UNIT II

DESIGN of DC MACHINE
EEE / SCT

1
 Applications and Classification
 Applications
 Traction
 Industrial drives
 Battery driven vehicles
 Machine tools
 Automatic control
 DC servomotors and stepper motors

 Classification
 Industrial
 Small
 Traction
 Miniature
 Control
 Special
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 DC Machine – Consumer Specification
1. Output : kW (for generators), kW or HP (for motors)
2. Voltage : V volt
3. Speed : N rpm; n rps
4. Rating : Continuous or Short time
5. Temperature rise: θ °C for an ambient temperature of 40 °C
6. Cooling : Natural or forced cooling
7. Type: Generator or motor
separately excited or self-excited
shunt, series, or compound
if compound,
type of connection – long or short shunt
type of compounding – cumulative or differential
degree of compounding – over, under or level.

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 DC Machine – Consumer Specification
(contd.)
With or without inter poles
with or without compensating windings
with or without equalizer rings in case of lap winding.

8. Voltage regulation ( in case of generators) : Range and method

9. Speed control (in case of motors) : range and method of control
10. Efficiency: must be as for as possible high (As the efficiency
increases, cost of the machine also increases).
11. Type of enclosure: based on the field of application – totally
enclosed, screen protected, drip proof, flame proof, etc.,
12. Size of the machine
etc.,

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 Major Sections
 The dc machines used for industrial electric drives have three
major parts.
 Field system
 Armature
 Commutator.
 Field system
 consists of main poles, interpoles and frame or yoke
 produce the magnetic flux
 frame - mechanical support, path for flux
 Armature
 armature core with slots and armature winding
 Commutator
 commutator and brush arrangement
 generator it rectifies the induced ac to dc
 motor it inverts the dc to ac .
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Stator Section

6
Rotor Section

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DC Motor - Rotor

8
Commutator Section

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 Magnetic circuit
Yoke
Armature Core Flux Path

• The path of magnetic flux is N

Pole Body
called magnetic circuit
• Magnetic circuit of dc machine S S

comprises of yoke , poles,

airgap, armature teeth and N

armature core
Magnetic Circuit of 4-Pole DC Machine
• Flux produced by field coils
emerges from N pole and cross
the air gap to enter the ly
armature tooth. Then it flows hpl

through armature core and

again cross the air gap to enter
the S pole lc
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hpl
 Magnetic Circuit (contd.)

Let Bg – Max. flux density in the core

Kg- Gap contraction factor
lc – Length of magnetic path in the core
l y – Length of magnetic path in the yoke
ds - Depth of the slot
dc - Depth of core
hpl - Height of field pole
Dm – Mean diameter of armature
When the leakage flux is neglected magnetic circuit of a DC machine consists
of following:
i. Yoke
ii. Pole and pole shoe
iii. Air gap
iv. Armature teeth
v. Armature core

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 Magnetic Circuit (contd.)
Total MMF to be developed by each pole is given by the sum of
MMF required for the above five sections.
MMF for air gap ATg = 800000 Bg Kg lg
MMF for teeth ATt = att X ds
MMF for core ATc = atc X lc/2
MMF for pole ATp = atp X hpl
MMF for yoke ATy = aty X ly/2
att , atc , atp , aty - are determined B-H curves
lc = πDm/P = π(D – 2ds – dc)/P
ly = πDmy/P = π(D+ 2lg + 2hpl +dy)/P
AT total =ATg + ATt + ATc + ATp +ATy

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 OUTPUT EQUATION
 Main dimensions of dc machine are
 Armature Diameter, D
 Armature Length, L
 Power developed in armature, Pa = C0 D2 L n in kW
 The output coefficient, C0 = π2Bavac x 10-3
 Maximum gap density, Bg = Bav/Kf = Bav / ψ
 C0 in terms of Bg is given by, C0 = π2 ψ Bg ac x 10-3

 Pa = P/η, for generator

 Pa = P, for motor
 P – Output Rated Power

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 Compromise and Interdependence of
specific loadings
 Compromise between specific loadings
Bav (Tesla) ac (ac/m)
Upto 10 kW 0.45 to 0.5 12000 to 15000
Upto 500 kW 0.5 to 0.9 17000 to 36000
500 to 10000 kW 0.9 to 1.0 38000 to 50000

 Interdependence of specific loadings

 Pa α (Bav X ac)
 For a particular output specific loadings are interdependent.
 If one chosen higher other has to be assumed lower.

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 Number
of Poles
Selection of number of
poles
Guidelines for estimating
number of poles
Pole proportion, pole face
profile

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 Selection of Number of Poles
 Magnetic Circuit – Choose Suitable number of poles and suitable
proportion.
 Electric Circuit – Suitable dimensions (satisfactory winding and
commutator)
 Number of poles is important in both electric and magnetic
circuits.
 In AC machines, number of poles fixed by frequency and speed.
 In DC machines, any number of poles can be obtained.
 Assuming total electric and magnetic loadings are constant.

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 Selection of Number of Poles (contd.)
 Frequency (25 to 50 Hz preferred)
 f = pn/2. Increase in number of poles increase in frequency,
that gives rise in excessive iron loss.
 In case of high speed dc turbo generator, 2 poles used.
 Weight of iron parts
 Yoke area
 Increase in no. of poles, the proportionate decrease in yoke
sectional area
 Armature core area
 Increase in number of poles, core sectional area is reduced,
eddy current loss in core would increase; hysteresis loss
would decrease; weight of iron armature core will decrease.
 Overall diameter
 as p increases, height of the pole decreases and hence the
overall diameter of the machine decreases

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 Weight of Copper (decreases with increase in number of poles)
 Armature copper
 Lesser the ratio of inactive copper to active conductor
material, the cheaper is the machine.
 Increase in no. of poles reduces the weight of armature copper.
 Field copper
 Total weight of copper decreases with increase in number of
poles.
 Length of commutator (reduces with increase in no. of poles)
 Reduction in length of commutator results in reduction of
overall length of the machine.
 Labour charges (increases with increase in number of poles)
 No. of commutator segments is equal to number of armature
coils, the former increases with increase in no. of poles.
 Number of field coils = number of poles
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 Armature Reaction (Reduces, If pole increases)
 Flash over
 To avoid flashover the diameter of the commutator will have
to be increased as the number of poles increases.
 large number of poles, results in increased danger of flash
over between adjacent brush arms
 Distortion of field form
 increase in number of poles, there is reduction in distortion of
field form under load conditions
 To avoid this, compensating winding is provided, that
increases the cost and complication of construction.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Large
Number of Poles
 There is reduction in
 Weight of armature core and yoke
 Weight and cost of armature and field conductors
 Overall length and diameter
 Length of commutator
 Distortion of field form under load conditions.

 There is increase in
 Frequency of flux reversals, so iron loss
 Labour charges
 Possibility of flashover between brush arms
 Number of commutator segments.

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 Guiding factors for Choice of
Number of Poles
 The frequency (f = pn/2) should lie between 25 to 50 Hz. Lower
values are used for large machines.
 The value of current per parallel path is limited to 200 amps,
the current per brush arm should not be more than 400 amps.

 The armature mmf should not be too large. The normal values of
armature mmf per pole are given in the table. (Ata α D/p)
 If there are more than one choice for number of poles which
satisfies the above three conditions, then choose the largest value
for poles. This results in reduction in iron and copper.
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 Pole Proportions

 The cross-section of the poles should be circular in order that the

length of mean turn of the field winding is minimum.
 But circular poles cannot be laminated, hence the next best
alternative is square pole section.

 L = bp; for square pole section; L/τ = 0.45 to 1.1 (~= 0.7 to 0.9)
 L = b = ψ τ; for square pole face; as L/τ = 0.64 to 0.72

 To have good commutation the flux density in airgap must

decreases gradually from max value under the centre of pole to
zero on the inter-polar axis.
 To get good field form, the pole face must be shaped to give
gradual increase in length of airgap towards pole tips.
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 Choice of
Armature Diameter
Armature Length
Ventilating Ducts
Length of Airgap

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 Choice of Armature Diameter, D
 Peripheral speed
 Between 15 to 50 m/s; Lower value for low speed machines.
 Normally, should not exceed 30 m/s.
 If it exceeded, bands of binding wire for overhang to be made extra
strong (to prevent the overhang from flying out due to excessive
centrifugal force).
 Pole pitch (Directly proportional)

 Specific electric loading

ac = Iz Z / π D

 Induced emf per conductor

Bav = Φ /[πDL/p]
 Power output Pa = EIa X 10^-3 kW
 Maximum value, Dmax= (Pa x l03) / (π ac ez) ~= 0.001 Pa
 Emf per conductor, ez = E a/z. where E – induced emf in armature.
 Limiting values, ac = 40,000 A/m and ez = 7.5 V

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 Choice of Armature Core Length, L
As length increases
 Cost (decreases)
 Proportion of active to inactive copper is smaller for large L.
 Ventilation (ventilation will be difficult)
 Voltage between adjacent commutator segments
 Specific magnetic loading Bav = PΦ / π D L
 Peripheral Speed.
 For better commutation the voltage between adjacent
commutator segments at load is to be limited to 30V.
 To achieve this, the induced emf in a conductor should not
exceed 7.5/TcNc.
 Tc = Turns per coil
 Nc = Number coils between adjacent segments
 Nc = 1, for simplex lap winding
 Nc = p/2, for simplex wave winding
 Maximum value, Lmax= 7.5/(TcNcBavVa) ~= 0.36 m
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 Ventilating ducts and net iron length
 Core is provided with both radial and axial ventilating ducts.
 Radical ducts are created by providing vent or duct spacers in
between core packets of width 7 cm.
 Width of the radial duct lies between 0.8 and 1.0 cm in practice.
 net core length, Li = Ki(L – ndwd)
 Ki - iron or stacking factor = 0.9 in practice
Determine number of ducts if length of armature core is 35 cm.
 let the width of the core packet be 6 cm.
 Therefore number of core packets is equal to 35 /6 or 6 say.
 Six core packets lead to 5 ducts.
 If the width of the duct is assumed to be 1.0 cm, then the net core length will
be (35 – 1 × 5) = 30 cm
 each core packet after revision will be 30 / 6 = 5 cm in width.

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 Length of Air-gap
 Armature Reaction
 To prevent excessive distortion by armature reaction ATf > ATa
 The distorting effect of armature reaction can be reduced if
airgap length is large.
 ATf α lg α size α cost
 A larger value of air-gap results in lesser noise, better cooling,
reduced pole face losses, reduced circulating currents and less
distortion of field form, reduces armature reaction.

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 Estimation of Airgap Length
 mmf required for air-gap in salient pole machines,
ATg = 8,00,000 Bg Kg lg
Armature mmf per pole, ATa = ac τ / 2
 where Kg = 1.15 = gap contraction factor

 Normally ATg = (0.5 to 0.7) of Ata ~= 0.55 ATa

 Usually lg = (0.01 to 0.015) of τ

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Armature Winding
Lap
Wave

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 Lap Winding
 Number of parallel paths is equal to number of poles
 Finish of a coil is connected to start of next coil
 Back and front pitch are always odd integers. The winding pitch
is always two and commutator pitch is always one.
 Simplex lap winding is wound with two coil sides per slot.
 simplex lap winding is possible with 4, 6, etc, (i.e., even number)
coil sides per slot.

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 Elements of an armature windings

• One coil between adjacent commutator bars

• 1/p of total coils are connected in series
• No. of poles  no. of brushes  no. of parallel paths

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 Wave Winding
 Number of parallel paths is two
 Finish of a coil is connected to start of a coil which is lying one
pitch away from the finish

 Advantages of Lap Winding

 Windings can be Short pitched
 Even number of coils per slots
 Coil closes on itself at the commutator end.

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35
ARMATURE DESIGN
 Choice of Armature Winding (Lap / Wave)
 Number of Armature Conductors (Z)
 Number of Armature Coils (C)
 Number of Armature Slots (S; yc)
 Cross section of Armature Conductors (a2)
 Insulation of Armature Winding
 Slot Dimensions (ds)
 Armature Voltage Drop (IaRa)
 Depth of Armature Core (dc)

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 Number of Armature Conductors
 emf induced can be taken as terminal voltage in case of generator
 back emf can be taken as the applied voltage in case of a motor
 The number of conductors must be an even integer.
Q=ac = IzZ/πD

Generated EMF in the armature

E = V + Ia rm for generator
= V – Ia rm for motor

V – Terminal voltage; rm – internal resistance

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 Number of Armature Coils
 The maximum voltage between adjacent commutator segments at load should
not exceed 30 V.
Average voltage between adjacent segments at no load
Ec = No. of conductors b/w adj. segments x average voltage per conductor at NL
= 2 x Turns per coil x No. of coils b/w adj. seg. x avg. voltage per cond. at NL
Ec = 2 Tc Nc ez
Tc – Turns per coil
ez – average voltage per cond. at no load
Nc – No. of coils b/w adj. segments
Nc = P/a (P/2 for simplex wave winding; 1 for simplex lap winding)
ez = Bav L Va Note: E = BLV Sinθ
Ec = 2 Tc Nc Bav L Va
Maximum voltage between segments at Load
Ecm = 2 Tc Nc Bgm L Va
Usually Bgm = 1.3 times Bg and Bg = Bav/Kf, Kf = 0.66
Ecm ~= 4 Tc Nc ez
Ecm is not greater than 30 V. ez is not greater than 7.5 / Tc Nc

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Number of turns per coil, Tc = Z / 2C
where C – Number of armature coils
Ecm = 2 Z Nc ez / C
The minimum number of coils required (for Ecm = 30 V)
C = 2 Z Nc ez / Ecm
= Z Nc Bav L Va / 15 = Z Nc (ΦP/πDL) (LπDn) / 15
= (ΦZNP) Nc / 15
C = E a Nc / 15
Applying ‘a’ and ‘Nc’ for lap and wave winding
Minimum number of coils required C = E P / 15

 While designing commutator, at least 3 mm width and 0.8 mm

insulation. So commutator pitch should be greater than or equal to
4 mm.
 Commutator Pitch βc = πDc/C
 Dc – Diameter of Commutator
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 Number of Armature Slots
 Mechanical Difficulties
 More No. of slots, Tooth width reduced, so mechanically week
 Cooling
 More no. of slots, Z/S is reduced, so cooling would be better.
 Flux Variation
 If no. of slots are not proper, both flux pulsation and flux
oscillation takes place and results eddy current loss in pole
faces.
 Commutation
 Large no. of poles helps to reduce the effect of slotting upon
flux under interpole.
 Cost
 Large no. of slots results in more cost on insulation.
 Large number of slots – increases mechanical difficulties;
better cooling effect; reduces flux pulsations; reduces
commutation problems and increases the cost
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 Guiding Factors for Choice of Number
of Armature Slots
 Slot Pitch (ys = πD/S)
 Extreme value should lie between 20 to 40 mm
 Usual limit between 25 to 35 mm. For small machines - 20 mm
 Slot Loading
 ‘ac’ in a slot.
 Iz Zs must be lesser than or equal to 1500 A. where, Zs - No. of
Cond. per slot.
 Flux Pulsations minimization
 Slot/Pole pair should be ODD integer.
 Commutation
 To prevent sparking, number of Slots per Pole should be at least 9.
 In very small machines it will be 8.
 Upto 5 kW – S/p=8; 5 to 50 kW – S/p=10; 50kW above – S/p=12 and above
 Suitability for Winding
 In lap winding – number of slots should be multiple of pole pair.
 In wave, the number of slots should not be a multiple of pole pair.
 Conductors per slot should be even integer; number of conductors should
be divisible by number of coil sides per slot.
 Number of Coils, C = Z / 2 Tc 41
 Cross section of Armature Conductors
 Area of cross section of each armature conductor, az = Iz / δa

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Cross Section of Armature Slot

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 Slot Dimensions
 Excessive Flux Density
 Flux density at 1/3 height from root of teeth does not exceed
2.1 wb/m2.
 Flux Pulsations
 Slots should not too wide
 Eddy Current Loss
 Depth of conductors should be limited 12.5 to 19 mm
 Reactance Voltage
 Non-interpolar machines – ratio of slot depth to slot width is
not allowed to exceed to 4
 Interpolar machines – deeper slots may be used
 Mechanical Difficulties
 With deep slots, the thickness of teeth at root may become too
small
 Too give mech strength, increasing values of slot depth as
diameter increases 44
Armature Voltage Drop
 Length of Mean turn, Lmt = 2L + 2.3τ + 5ds
 Projection outside core, Lo = 0.3τ + 1.25ds
𝑧 ρ𝐿𝑚𝑡
 Armature Resistance, ra =
2 𝑎 2 𝑎𝑧
 Armature Voltage Drop = Iara

Depth of Armature Core

 Flux density in core lies between 1.0 to 1.5 wb/m2 and the
nominal value is 1.25 wb/m2.
Φ Φ 1
 Area of Armature Core, Ac = 𝑐 = = Li x dc
𝐵𝑐 2 𝐵𝑐
 Depth of Core, dc = Φ / (2BcLi)

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Design of Commutator
and Brushes

46
 Design of Commutator and Brushes
 Commutator and brush arrangement are used to convert the
bidirectional current to unidirectional current
 Brushes are located at the magnetic neutral axis (mid way
between two adjacent poles)
 The phenomenon of commutation is affected by resistance of
the brush, reactance emf induced by leakage flux, emf induced
by armature flux.

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 Design of Commutator and Brushes
 Commutator is of cylindrical in shape and placed at one end of
the armature

 Consists of number of copper bars or segments separated from

one another by a suitable insulating material of thickness of 0.5 to
1mm

 Number of commutator segments = no. of coils in the armature

 Materials used :
 Commutator segments: Hard Drawn Copper or Aluminum Copper
 Insulation :Mica, Resin Bonded Asbestos
 Brushes :Natural Graphite, Hard Carbon, Electro Graphite, Metal Graphite

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 Number of Segments
 Number of Segments = Number of coils; C = us/2
 The minimum number of segments is that which gives voltage
of 15 V between segments at no load.
 Minimum number of segments = EP/15
 Commutator Length
 Depends on space required by brushes and surface required to
dissipate heat generated by the commutator loss

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 Design of Commutator and Brushes
Design formulae
1. No. of commutator segments, C = ½uS
where, u – coils sides/slot
Sa – no. of armature slots
2. Minimum no. of segments = E p / 15
3. Commutator segment pitch = βc = πDc/C
where,
Commutator Diameter Dc = (0.6 to 0.8) D
βc ≥ 4mm
4. Current carried by each brush Ib= 2Ia/P  for lap winding
Ib = Ia  for wave winding
5. Total brush contact area/spindle Ab= Ib/δb or Ab = 2 Ia / p δb
6. Number of brush locations are decided by the type of winding
Lap winding: No of brush location = no. of poles
Wave winding : No of brush location =2
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 Design of Commutator and Brushes
7. nb should be chosen such that, each brush (Ib) does not carry more than 70A
Let ,
ab – Contact area of each brush
nb – Number of brushes / spindle
wb, tb – Width and thickness of brush
 Total Contact area of brushes in one spindle, Ab = nb ab
also ab = [Link]
Ab = nb wb tb
Usually, tb = (1 to 3) βc
wb = Ab/ nb tb
8. Lc – depends on space required for mounting the brushes and to dissipate the
heat generated by commutator losses
Lc = nb (wb + Cb) + C1 + C2
where, Cb - Clearance between brushes (5mm)
C1 - Clearance allowed for staggering of brushes (10mm to 30mm)
C2 - Clearance for allowing end play (10 to 25 mm)

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 Design of Commutator and Brushes
9. Losses :
 Brush contact losses: depends on material, condition, quality of
commutation
 Brush friction losses
Brush friction loss Pbf = μ pb a AbVc
μ – Coefficient of friction
pb-Brush contact pressure on commutator (N/m2)
AB - Total contact area of all brushes (m2)
AB =P Ab (for lap winding)
= 2 Ab (for wave winding)
Peripheral speed of commutator, Vc = π Dc n in m/s

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