Chapter 9

Basic Radiation Protection and

Radiobiology
 Objectives (1 of 2)
Identify the sources of ionizing radiation.
List the units used to measure radiation
exposure and their correct use.
Describe the sources of radiation exposure.
Explain the ways in which ionizing radiation
interacts with matter.
List the permissible limits of exposure for
occupational exposure and the general
public.
 Objectives (2 of 2)
Explain the reason for the varying sensitivity
of human cells to ionizing radiation.
Describe the ways in which the entire body
responds to varying amounts of radiation.
Discuss the various practices used to protect
the patient from excessive radiation.
Discuss the various approaches used to
protect an occupational worker from excess
radiation.
Describe several devices used to detect and
measure exposure to ionizing radiation.
Radiation as an Ionizing Energy
Radiation has sufficient energy to cause
the ejection of electrons from atoms.
Loss of electrons results in ionization of
atoms.
Ionization can have biologic effects.
Benefits must outweigh the risks of any
diagnostic study using ionizing
radiation.
 Ionizing Radiation
Two sources of ionizing radiation.
Natural
Manmade (REMEMBER THESE TWO)
Human-made radiation occurs from
several sources.
Medical and dental X-ray examinations
make up the largest portion of human-
made radiation exposure.
Conditions Necessary for X-Ray
Production

Source of electrons.
Means for setting them in high speed
motion.
Mechanism for decelerating them
abruptly.
 X-Ray Production
Source of Cathode filament
electrons Tungsten Milliamperage (mA)
filament in the Negative terminal
of tube
cathode.
Potential
Thermionic
emission difference
Kilovoltage peak
High-speed motion (kVp) (Technical
Potential Difference factor!!!)
Deceleration Target
Electrons striking Anode
anode surface Positive terminal of
tube
 X-Ray Tube Design
X-ray tube is a diode
tube.
Glass envelope
maintains a vacuum.
See Figure 9.1 in the
X-ray beam produced textbook for more
is heterogeneous. information
(mean it has many
energies.)
Energy of beam is
expressed in
kiloelectron volts
(keV).
 X-Ray Beam
X-ray beam leaving the X-ray tube
toward patient is primary beam.
X-ray beam is heterogeneous.
Composed of a wide spectrum of energies
X-ray beam can undergo three possible
paths.
Total absorption
Pass through with no loss of energy
Undergo scattering and secondary
interactions with some loss of energy
X-Ray Interactions with Matter
Classic coherent scattering
Photoelectric interactions
Compton scattering
Pair production
Photodisintegration

Photoelectric interactions and Compton

scattering are particularly important in
diagnostic radiography.
Classic Coherent Scattering
Involves very low-
energy X-rays.
X-ray interacts with
the atom as a whole.
See Figure 9.2 in the
Atom becomes textbook for more
excited and emits X- information
ray with same energy.
No ionization occurs.
No energy transfer to
patient or matter. Fig. 9.2 Classic coherent scatter
interaction..
Photoelectric Effect (1 of 2)
Occurs within the
diagnostic X-ray
energy range.
Incoming X-ray
See Figure 9.3 in the textbook for
photon is more information
completely
absorbed by
collision with inner-
shell electron.
Responsible for largest
contribution to patient
exposure Fig. 9.3 Photoelectric absorption
interaction..
Photoelectric Effect (2 of 2)
Electron (photoelectron) leaves atom,
creating an ion pair.
Free electron eventually unites with
other matter.
Secondary radiations created as a
result of electron cascade from outer
shells to inner shells.
Compton Scattering (1 of 2)
Occurs within the
diagnostic ranges
of X-ray energies
Incoming photon See Figure 9.4 in the
collides with textbook for more
information
outer-shell
electron, creating
a free Compton
electron (recoil)
and an ion pair. Fig. 9.4 Compton scatter
interaction.
Compton Scattering (2 of 2)
Incoming photon loses some of its
energy through collision, scatters off in
a random direction (scatter angle), and
undergoes other interactions until its
energy is totally absorbed.
The electron vacancy is filled nearly
instantly.
Most occupational exposure is from
Compton Scatter
 Units of Measurement
The SI units were officially adopted in
1985.
SI (Système International d’Unités, or International
System of Units)

Insert Table 9.1

 Exposure (X)
Measures exposure in air and is not
used to express absorbed dose to
individuals
Not a measure of absorbed exposure
A measure of ionization in air as a result
of exposure to X-rays or gamma rays
Quantity of radiation that produces 2.08
× 109 ion pairs per cubic centimeter
(cc) of air
Creates a total charge of 2.58 × 10 −4

coulombs per kilogram

Air Kerma(Kinetic Energy Released in Matter)
Measures transfer of kinetic energy to
tissue or air.
Replaces the traditional unit of Exposure(X)
Total kinetic energy released in a unit
mass (kilogram) of air.
Measured in joules per kilogram (J/kg)
1 J/kg is 1 Gray (Gya).
 Absorbed Dose (Gy)
Expressed as Gray (Gy).
Depends upon the type of absorbing
tissue
Measures the amount of energy
absorbed in any tissue.
Air (Gya)
Tissue (Gyt)
Absorbed dose is the radiation energy
per unit mass of absorbing medium.
Expressed in units of Joules/kg or Gy
 Effective Dose
Expressed as Sievert (Sv).
Unit of dose equivalence.
Accounts for overall risk of exposure
Occupational exposure.
Product of Absorbed Dose (Gy) x QF
Accounts for different types of radiation
and their biologic effects.
Alpha, Beta, X-ray, gamma
Referred to as quality factor (QF)
QF of X-ray is 1
 Radioactivity (Bq)
Measures the activity of a radioactive
material.
Rate of radioactive decay
Radionuclide
Used in nuclear medicine and radiation
therapy.
The Becquerel (Bq) is the unit of
activity.
Quantity of radioactivity in which a nucleus
disintegrates every second (1 d/s = 1 Bq)
 Standards of Exposure
Standards are regulated by the
FDA and its Center for Devices
and Radiological Health (CDRH).
Receives advice from NCRP
Effective dose limit
recommendations have been
set to minimize the biologic risk See Figure 9.2 in the
to exposed persons. textbook for more
An individual’s dose should be information
kept as low as reasonably
achievable (ALARA).
The annual whole-body
effective dose limit for the
occupational worker is 50 mSv.
(5 rem)
General public exposure kept to
1/10 of occupational exposure
 The annual whole-body
effective dose limit for
occupational personnel is 50
mSv.
Maximum cumulative whole-
See Figure body dose limit is 10 mSv ×
9.2 in the age.
textbook
for more Whole-body dose equivalent
information limit is 5 mSv (0.5 rem) for
the general population,
which represents 1/10 the
occupational worker’s limit

Source: NCRP Report

116
Dose-Response Relationship
Physicians use a “risk vs. benefit”
rationale when ordering ionizing
radiation studies.
Benefits of exam must outweigh the
potential risks from radiation exposure.
Doses should be kept as low as
possible, and no dose is considered
totally risk-free.
See Figure 9.5 in the textbook for
more information

Fig. 9.5 Graph indicates no-threshold versus threshold response to

radiation.
Biologic Effects of Radiation

Cell Biology
Cells have two major
parts.
Nucleus
Cytoplasm See Figure 9.6 in the
textbook for more
Genetic material of information
cell contained in
nucleus.
80% of cell content is
water. Diagram of a typical
Two classes of human animal cell.

cells.
Somatic
Germ
 Radiation of Cells
Two theories of cellular irradiation
damage exist.
Direct-hit theory
Indirect-hit theory
Cells have different degrees of
radiosensitivity.
Cellular radiosensitivity is principally a
result of the rate and duration of
cellular mitosis.
Law of Bergonie and Tribondeau (1906)
Modified to take into account the time interval in the cell life
cycle, the ionizing event occurred, particularly during mitosis
Cellular Response to Radiation
Target Theory. How your cells respond to
radiation.
Results of radiation to a cell. Three things
Cellular death
Delayed mitosis (replication of cell)
Altered mitotic rate
Cellular damage a function of several
factors.
Fortunately, most cells can recover from
radiation damage.
Incomplete cell repair can have harmful
effects.
 Total Body Response
Acute radiation syndrome.(radiation
poisoning)
->Prodromal stage
Latent stage
Manifest stage
Cell recovery or cell death
Requires large amounts of total body
exposure.
Early effects.
Occasionally seen in radiotherapy patients
Late effects.
Cataractogenesis
Carcinogenesis
 Radiation Syndromes
These doses are far greater than those
received by the occupational worker or
patient.
Bone marrow syndrome
Gastrointestinal syndrome
Central nervous syndrome

See Figure 9.3 in the textbook for

more information
 Protecting the Patient
Cardinal rules of protection:
Time
Distance (maximum the source to image
distance)
Shielding ALARA
X-ray beam restriction. 10x12 is the largest?
Image receptor speed. You want high speed.
As quickly as possible and minimize beam.
Filtration. Absorb low radiation from
[Link] x-ray dose to skin and ..
Optimum exposure technique selection. High
kVP, Low mAs, shorter time. Distance is the
measurement for patient.
 Patient Protection
The use of patient
shielding is essential
in the practice of
ALARA. See Figure 9.7 in the
Shielding of patient textbook for more
information
reproductive tissues,
including fetus, no
longer recommended.
Primary vs. Secondary
barrier. Fig. 9.7 Gonadal
shields..

Patient Shield types.

Flat contact shields
Shadow shields
Shaped, contour shields
 Protection for the Radiologic and
Imaging Sciences Professional

See Figure 9.4 in the textbook for

more information

Remember the Cardinal Rules of Protection

Time
Distance
Shielding
Distance is the best, and most effective method of protection for the
radiographer
 Pregnant Student
Very low risk to fetus if good ALARA
practices are followed.
Dose limit for pregnancy term is 5 mSv.
Declaration of pregnancy is voluntary.
0.5 mSv per month applies during
pregnancy
Pregnancy announcement can be revoked
Pregnant student is provided a 2nd
dosimetry badge.
Fetal exposure estimation
Radiation Monitoring (1 of 3)
Any occupational worker who is regularly
exposed to ionizing radiation must be
monitored to determine estimated exposure.
Any worker who is likely to receive more than
1/10th the recommended dose-equivalent limit
should be monitored.
Field survey devices measure the presence and
rate of exposure in real-time.
Known as personnel monitoring dosimeters.
Three popular monitoring technologies
Direct Ion Storage Dosimeter
Optically stimulated luminescence dosimeter (OSL)
Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)
Radiation Monitoring (2 of 3)
Monitors measure the quantity of
radiation received on the basis of
conditions in which the radiologic and
imaging sciences professional was
placed.
Exposure data are collected for a
specified period of time.

See Figure 9.9 in the textbook for

more information
 Radiation Monitoring (3 of 3)

Worn at the collar level.

Worn outside of lead apron.
Device should face forward.
Pregnant radiographers may have a
second device worn at waist level and
under the lead apron.
Radiation Monitoring Devices
Thermoluminescent Pocket Dosimeter (DIS)
Dosimeter (TLD)
Uses lithium fluoride Immediate readout
crystal Exposure causes
Convenient ionizations in gas that
Radiation exposure are collected and the
causes a stored cumulative charge is
energy in crystal, stored in computer
proportional to chip
exposure Requires access to
Reusable computer
Very sensitive to low Convenient, solid
levels of exposure state
Optically Stimulated Luminescence
(OSL) Dosimeters
Most commonly used.
Convenient.
Measures x-ray and gamma
radiation exposure.
Typically worn for two-month
intervals.
No immediate readout of
exposure.
Wide range of exposure sensitivity.
 Conclusion
X-radiation has the potential to create
ionizations in human tissue.
Ionizations can be harmful and cause cell
disturbances and genetic alterations.
Effects may be early or late and are dose
dependent.
Use the Cardinal Rules of protection.
Radiologic and Medical Imaging Sciences
Professionals have a responsibility to
consistently practice ALARA.