstable orbuckle at loads 1.4 Scope
wellbelow those whichthe material itselfcan support. Lack In this report reference is made to British practice and
ofbracing canallow instabilityto occur leading to collapse. standards. However, this should not betaken as limitingits
Overturning ofacomplete structureis an extreme example scope or its range of applications to the UK only. The
of instability. overall appreciation of stability and the strategy adopted to
achieve stability willbethe same wherever the buildingsare
1.2 Definition of stability required,but some actions will assume greatersignificance
Provided that displacements induced by normal loads are in different parts of the world.
acceptable, then a building may be said to be stable if: Considerations that affectthe stability of a structureor
• a minor change in its form, condition, normal loading or building may change or assume greater importance as its
size increases. Greater attention may have to be paid to
equipment would not cause partial or complete collapse
and stability in their design and construction. However, any
• it is not unduly sensitive to change resulting from attempt to place structures or buildings into classes in
relationto stability would be arbitraryand therefore cause
accidental or other actions
anomalies, whether they are basedon typeofuse, extentof
Normal loads include the permanent and variable actions occupancy or materials of construction.
for which the building has been designed. A form of construction should be used so that the
The phrase 'is not unduly sensitive to change' should be structure is not unduly sensitive to a particular use, and so
broadlyinterpretedto meanthat the buildingshould be so that the form ofthe structureis not being extended beyond
designed that it will not be damaged by accidental or other the range whereexperiencehas shownit tobe stable, unless
actions to an extentdisproportionate to the magnitudes of special care is taken during its design.
the original causes of damage. Building regulations place requirements on certain
1.3 Actions buildings. These requirements do not aim to achieve
greaterstability thanfor otherbuildings but areconsidered
In the preparation of [Link] and imposed necessaryto provide an adequate standardfor all buildings.
loads, events such as explosions, impact, fires, etc. and Other considerations, economic or political, may impose
naturalagents (e.g. climate, geographicaland environmen- more stringent requirements for stability for certain build-
tal) areregardedas agents causing actionsto he imposed on ings, but these should not detract from the requirement
the structure. It has therefore been decided to use this that all buildingsshould havea minimum level of stability.
nomenclature in this report and to define the actions to be This report is thereforeintended to apply to all buildings
taken into account when considering the stability of whether permanent or temporaryand to encompass those
buildings as follows: where alterations or changes of use are being considered.

IStructE Stability 7
 I I I I I I I I
— —S

- x
-
Plan Plan

-
-e
tL:k -
—111

-H
IL
—e-
r

II

///////////////////////
1
r II
!.

I
Elevation ELevation
Stable in both X and V directions Stable lateraLly in V direction
Unstable longitudinalLy in X direction

Movement joints i.e. complete

separationfromground floor level upward
Stair /Lift tower_ .___
(concrete walls)

Ir/1
777/
//////////////7/// ////////////////////
Ramp structure
Elevation due to its geometry

Plan

Structure ® Stable in both directions Structure®Unstable in both directions

No lift or ramp structure

Fig. I Examples ofinstability

8 IStructE Stability
 2 General considerations

2.1 Responsibility for building structure 5. Although it should be recognizedthat some local damage
One engineer should be responsible for the overall design cannotbe avoided, movements may be accommodated by:
includingstability ofany buildingstructureandshould have
the duty to see that the designs and details of all structural
••
limiting the extent of movement
the provision of joints to accommodate movements
parts and components comply with the stability require-
ments, even wheresome or all ofthe structural designs and
•
detailing of connections and bearings so as to accommo-
date movements and to minimize and control their
details of some parts or components are developed by deterioration.
others.
When the working drawings have been completed, it
should be the responsibility of one engineer to appraise
independently the whole design to see that requirements 2.5 Tolerances
forstability have beenincorporated in all elements, and can Implications of tolerances adopted in design should be
be met during the construction stage. considered in assessing stability.
A statementaccompanied by sketches showing stability Problems can occur if standards ofaccuracy are assumed
requirements should be preparedwhen necessary, e.g. for during design that are not achievable in construction.
any unusual design or for a structure having particular Designs should therefore be based on tolerances that can
[Link] should be madeavailableto the contrac- be [Link] ofunrealistictolerances
tor who will be responsible for the stability of the building specified for construction can particularly affect the stabil-
structure and for any temporary works during its construc- ity of structures and buildings employing prefabricated
tion. structural components or employingprefabricated building
components in in situ construction.
The assessment of tolerances to be specified should be
2.2 Structural planning based on clearly stated assumptions on such matters as
The main loadbearing elements of a building should be material properties, manufacturing anderectiontolerances
positioned and sized to provide a building that is stable and erection procedures. This will be of particular import-
against the effects ofnormal loads. There should be defined ance where the design of components is undertaken by
paths that transmit these loads to the ground. The location other engineers who may, in the absence of specific
and sizes of the main loadbearing elements should be so guidance from the engineer with overall responsibility,
arrangedthat the structure is not unduly sensitive to the adopt differing philosophies in their approach.
effects of accidental and other actions.
Ifa checkreveals that thebuildingis likelyto be sensitive
to these effects thenthe structure should either be replan-
ned or modified as described in Section 4. 2.6 Deterioration and fire
When movement joints are incorporated then eachpart Deterioration of structural and building components and
of the structurebetween joints should be considered as a the effects of fire can lead to loss of stability. Generally,
separate building for stability purposes. deterioration will take place over an extended period of
Consideration should be given to the arrangements of time, but an exception to this is the effect of fire.
main loadbearing elements so that they are accessible for When deterioration becomes evident it isessential that a
inspection and maintenance, and so that non-loadbearing means ofmonitoring it is established as soon as possible so
elements can be replaced. that warnings are given should the deterioration continue
Finally, the effects of the construction process on the to the point where stability may be impaired.
overall stability of the structure during erection and on With regard to fire, guidance in the relevant British
completion should be assessed. Standards and Codes of Practice should be observed, or if
the design is based on fire-engineering principles, the
2.3 Quality of materials and workmanship assumptions made in the design should be validated.
Designs ofbuildingsare basedon specifiedqualities forthe
materials and workmanship to be used. Weaknesses or
deficiencies by comparison with specified requirements 2.7 Alterationsand change of use
may cause instability. Specifications for materials and Alteration to a structureor buildingmay reduce stability to
workmanship should be unambiguous, precise and such an extent that in the extreme (e.g. by the removal or
appropriateto the particular project. The application of alteration of an element)collapse of the structureor of an
quality-management schemes by suppliers and contractors adjacent building may result. During the design of the
should provide assurance that the materials and workman- alteration particular attention should be paid to stability
ship, respectively, conform to specified standards. It is considerations andto temporaryweaknessescreatedin the
nevertheless desirable that designers ascertain that such structurearisingfrom the proposed construction sequence.
schemes apply to the particular components and workman- Change of use of a structure or building may result in
ship required, and that the schemes are being im- changes of loading that, in the extreme, may overload an
plemented. element to such an extent as to give rise to instability.
To allow assessmentsto be made ofthe effects ofchange
of use or alterations, it is highlydesirable to haveaccess to
2.4 Movements the original structural design documents. To serve this
All structures and buildings are subject to movements and purpose among others, it is recommended that these
deformations during construction and in service. Some documents are retainedby buildingowners,occupiers and
arisingfrom various actions are listed on Table 1 in Section designers.
IStructE Stability 9
2.8 Standard designs and factory production 2.9 Construction on site
of structural components Most instances of instability in structures and buildings
Modern methods of construction have relied increasingly occur on site during construction. The actions and mea-
on factory production of major structural components for sures that should be considered so that structures remain
some types of building. As a result, buildings are con- stableduringconstructionaredescribedinSections6and7,
structed based on common designs and using common [Link] work should be undertaken only
components. Consideration of stability of such designs and by those who will exercise theirduty to supervise the work
components should be commensurate with the total quanti- so that the requirements ofthe design and specificationfor
ty of buildings to which they will he applied. Each materials and workmanship are achieved, and so that the
individual buildingconstructed ofsuch designs and compo- stability of the temporaryand permanent works is main-
nents should be separately checked for stability. tamed at all times.

10 IStructE Stability
3 Actions design stage

Thepermanent,variable and accidental actions to be taken applied to the structure in order to accommodate the
intoaccount aredescribed in this Section. Forthedetails of effects of inaccuracy in construction of stability. These
other actions see subsection 4.3. should be calculated, and their effect assessed in accord-
ance with the requirements of these British standards.
3.1 Permanent actions Dynamic loads
Dead loads Where it can be foreseen that normal operating conditions
Dead loads as defined in BS 6399: Part 1' are generally may induce dynamicloading onstructures, suitable precau-
regarded as being calculable to a reasonable degree of tionsbe should be adopted in the design. For simple cases, this
accuracy. may achieved by a straightforward enhancement of the
It should be recognized that variations between calcu- static load to cater for the dynamic effects. Morecomplex
lated and the actual load ofthe structure, finishes, cladding situations may require a dynamic analysis to determine the
and other permanent fixtures may occur as a result of the response of the structure to the applied load.
following: In cases where significant dynamic loadings are being
introduced intoa building, structural damping may needto
• deviations from design dimensions during construction beconsidered to minimize resonance effects in floors, or in
• deviations from design densities
• changes in moisture content the structureas a whole. These measures may increase the
dead loads and thus affect the stability of the structure.
• alterations, additions and demolition. Dynamic loads arising from the operation of machinery
For some buildings these variations may be significant. and gantry cranes are defined briefly in BS 6399: Part I
Predictable impacts
3.2 Variable actions The impact loads stated in BS 6399: Part 1' and other
Imposed loads British Standards to be used in design are derived from
predictable impacts. Their effects on the stability of
Imposed loads as defined in BS 6399: Part 1' should structures
normally be used for calculating the loads on all structural should be taken into account in the design for
members. normal loads.
The maximum and minimum imposed loads on all
members should be assessed to determine the adverse or
beneficial load combinations to be used in the design for
stability. 3.3 Accidental actions
Impact
Wind loads Accidental impact loads to be considered are those that
Wind loads as defined in CP3: Chapter V: Part 22 (or BS could arise from the impact of vehicles on structural
6399: Part 2, in course of preparation) should be used for. members that are vulnerable to such impacts, and which
calculating wind loads on all buildings. exceed the predictable impacts stated in subsection 3.2.
This Code deals with wind loads on buildings and their
components, and treats these as static loads since the Explosions
dynamicresponse of most building structures is not signifi- The nature of explosions and the factors influencingtheir
cant. However with the presenttrend towards lighter and magnitude makeit difficult to characterize explosive loads
taller structures, there is likely to be a need to determinesatisfactorily. Guidance for some types of explosives (i.e.
the dynamicresponse ofa wider range [Link] dust, high-explosivechemicals,etc.) may be obtained from
investigations, including model studies, may be necessary the relevant British Standards. Generally, it will be neces-
in such cases. saryto adopt an approach that doesnot require knowledge
of eitherexplosive loads or of detailed structural response
Roofloads but which will enable measures to be taken to avoid
Imposed loads asdefined in BS 6399: Part33 should be used disproportionate collapse of the building.
for calculating the loads on roof and other externally Some British Standards prescribe arbitrary values for
exposed members. detailed design based on a specified pressure of 34 kN/m2,
This Standard gives variation of the magnitude of the intended to lead to buildings that will not be unduly
snow load for different climatic and topographical condi- sensitive to the effects of explosions.
tions. Due to its geometry or location of certain roofs,
drifting of snow or accumulation of melted water may give Seismic loads
rise to greaterthan normal imposed loads on some parts of The UK is not free from earth tremors, although the
the roof. The effects of this, especially those due to majority ofthesearenot normallyofsuch significance as to
asymmetricalsnow loading, on the stability ofthe structure cause more than superficial damage to buildings designed
should be assessed. to meet the minimum strength and stability criteria re-
In certain environments or locations the possibility of quired by British Standards. Where specific design is
dust deposits imposingloads greaterthan those specifiedin required because of the particular nature of the building,
theBritish Standard for roofloading should be considered. information on the frequency and magnitude of recorded
earth tremorsin the UK, and worldwide, can be obtained
Notional horizontal loads from the Institute of Geographical Sciencesin Edinburgh.
British Standards for the structural use of some of the Use can then be made of one of the recognized codes in
structural materials define notional horizontal loads to be determining the seismic loads to be used.
IStructE Stability 11
4 Stability design stage

This Section describes the measures to be considered in Braced frames

design so thatstructures remain stable. These measures are Examples of some typicalbraced frames are shown in Figs.
listed separately for each of the actions, hut it is important 2. 3 and 4:
that thepossibilitiesofsome of these acting in combination
should also be considered. • Fig. 2 showsa buildingthatis rectangular on plan and has
bracing members around the lift shaft and stairs
4.1 Permanent and variable actions •
•
Fig. 3 shows a building square on plan with central core
Structural members should be so arranged that: Fig. 4 shows a building square on plan with perimeter
bracing members.
• there is at least one clearly defined path through which
the effects of the actions are transmitted to the ground Note: Not all the bracing members are shown on these
• structural members whose stability relies on the assump- Figures. some having ben omitted tor clarity.
tionthat theyarerestrainedin position areconnected toa In all these examples. the horizontal forces in the x— and
member that is of sufficient andstiffness y—direction are transmitted to the bracing members by
bracing strength suitably designed floors and roofs acting as horizontal
to provide the required restraint.
girders. There are other arrangements or locations of
There are two forms of structure to be considered, i.e.
those that have braced frames and those that are unbraced
and are allowed to sway

Rest of bracing
not shown for clarity

members
shaft

Bracing members around stairs

(Watts or Structural members)

Fig. 2 Braced frame: rectangular on p/an

Note: roof and floors nil! act as horizontal irdersprosided that thet are designed and detailed to do so,

IStructE Stability
 x

Roof and floors act as

horizontal girders taking
wind load from external
walls to core,provided they
are designed and detailed
to do so.

Central core full height

(foundation—roof)

Fig. 3 Braced frame: square on plan with centre core

bracing members that could be used, but emphasis should rotation assumed in the analysis. Their deflection in the
be on the provision of bracing members in two vertical x—direction should be kept within serviceability limits.
planes approximately at right-angles to each other. These In the y—direction the horizontal forces should be
bracing members may take the form of walls, or structural transmitted to the bracing members by the roof, or floors
members in either tension or compression, which should for multistorey buildings, or by specially designed tie
preferably be symmetrically positioned on plan to avoid members for single-storey buildings. Such tie members
torsional effects, especiallyin the case ofvery tall buildings. should also be provided to restrain in position the frames in
the y—clirection,i.e. on their weak axis in bending.
Unbraced frames Bracing members may take the form ofwalls or structu-
Examplesofsingle-storeyframes unbraced in onedirection ral members in either tension or compression or members
are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, for single and multiple spans. with theirstrong axisin bending in the y—directiondesigned
respectively. While single-storeybuildingsare shownin the
Figures. the same structural arrangements also apply to
a portals in the longitudinal direction.
Roof plane bracing shoud also be provided to transmit
multistorey buildings. In each case the frames in the the horizontal forces on the gable ends to the bracing
x—direction are unbraced. and their stability is provided members in the y—direction.
from within the frame by rigidconnections that should be of Thelocation and numberof braced bays shown in Figs.5
sufficient size and stiffness to provide restraint against the and 6 are indicative only.
IStructEStability 13
 x I

Rest of bracing
not shown for clarity

Bracing member walls

at each corner
Bracing members tension or
compression bracing at each corner

x
Fig. 4 Braced frame: square on plane with perimeter
bracing
Fig. 5 Frame unbraced in onedirection: single span

Roof plane

or

14 IStructE Stability
Masonry structures members. Specialattentionmust bepaid tothesefloors and
Masonry structures should normally be considered as roofs so that they and their connections are capable of
braced forms of construction, with strategically placed providing the load path to the 'bracing' members.
masonry elements providing the bracing. The provision of Tie members
structural staircases, and lift shafts may contribute to
satisfying the bracing requirements. An example of a Anothercommon featureof many forms of construction is
masonry structure is shown in Fig. 7. that tie members are provided to connect individual
For overall stability, particularattentionshould be paid structural members to the 'bracing' members. Special
to the followiiig items as ringed in Fig. 7: attention must be paid tothe designofthese tie members so
that they are capable of affording the restraint assumed in
••bonding or tying together of all intersecting walls thedesign, and to thebuckling and torsional restraintofthe
provision of, returns where practicable at ends of load individual tie members.
bearing walls
••
provision of bracing walls to external walls 4.2 Accidental actions
provision of internal bracing walls
•
provision of strapping of the floors and roof at their Buildingsand their structural members should be designed
to limit the extent of damage that may be caused by
bearings to the loadbearing walls.
accidental actions. Acceptable limitsofdamage are defined
In addition, the effects ofmovement joints,uplift due to in building regulations and British Standards for the safety
wind and accidental actions should be considered. of people. There may be other considerations that may
Common features imposefurtherlimits, but it should be recognizedthat some
damage arisingfrom accidental actions cannot be avoided.
Diaphragms Defence strategies available for limiting damage arising
Oneofthe common features of many forms ofconstruction from accidental actions are:
is that the floors and in some cases the roofs act as
horizontal diaphragms distributing forces to the 'bracing'

x
V

Atternative location
bracing

Valley bracing members

wall or compression bracing
or columns with their strong
axis in theY direction to form
portals as shown below
Note 1. Roof plane and side wall bracingas for
single span shown on fig.5 (omittedfor clarity)
2. Roof plane bracing may be taken across a
2 span building to take wind from valley
to the side wall

Fig. 6 Frame unbraced in one direction: multiple span

IStructE Stability 15
• enhancement of continuity stable following the notional removal of individual ele-
• strengthening of structure ments in turn. Generally, structures should not be wholly
• provision of multiple load paths dependent for theirstability on the structural integrity of a
• provision of relief single connection or element. Wherethis situation is found
• control measures. during design, the structural form should be re-examined.
Theappropriateness of the choice of strategy to be used If the situation cannot be avoided, then particular consid-
for any particular design may be constrained by economic eration should be given to the design of the connection or
or practical considerations. element to ensure that it will have ample strength and
toughness.
Enhancement of continuity
This strategy consists of the provision of increases in the Relief provision
resistance of the joints of structural members to enhance This strategy consistsofthe inclusionofdevicestoallow the
the effects of continuity on the structure. building to avoid carrying the load resulting from an
accidental action. Examples of this approach include the
of structure introduction of load-shedding devices such as venting for
Strengthening
This strategy consists of the provision of local or general floors to or the introduction
explosions of weak joints in walls and
transmission of load.
increases in the resistance of structural members to en- prevent
hance the overall strength ofthe structure. The strategywill Control measures
increase the size of the accidental action needed to
This strategy consists of the use of environmental and
precipitate failure and will reduce the likelihood ofinstabil- performance monitoring and control systems
ity. It will not necessarilyalter any brittle characteristicsof
the structure nor the nature of its final failure. They may be designed so that:
• the building is used as the designer intended by rapid
Provision of multiple loadpaths feedback of information to prevent misuse by the occu-
This strategy requires the design ofa structure insucha way pants
that load may be shed into other paths of resistance in the • repair and maintenance is instigated following non-
event of a local failure caused by an accidental action. critical damage
A practical way of checking whether multiple loadpaths • accidental actions affecting the structureor building are
are present is to assess whetherthe structure will remain avoided, e.g. by the installationofbollards. firecompart-
mentation, fire alarms, etc.
It is expected that theuse ofcontrol systemswill become
increasingly appropriate as their cost reduces and their
reliability increases.

Key
[Link] bonding or tying together
of all intersecting walls
2. The provision of returns where practicable
at ends of loadbeoring walls
3. The provision of bracing walls to external walls
4. The provision of internalbracing wolls
5. Provision of strapping of the floors and roof at
their bearings to the loadbeoring walls Fig. 7 Masonry structure
16 IStructE Stability
4.3 Other actions movement properties of the materials and the relevant
This subsection describes some of the other actions that environmental conditions to be expected in the location of
may contribute to loss of stability and gives advice on how the building, or its components.
to limit the damage caused by the effects ofsuch actions on
Deterioration
stability. To limit the effects of these other actions:
Most structural materials will suffer some form of de-
• the recommendations and rules of good practice con- terioration of physical properties in certain adverse en-
tained in the relevant British Standards should be vironmental conditions. Extrememagnitudes of deteriora-
followed to provide protection against the possibilityof tion can cause instability. Table 2 contains a list of the
theeffects oftheseother actions reaching extreme values
• the measures and defence strategies as described in potential causes of deterioration of common structural
subsection 4.2 should be considered as applying to these materials, i.e. metals, concrete, timberand masonry. This
list should however not be considered as being exhaustive.
other actions.
Movement effects
All structures and buildings are subject to movements and Table 2 Deterioration of structural materials
deformations, which may occur during construction, in
service or in both. Some of the actions and resulting material cause of deterioration
movement effects are listed in Table 1, although this list
should not be regarded as exhaustive. metals corrosion (including stress and molecular!
crystalline boundary corrosions)
galvanic action
Table 1 Movement effects resulting from actions fatigue
embrittlement (including hydrogen embrittlement)
strain hardening
actions resulting movement effects concrete corrosion of embedded metal and consequential
dead loads elastic and non-linear expansion
imposed loads bending and shear deformations abrasion and erosion
wind loads combined with axial and freezing and thawing
snow loads plamir strains, and elastic aggressive atmospheres
dynamic load and time-dependent movements aggressive soils
accidental load in the supporting ground aggressive chemicals
explosions including consolidation reactive constituents
seismic loads settlement and subsidence
timber insects
temperature changes expansion, contraction and fungi
and differentials bending of structural members wet rot
and building components marine borers
frost action and shrinkage and expansion of masonry freezing and thawing
moisture content building components; aggressive chemicals
changes in the differential swelling reactive constituents
construction shrinkage or settlement abrasion and erosion
materials and of supporting ground corrosion of wall ties
supporting ground incompatibility of mortar and masonry
chemical changes expansion and shrinkage or
such as conversion erosion of building materials Signs of deterioration will often emerge in the form of
attack by acid, alkali, rusting, cracking or spalling, occurring well before any
suiphates, etc. significant signs of instability become noticeable. The
consequences of deterioration of structural elements that
are not accessible for inspection should be considered.
When movements are restrained or are non-uniform, When deterioration becomes evident, itisessential that a
actions may arise within the structure or its building means of monitoring it is established as soon as possible to
elements which may affect their local or indeed their provide warning of the need for action before stability is
general stability. Collapse of a structure because of such impaired.
movements is rare, but serviceability failures could, if
unchecked or neglected, eventually threatenthe stability of Creep
the structureor its components. Deformation in structural members and building com-
Progressive changes in the condition of structural ele- ponents caused by creepcan cause instability. An estimate
ments andthe accumulation oflocal damage or irreversible of the likely magnitude of these deformations can be made
movement mayleadto instability. The bodilydisplacement from the time-dependent propertiesof the materials and
of a wall or beam on its seating or rotational movements at the duration and incidence of the sustained loads.
bearings could cause progressive spalling of the supports,
as illustrated in Fig. 8. Fire
The magnitude of the imposed deformations listed in Dimensions of structural members are most commonly
Table 1 may be estimated from the thermal and physical chosen to give satisfactory performance for
prescribed
properties of the materials and the expected range of periods of fire exposure using prescriptive design data
temperatures in the location of the buildings, and the based on the results ofthe tests. Elements designed in this
aspect ofthe components. Some guidance may be obtained way can be expected to retain adequate strength and
from BRE digest 228 in respect of thermal movements, stiffness for the
and other documents should be consulted for the effects of should also be paid prescribed period. Particular attention
to joints and connections and to the
chemical changes. maintenance of continuity in the structure in fire condi-
tions.
Moisture In some circumstances, a more detailed view of be-
Theingress and egress ofmoisture intostructural members haviour will be requiredin order to assess stability. For
and building components cancause movements giving rise instance, it may be felt necessary to determine the deflec-
to instability. An indication of the magnitude of such tions or forces induced by heating and their influence on
moisture movements can be derived from the moisture- stability. Here, a full fire-engineering approach will be
IStructE Stability 17
required with the fire action being defined by an ambient Fire may cause largedisplacements or rotations ofthose
temperature/time characteristic and due allowance being elements directly exposed to fire and may also affect parts
takenof the change in properties of the structure with time of the structure remote from the vicinity of the fire. The
and temperature. The different strategies described in whole structureshould be assessed for stability followinga
Section 4 may be considered in these circumstances. [Link]-damagedstructurepriorto repair
The nominal hours of fire resistance for structural should be assessed as described in Section 5. although the
members are determined by the usesfor whicha buildingor assessment of the nature and significance of the damage
part thereof are to be designed and are usually prescribed and of any repair measures may be more complex.
by building regulations for the saving of life.
The required hours or fire loading' for structural Foundation movements
members may be obtained from: The magnitude of the foundation movements that can
• data tabulatedin the relevant British Standards for the
material of which the structural member is to be con-
cause destabilizing actions (i.e. differential settlement.
heave or sliding) may be estimated from geotechnical
structed considerations, together with the effectof trees. The effects
of these movementson the structure should be restricted to
• data determined from specific fire-resistance tests values that will not cause instability in any part of the
• fire-engineering calculations. structure.

Movement of beam
or slab
Diurnal and seasonal temperature
movement causing beam or slab
to slip off seating

Thermal movement and/or shrinkage

causing tension failure of seating

Ratchet effect due to movements

causing bending in column and push
on walls and failure at beam end or
edge of slob or seating

Moisture movement in supporting

ground causing rotation of base and
resulting movement of top of support

Rotation of base

Crack in beam. Friction at seating with load defect

in concrete due to shrinkage and/or
insufficient compaction of concrete
coinciding with beam or slab
seating position

Fig. 8 Effect of movements

18 IStructE Stability
5 Stability during alteration or change of use

Alteration to astructureorbuilding may reduce stability to

such an extent that, in the extreme, collapse may result.
Change of use of a structure or building may result in
changes of loading that in the extreme may overload an
element,to such an extent, as to give rise to instability.
The procedures to be observed both before and during
carrying out alterations to astructureandbefore permitting
a change of use are:
• the careful assessment of the stability of the structureat
eachstage ofany alterations orchange ofuse (see Section
• 4)
if available, the assembly of the following original
documents:
the 'as-built' drawings
original design parameters
any special features affecting demolition
details of any modifications or additions to structure,
finishes and services subsequent to the original
design or construction
records of inspections
records of maintenance work
• even wherethese basic structural data are available, the
undertaking of a full or partial structural appraisal ofthe
existing structure depending on the extent of the altera-
tions andchange of use proposed. Guidance can some-
timesto obtained from contemporary design guides and
textbooks in respect oflikely design loadings and design
methods. Records may also sometimes be obtained from
the appropriate local building control department or
district surveyor's office. Caution should however be
exercised when using records, as these may not fully
reflect the current or indeed the 'as-built' structure
• the preparation of a method statement detailing the
sequence of the work, the type ofconstruction plant and
tools to be used and the precautions to be taken at each
stage to guard against instability.

IStructE Stability 19
6 Actions construction stage

During construction of a building, actions can occur that Variable actions from the environment
may affect the stability of the temporary works, the
partially completed permenent works, or adjacent struc- The environmental loads to be considered include:
tures. wind
Actions to be considered at the various stages in the water, and wave action if present
construction process are described under the following snow
headings: ice
works below ground direct sunlight.
works above ground
partially/totally completed permanent works.
6.3 Partially or totally completed buildings
The actions to be taken into account:
6.1 Works below ground
Actions to be taken into account should be assessed from • the actions usedfor the design of the buildingas defined
the results of the site surveys and soil investigations,which in Section 3, and their effect on the stability of the
should be carried out before the design and construction of partially or totally erected building. In particular,
adverse variations in the geometric shapeand/or reduced
any building commences. These are: strength arising from incomplete construction should be
earth pressure considered
water pressure • the actions used for the design of the temporary works as
actions on and from adjacent structures/building defined in subsections6.1 and 6.2 and their effect on the
actions on and from adjacenttraffic routes stability of the partially or totally erected building.
actions on and from groundwater lowering
actions on and from any services adjacent to the site.

6.2 Works above ground

The magnitudes of the loads to be taken into account for
the design of temporary works above ground should be
determined from the relevant clauses in BS 5975. These
are:
Permanent actions
The self-weights to be considered, which include:
the formwork
the falsework structure
any ancillary temporary works connected to the false-
work, such as:
access ramps and scaffolding
hoist and other tower structures
loading storage platforms
raking and flying shores
temporary struts and bracing
any permanent workselements forming an integral part
of the temporaryworks

Variable actions
Theimposed loads tobeconsidered should include those
arising from:
permanent works (i.e. structural steelwork reinforce-
ment and concrete with particular attention to wet
concrete)
construction operations, including:
working areas
storage areas
pedestrian traffic
vehicular traffic
static plant
mobile plant
impact from any of the above
20 IStructEStability
 Stability construction stage

This Section describes some of the measures to be consi-

dered during construction so that partially and fully
• stackingof building materials on temporary works or on
completed permanent works such that stability of the
completed structures remain stable particularlyas a partial- partially completed permanent work could be effected
ly erectedstructure may behave in amannerquitedifferent
from that of the completed structure.
• the necessity of the provision of temporarybracing or
propping and when they may be removed
7.1 General
• the design of end-connections of temporary steel or
timber or to resist forces in the
bracing strutting bracing
The constructor should appoint one of his engineers to be members. It should not be possible for wedges and packs
responsible for the stability of the permanent, partially to become displaced under load reversals or vibration.
completed and temporary works during the whole of the The insertion and securing of bracing should be control-
construction period. It should be his duty to see that led so that distortion of members and the creation of
structural membersare so constructed that: excessive loads are avoided
• there is a clearly defined path through which the actions • checks so that loads applied to foundations canbe safely
accepted without undue movement
listed in Section 6 are transmitted safely to the founda-
tions
• demolition operations and the effectof use of explosives
on the stability of the building should be planned with
position e
• structural members that are assumed to be restrained in
securely connected to a bracing member or
members of sufficient sue and stiffness to provide the
equal care to that used for the design of the permanent
works. Where more than one contractoris operating on
the site, there is needfor close cooperation to avoid one
restraint
• required
the consequences of damaeto temporary or permanent jeopardizing the work of the other.
Furtherguidancefor stability during construction applic-
works are assessed in a similar manner to those described
in subsections 4.2 and 4.3 to take account of accidental able to different forms of structure is given in the
and other actions, respectively. Appendix.
7.2 Exchange of information
Before construction starts the following exchange of in-
formation should take place so that all concerned under-
stand what needs to be done:
Information from designer to constructor
In addition to the drawings and specifications the
following should also be supplied:
design loading
factual results of site surveys and soil investigations
stability criteria, if requested
load capacity of members, if requested
limits on positions of construction joints
lifting positions on members to be erected as single
pieces
influence ofpost-tensioning on adjacentmembers of the
supporting falsework
Information from constructor to designer
A construction method statementshould be prepared,
which should include the following:
construction or erection procedure
use, weight and location of plant
programme
sequence of construction or erection
detailsof temporaryworks to be used to ensure stability
at all stages
details of provision and timing of installation and
removal of temporary bracing of support members
detailsof holes to be drilledand of fixingsto be attached
to
permanent construction for construction or erection
purposes.
7.3 Other considerations
Thefollowingshould also be considered for theireffects on
the stability of the temporary or permanent works:
• partial cladding that could affect the magnitude and
distribution of wind load
IStructE Stability 21
8 Summary

This report has been written by practising engineers for the

use of theircolleagues. It has attemptedto assemble in one
document the many considerations affecting stability of
buildings. In some instances, it may be argued that the
report has strayed into strength consideration, but this
merely illustrates the difficulties in separating these two
concepts. Much detailed advice has been included for the
sake of completeness. but it must be emphasized that the
relevance of the many matters described to any one
particular building must be left to the judgment of the
engineer. The report is intended to describe the state of
art' as existing in 1988, and it should not be considered as
increasing the duties and responsibilities of engineers
beyond those accepted as good practice.
Finally, it must be accepted that adegree oflocal damage
may occur because of the effects of the actions described in
this report. This cannot be avoided, but the implementa-
tionof the measures described in this reportshould enable
such damage to be both localized, and limited to an extent
proportionate to the cause of the damage.

22 IStructE Stability
Appendix Further guidance for stability during construction

Guidance is given for stability during construction applicable to lead to crabbing and possibly jamming of the crane when
different forms of structure as follows: installed, which may impose large forces on the [Link]
Al Framed single-storey steel structures runs,with the craneunderload,should be carried out,andifsuch
troubles occur, the structure should be carefully examined to
Single-storey steel structures without cranes consist of either determine ifoverstraining has takenplace, particularly to bolted
portal frames or column and beams (whichmay be plain-rolled or connections.
cold-formed sections), lattice girders or a combination of both.
The first bay to be erected should be that incorporating the A4 Other steel structures
permanent bracing, in all three planes. This steelwork should be These comprise everything from fire-escape staircases to
plumbed, linedand levelled prior to the bracing being installed,
and the permanent connectionsinthewhole ofthis bay, including radiotelescopes, including hoppers and silos, water towers,
the grouting of the bases should then be effected. In this way, a conveyor frames, electricity transmission towers, and a wide
stiff box should be created to which subsequent steelwork can be variety of industrial plant structures. As there are few common
factors in these, advice can be only in general terms. It is not
tied. In the event that the design does not provide permanent uncommon for large girders or assembled sections to be liftedby
bracing (i.e. it relies on the subsequent cladding to provide shear crane into position. This often requires careful selection of the
stiffness,eitherverticallyorhorizontally orboth)then temporary liftingprocedure to avoid damage. Membersor sections that are
bracing should be provided, preferably in the end bays. Should weak on one plane must be protectedfrom handling stresses in
difficulty be experienced, due to the permanent or temporary that plane.
bracing not fitting as a result of fabrication errors or accidental
damage during transport, no attempt to proceed with erection A5 Wind loading on steel skeletons
should be made until the problem has been remedied and the
bracing installed. Assessment of the wind forces on the unclad or partly clad
structure should be carried out. It is possible that in a complex
A2 Multistorey steel structures structure the resistance ofit to the passageofwind may be greater
A multistorey steel structure should be divided into sections for than when fully clad, and thus total wind forces may be greater
thepurposeoflining and levelling. Eachsection should be ofsuch than on the completed building. In addition, certain individual
size that lining and levelling, or adjustment. may be carried out members, such as gantry girders, may well experience windloads
without difficulty. The correct checking sequence should be of considerable magnitude for which they may not have been
designed.
adopted; first, the position and alignment of columns at founda-
tion level;secondly, theplumbing ofthecolumns; andthirdly, the
levels, which are best checked at the ends, of the lowest level of A6 Effect of cladding on steel structures
beams. The permanentconnections in that part of the structure When a structure is to be clad to form a building it is common
should then be made. The temporary bracing should not be practice that the cladding is commenced as soon as, but not
removed until the bases havebeengrouted, the grouthad time to before, a section of the framework has been lined, levelled and
harden,and the permanent connections made. the connections finalized. Although this practice is undesirable,
Unclad structures mayexperience temperature ranges well in clear instructions should be given regarding the stacking of
excess of those anticipated in service, which may affect the sheeting ordecking members on the frameworkduring erection to
verticalityofcolumns subsequent to the makingofthe permanent avoid excessivelocal loadsor torsional instability. Apartially clad
connections. Ideally, the temperature at which thecolumnsare to structure will be subjected to different magnitudes and distribu-
be within the specifiedtolerance on verticality should be stated in tions of wind loads than the completed structure. In some cases,
advance. It maytherefore be necessaryto carry out the surveying thesequence of cladding operations should be defined to control
work at night. In any case, this should be carried out at a time such loads and reduce the risk damage to the cladding and its
when the steelwork is not subject to strong sunlight, and its fixings.
temperature is reasonably uniform.
Some beams in a partly erected frame may be laterally A7 Concrete cast in situ framed construction
unrestrained, even though theymayhave beendesigned as fully This typeof construction proceeds in aprogressive manner using
restrained bythe floors to be erected later. Thisneedsto be taken formwork to shape the reinforced concrete members and false-
into account when crane orother loads,such as members stacked work to provide temporary support until the structure (and not
prior to erection, are to be imposed on the steel framework. In just individual members) becomes self-supporting. The Joint
addition, although somemeasure ofjoint rigidity may have been Reportofthe Institution andtheConcreteSocietyon Formwork7
assumed in design, such rigidity will be almost entirely absent and the CodeofPractice on FalseworkBS 59755provide guidance
whenthe steelwork is merely tack-bolted together. This needs to to good working practices. For multistorey construction, it is
be taken into account when considering wind loads during necessary for the designer and constructor to agree how beams
construction, and the need for temporary bracing. andfloors are to be cast and supported to avoid the applicationof
A crane mounted on the steelwork of a structure that is tall unacceptable loadson to construction already completed beneath
relative to its plan dimensions can impose a torque on the [Link] the contraction stresses that develop asconcrete
steelwork when the crane is slewing under load. The structure matures, it may be necessary to incorporate construction joints
should possessadequateresistance tothis torqueinorderto avoid and/or shrinkage bays between adjacent bays or members, and
unacceptable movements. any necessary requirements should be indicated by the designer.
Further details may be obtainedfrom reference 6. It isimportant that theexpectationsofalignment and accuracyare
compatible with achievable standards of workmanship. When
A3 Heavy industrial buildings with cranes concrete members are cast on formwork they will deflect, and
Most of the guidance above is equally applicable in this type of precamberingmaybeneeded. Post-tensionedmembers will move
building, which may incorporate multistorey sections as well as when stressed and will redistribute loads among supporting
single-storey bays of considerable height and span. falsework members or between anypoints ofrestraint. Theeffect
The accuracy ofthe trackingofthe gantry rails will becritical to of inclement weatheron in situ construction should be assessed
the stabilityofthe [Link] these componentscould and protection provided if considered necessary.
IStructE Stability 23
A8 Precast concrete framed and panel sections as the concrete is placed. It may be necessaryto provide
construction propping to control deflections during casting.
This consists of an assemblyof concrete members previouslycast AlO Structures of timber, laminated plywood,
at ground level in a factory or on the site. The design of the
members and the accuracy expected in their construction should aluminium and composite materials suchas GRP
recognizethe standards achievable and methods available in site and GRC
conditions. Concrete members will generally be heavier than Theserequire attention to theguidance outlined above so thatthe
comparable structural steel members and be more demanding on members remain stable during and after erection. Structures are
crane capacity and handling methods. The detailing of connec- increasinglybeing conceived not as frames but as membranes or
tions,between members should recognizethe possibledifficulties vaults often assisted into and maintained in position by tension
in making the connections, which are usuallyabove ground level. members or internal air pressure. In such cases, the elements of
When panel members are assembled on surfaces, allowance the structure should be handled without damage or detriment to
should be made for the probable unevenness of the matching theirsubsequent performance. Thesestructures, being compara-
surfaces and the use of packings and/or grouting. tively light, should be handled with great care when exposed to
When prestressed units are used and assembled alongsideeach wind loads until erection is complete.
other they should have similar shapes before and after loads are
applied to [Link] precast floor beams or units are designed All Masonry
towork in conjunctionwith acast-in-placeconcrete topping. they When masonry isincorporated into the facade oftall buildingsthe
may need to be supported temporarily until that additional consequencesof movementsin the frame affecting the stabilityof
concretehas matured and the complete section can act composite- themasonry should be considered. A concrete frame will creep
ly under its dead load. under load and the resulting movements transmitted into the
Instability may arise when insufficient care has been given to masonry should be absorbed by soft joints usually formed at
the specification and achievement of tolerable deviations in storey heights. Racking movementsofstructural frames may also
dimensionsofmembers, particularlywhen theyare supported on passinto the [Link] movementsshould beresisted bythe
limited bearing areas. The consequences of minimal support masonry or voids should be provided to accommodate them.
being obtained and of impact when members are placed on their Whenthe masonry is to provide restraint to lateral movements.
supports should be considered. the connections should be designed for the purpose. External
masonry has alsoto resist external inwardand suctionwind loads
A9 Other concrete structures and is subject to thermal movements. The consequencesofthese
The guidance in subsection A8 applies to other concrete struc- loadson stability during the erection stage should be considered
tures. which frequently contain a mixture of precast and cast in and temporary supports or protection provided if necessary.
situ construction. The appropriate use of precast members can Whenmasonry is to be supported on concrete nibs to beams, the
speed up erection time for members that otherwise could not nibs should be detailed to such tolerances that the necessary
sustain loads until the in situ concrete has matured. The stability bearing is provided. They should always be reinforced.
ofprecast concrete components of members, which will finallybe During the construction of masonry, due attention should be
composite. should always be checked when receiving loads and paidto its stability underwind and other imposed loads, including
moments during construction. accidental impacts. The sequence and rate of laying of masonry
Concrete floors are frequently cast on permanent metal soffit should be adjusted so that the masonry can develop adequate
forms, and care should be taken to avoid overloading the metal strength to resist these loads.

References
1. BS 6399: Loading for buildings, Part 1: Code ofpractice for 4. Estimation of thermal and moisture movementsand stresses:
dead and imposed loads, British Standards Institution, Lon- Part 2, Digest 228. BRE Watford. Aug. 1979
don, 1984 5. BS 5975: Code of practice for falsework. British Standards
2. CP3: Codeofbasic data forthe [Link]: Institution, London. 1982
Loading, Part 2: Wind loads, British Standards Institution, 6. Needham. F. H.: 'Site inspection of structural steelwork'.
London 1972 Proc. ICE, Part 1. 70, 1981. p. 395
3. BS 6399: Loading for buildings, Part 3: Codeofpractice for 7. Formwork, Joint report of Concrete Society and IStructE.
snow loads, British Standards Institution, London, 1987 Concrete Society. London. 1987

24 IStructE Stability