History of Static Relay

• The Static Relay is the next generation relay after

electromechanical type.
• The Solid Static relays was first introduced in 1960’s.
• The term ‘static’ implies that the relay has no moving
mechanical parts in it.
• Compared to the Electromechanical Relay, the Solid
Static relay has longer life-span, decreased noise
when operates and faster respond speed.
• However, it is not as robust as the Electromechanical
Relay
 Need for static relays

• A static relay refers to a relay in which there is no

armature or other moving element and response is
developed without mechanical motion.
• The solid-state components used are transistors,
diodes, resistors, capacitors and so on.
• Static circuits accomplish the function of comparison
and measurement.
• A relay using combination of both static and electro-
magnetic units is also called a static relay provided
that static units accomplish the response.
 Cont..

• A protective system is formed by static relays and

electro-mechanical auxiliary relays. Additional
electro-mechanical relay units may be employed
in output stage as auxiliary relays.
• Static relays were manufactured as
semiconductor devices which incorporate
transistors, ICs, capacitors, small microprocessors
etc.
• The performance of static relay is better than
electromagnetic relays as they are fast acting and
accuracy of measurement is better than
electromagnetic relay.
Essential components of static relays
 Cont…

• Rectifier rectifies the relaying quantity i.e., the output

from a CT or PT or a transducer.
• The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit
comprising of comparators, level detectors, filters, logic
circuits.
• The output is actuated when the dynamic input (i.e.,
the relaying quantity) attains the threshold value.
• This output of the measuring unit is amplified by
amplifier and fed to the output unit device, which is
usually an electro-magnetic one.
• The output unit energizes the trip coil only when relay
operates.
 Measuring principles

• The working principle of the Solid Static relays is

similar to that of the Electromechanical Relay.
• The Solid Static relays use analogue electronic devices
instead of magnetic coils and mechanical components
to create the relay characteristics.
• The measurement is carried out by static circuits
consisting of comparators, level detectors, filter etc
while in a conventional electromagnetic relay it is done
by comparing operating torque (or force) with
restraining torque (or force).
• The relaying quantity such as voltage/current is
rectified and measured.
 Cont…

• When the quantity under measurement

attains certain well-defined value, the output
device is triggered and thereby the circuit
breaker trip circuit is energized.
• In some solid state relays, a simple
microprocessor does some of the relay logic,
but the logic is fixed and simple.
 Function of Relay
• Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors and
diodes in conjunction with resistors, capacitors, inductors,
etc., but advances in electronics enabled the use of
integrated circuits in later versions for signal processing and
implementation of logic functions.
 Solid state relay - Operation

The output unit energizes the trip coil only when

relay operates.
 Advantages of Solid State Relay

• Static Relay burden is less than Electromagnetic

type of relays. Hence error is less.
• Low Weight
• Required Less Space which results in panel space
saving.
• Arc less switching
• No noise.
• Multi-function integration.
• Fast response.
• Long life (High Reliability).
 Cont..
• High Range of Setting compared to electromechanical
Relay
• More Accurate compared to electromechanical Relay
• Low Electromagnetic Interference.
• Less power consumption.
• Shock and vibration resistant
• No contact bounce
• Microprocessor compatible.
• Isolation of Voltage
 Cont…

• No moving parts: There are no moving parts to

wear out or arcing contacts to deteriorate that
are often the primary cause of failure with an
Electro Mechanical Relay.
• No mechanical contact bounce or arcing: A solid-
state relay doesn’t depend on mechanical forces
or moving contacts for its operation but performs
electronically. Thus, timing is very accurate. There
is no mechanical contact bounce or arcing, and
reset times are extremely short.
 Cont….

• Low input signal levels: Solid state relays are fast

becoming the better choice in many applications,
especially throughout the telecommunication and
microprocessor control industries.
• Cost Issues: In the past, there has been a rather large
gap between the price of an electromechanical relay
and the price of a solid state relay. With continual
advancement in manufacturing technology, this gap
has been reduced
 Limitations of static relays

• Auxiliary voltage requirement for Relay

Operation.
• Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients
• Serious over voltage is also caused by breaking of
control circuit, relay contacts etc. Such voltage
spikes of small duration can damage the
semiconductor components and also cause mal
operation of relays.
• The characteristics of semiconductor devices are
affected by ambient temperature.
 Cont…

• Filter circuits are required in relay design to

take care of electromagnetic interference
• Effect of environmental conditions like
humidity, high ambient temperature, dust
accumulation on PCB leading to tracking.
• The component failure.
• Non availability of fault data.
 Classification of Static Relay

• Electronic Relays
• Transductor (Magnetic relays)
• Rectifier bridge
• Transistor relays
• Hall effect Relays
• Gauss effect Relays
 Electronic Relays

• These were the first to be developed in the series

of static relays.
• The components used were electronic valves for
measuring unit.
• Fast operation, low maintenance, low burden on
CTs and PTs, absence of mechanical inertia and
bouncing contacts.
• These relays could not meet practical
requirements and hence never reached the
commercial stages.
 Transductor (Magnetic relays)

• A transductor comprises essentially a magnetic core

carrying two groups of windings usually known as
operating windings and control windings.
• Each group may comprise only one winding but if there
is more than one winding in a group all those windings
are magnetically linked.
• A transductor operates so as to present a variable
impedance being varied by the current flowing through
the control winding.
• The transductor relays are mechanically very simple
and are quite reliable.
• The relays are slow in operation and, therefore, are
discarded for protection applications.
 Rectifier bridge

• Such relays became popular because of

development of semiconductor diodes.
• This relay consists of two rectifier bridges and
a moving coil.
• The most common are relay comparators
based on rectifier bridges, which can
arranged as either amplitude or phase
comparators.
 Transistor relays

• Transistor relays are the most widely used static relays.

• In fact when we talk of static relays we generally mean
transistor relays. Transistor which acts like a triode can
overcome most of the limitations posed by the
electronic valves and thus has made possible to
develop the electronic relays more commonly known
as static relays.
• The fact that a transistor can be employed both as an
amplifying device and a switching device, makes it
suitable for achieving any functional characteristic.
 Hall effect relays

• When a conductor is kept perpendicular to the magnetic

field and a direct current is passed through it, it results in
an electric field perpendicular to the directions of both the
magnetic field and current with a magnitude proportional
to the product of the magnetic field strength and current.
• The voltage so developed is very small and it is difficult to
detect it.
• This phenomenon is called the Hall effect.
• A static relay can be directly operated from the Hall voltage.
• Hall effect device does not require an auxiliary d.c. source.
 Gauss Effect Relays

• Some semiconductors have the property

where resistance varies when magnetic field is
applied. This effect is known as magneto
resistivity or gauss effect.
• This can act as a phase comparator and used
as a static relay. This is however better than
Hall effect devices
Electronic circuits commonly used in Static Relays

• Auxiliary d.c. voltage supply

• Full wave bridge rectifier
• Smoothing circuit (filter RC or RL circuits )
• Voltage stabilization circuitry: (Usually zener diode is
used for this purpose. It stabilizes the output voltage of the rectifier
over a wide range of current)
• Time delay circuit
• Level Detectors
 Time delay circuit

These circuits are used for introducing very short

delay (order of microseconds) in the protection
systems. Mostly RC circuits are used for this
purpose.
Time delay elements are necessary for certain
static relays and are used between level
detectors and amplifiers
Simple time delay circuit

On depressing the button momentarily, a positive

voltage from the supply line enters the base
resistor and switches ON the transistor and
subsequently the LED.
The capacitor also gets charged fully.
On releasing the push button, though the power
to the base gets disconnected, the transistor
continues to conduct with the aid of the stored
energy in the capacitor which now starts
discharging its stored charge via the transistor.
The value of the capacitor determines the time
delay or for how long the transistor stays in the
conducting mode.
The addition of another transistor stage increases
the sensitivity of the circuit, which enables the
use of larger values of the timing resistor thereby
enhancing the time delay range of the circuit.
Level Detectors

For providing overload protection a certain

level must be fixed at which the relay
should be set to operate.
Whenever the bias crosses a certain limit
high currents flow in the relay (which also
may be completely transistorized) causing it
to trip.
 Logic gates

• Digital systems are said to be constructed by

using logic gates. These gates are the AND,
OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates.
The basic operations are described below with
the aid of truth tables.
Logic gate symbols
Logic gates representation using the Truth table
 Comparators

• The function of a protective relay is to sense any abnormal

condition in the system and send a signal to the breaker which in
turn isolates the faulty section of the feeder from the healthy one.
• The relay does all this by comparing two quantities either in
amplitude or in phase.
• The amplitude or phase relation depends on the conditions of the
system and for a predetermined value of this relation, indicative of
a particular type and location of fault, the relay operates.
• Except in relays, such as over-current relays, where only one
electrical quantity overcomes a mechanical quantity such as the
restraint from a spring, usually two electrical quantities are
compared.
• The device that makes such comparison is called the comparator
and forms the heart of protection relay. The operating
characteristics of any relay are governed by the comparator.
 Comparator

• The magnitude of voltage & current and phase

angle between them may change when a fault
occurs.
• Static relay senses the change in these
parameters to differentiate between healthy and
faulty conditions.
• This is achieved by comparing either the
magnitudes of voltage &current or the phase
angle between them.
• The circuitry which performs this function is
called comparator.
 Amplitude Comparator

• An amplitude comparator compares the

magnitude of two input quantities irrespective of
the angle between them. One of the inputs is the
operating quantity and the other a restraining
quantity.
• When the amplitude of the operating quantity
exceeds that of restraining quantity, the relay
sends a tripping signal to the circuit breaker.
• It may work on either voltage balance or
circulating current principle.
Amplitude comparator
• Amplitude comparator
compares the amplitudes of
two (or more) input quantities.
The phase angle between the
quantities under comparison
(inputs) is not recognized or
noticed by the amplitude
comparator.
• If the two input signals are
S1 and S2 (say S1 the operating
and S2 restraining), the
amplitude comparator gives
positive output only if –
S2/S1 < K.
• The main purpose of
amplitude comparators is to
provide direction and distance
protection.
 Amplitude comparator

• The input quantities to static relays are either in the form of

sinusoidal current derived from main CT or sinusoidal
voltage derived from PT.
• CT or PT provides analogous output.
• It is possible to arrange rectifier bridge networks as
amplitude comparators. Rectifier bridge comparator can
either be of circulating current type or opposed voltage
type.
• The former is more efficient, because the nonlinear
resistance characteristics of the rectifiers provide a limiting
action so that all the difference current goes through the
relay at low currents and only a fraction of it does so at
high currents.
 Amplitude comparator

• Current input signals are used in this comparator. Two

full-wave rectifier bridges are connected in opposition
and the output relay is connected in parallel to the two
rectifier bridges.
• The output of the rectifier bridge comparator is
received by the output stage continuously. The output
device should be an integrating device operating on
the average value of the difference between i0 and ir.
• This could be a polarized relay or an integrating circuit
followed by a level detector. The operation of the
polarised relay (PR) occurs when S1 > S2 where S1 =
Ki0 and S2 = Kir.
Amplitude comparator

• The operation of the relay

depends on the average
of the difference between
v0 and vr derived from
PTs.
• The bridge is less
sensitive at low voltage
inputs and the
comparator has no
limiting action on both
voltage and current in the
output device.
Comparator

• This type works with

voltage input signals
derived from PTs. The
operation depends on
the average rectified
voltage (V1-V2)
difference.
• Here, the rectifiers are
not protected against
higher currents. The
relay operates when
V1 >V2.
 Phase comparator
• Phase comparison technique is the most widely used technique for
all practical directional, distance, differential and carrier relays.
• In a phase comparator, the operation of the relay takes place when
the phase relation between two inputs S1 and S2 varies within
certain specified limits.
• Both inputs must exist for an output to occur; ideally, operation is
independent of their amplitudes, and depends only on their phase
relationship. The function, as defined by the boundary of marginal
operation, is represented by two straight lines from the origin of
the complex plane.
• Mathematically, the condition of operation is given as –
– α1 ≤ θ ≤ α2
• Where, θ is the angle by which S1 lags behind S2.
• If α1 = α2 = 90° the comparator is called the cosine comparator
• If α1 = 0 and α2 = 180°, it is called the sine comparator.
 Coincidence Type Phase Comparators

• The basic concept of phase comparison is

simpler in that it is possible to deal with
signals of equal strength whose coincidence or
non-coincidence is readily measurable.
• Let us consider two sinusoidal signals S1 and
S2. Their period of coincidence depends upon
their phase difference.
• Fig below illustrates the coincidence of signals
S1 and S2 for different phase angles.
 Coincidence Type Phase Comparators
• It can be seen that the period of coincidence of two sinusoidal
signals S1 and S2 is = (180° – θ) where 0 is the phase angle between
S1 and S2. It means if the operation is desired for a phase angle θ
less than 90°, then coincidence period should be greater than 90°.
Thus, the criterions for operation becomes – 90° ≤ θ ≤ 90°.
• By measuring the period of coincidence, it is possible to design the
circuit to give an output a YES or a NO depending upon the phase
relation of the input signals.
 Static instantaneous overcurrent relay
• The current derived from the CT is fed to the
input transformer which gives a proportional output voltage.
• The output voltage of the transformer is rectified through
a rectifier and then filtered.
• A fixed portion of the rectified and filtered voltage (through
a potential divider) is compared against a preset pick-up value by a
level detector and if it exceeds the pick-up value, a signal through
an amplifier is given to the output which issues the trip signal.
• The output device may either be a static thyristor circuit or an
electromagnetic relay.
 Static definite time overcurrent relay
• The operating time of overcurrent relays are constant. In this case, an intentional
time delay is introduced through a timing circuit.
• The input current signal is converted to a proportional voltage signal by the input
transformer and then rectified, filtered and compared with the preset threshold
value of the level detector (1).
• If the voltage exceeds the preset threshold value, the level detector gives an
output voltage, thereby the charging of the capacitor C of the RC timing circuit
starts. As soon as the voltage across the capacitor exceeds the preset threshold
value (VT) of level detector (2), a signal through the amplifier is given and time
setting, respectively. If VT is the threshold value of the level detector, the time
TC required to reach this voltage depends upon the charging time of the capacitor
C of the RC timing circuit.
 Static directional overcurrent relay
• The directional relay senses the direction of power flow by means of a phase
difference (Φ) between voltage (V) and current (I). When Φ exceeds a certain
value relay operates. The directional relay is a double actuating quantity relay with
one input as current I from CT and the other input as voltage V from PT.
• The inputs V and I are applied to phase comparator. A phase shifter is added in
voltage input circuit before applying it to the phase comparator to achieve the
maximum output of the phase comparator under fault conditions. The output of
the phase comparator is given to the level detector and then to the output device
through an amplifier. if the output of the phase comparator exceeds the preset
reference voltage of the level detector, the output device issues the trip signal.
•
 Static Differential Relay

• In this relay, the two similar input quantities (I or V) are

compared.
• The comparator is usually a rectifier bridge comparator.
• The differential relay measures the vector difference between
two similar electrical quantities (say voltage or current).
Static differential relay scheme
 Cont..

• This static differential relay is mostly applied in

protection of generators and transformers against
any type of internal fault similar to that of
electromagnetic type differential relay.
• This relay is advantageous from the electromagnetic
differential relay as it is very compact highly sensitive
for internal faults, high stability, very fast operation
low power consumption, lower VA burden, inrush
current proof characteristic. Mostly, a permanent
magnet moving coil relay is used as tripping device.
 Static Distance Relay
• The principle of measurement of distance (impedance) is
same for both static and electromagnetic relays.
• The measurement of impedance, reactance, and admittance
are done by comparison of input current and voltage.
• In static comparators the two input quantities are either
voltages or currents.
• Current is converted to equivalent voltage by producing a
voltage drop in an impedance within the relay. This voltage
drop is then compared with the other voltage.
 Static Distance Relay
• The line PT secondary is connected to auxiliary PT and the output of auxiliary
PT is converted into current and this current is compared with the output of
the auxiliary CT.
• Static distance relays operate much faster (ms)
• Static distance relays are accurate over a wider range of fault currents and line
lengths and require much lower burden.
• Static distance relays are compact in size and have better stability under
power swing conditions.
• Static distance relays are extensively used for protection of medium and long
transmission lines, parallel feeders and unit backup protection
 History of Digital Relay

• Around 1980s the digital relay entered the market. Compared to

the Solid State Relay, the digital relay takes the advantages of the
development of microprocessors and microcontrollers.
• Instead of using analog signals, the digital relay converts all
measured analog quantities into digital signals.
• Digital protection relays is a revolution step in changing Relay
technology.
• In Digital Relay Microprocessors and micro controllers are used in
replacement of analogue circuits used in static relays to implement
relay functions.
• By the mid-1990s the solid state and electromechanical relay had
been mostly replaced by digital relay in new construction. In
distribution applications, the replacement by the digital relay
proceeded a bit more slowly.
 Cont...

• Digital relaying involves digital processing of one

or more analog signals in three steps:
– Conversion of analogue signal to digital form
– Processing of digital form
– Boolean decision to trip or not to trip

• Compared to static relays, digital relays introduce

Analogue to Digital Convertor (A/D conversion)
of all measured analogue quantities and use a
microprocessor to implement the protection
algorithm.
 Cont..
Digital relay consists of
• Analogue input subsystem,
• Digital input subsystem,
• Digital output subsystem,
• A processor along with RAM (data scratch pad),
• main memory (historical data file) and
• Power supply
Microprocessor based over current relay
 Advantages of microprocessor based relay.

• Very efficient and reliable.

• Highly accurate.
• Very fast in operation.
• Programmable in nature.
• One unit can perform relaying of several systems.
• Useful for centrally coordinated back up
protection.
• Availability of fault data and disturbance record.
• Auto Resetting and Self Diagnosis.