Chapter 2

Waves and Signals

1
 Chapter Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Waves
2.2.1 Wave Properties
2.2.2 Electromagnetic Energy
2.2.3 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves
2.2.4 Transmission Impairments
2.3 Data and Signals
2.3.1 Types of Signals
2.3.2 Properties of Electrical Signals
2.3.3 Properties of Light Signals
2.3.4 Data and Signals
2.4 Data Rate Limits
2.5 Comparing Analog and Digital Signals
2.6 Key Points
2.7 Exercises

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2.2 Waves
Wave is defined as a disturbance or vibration that travels
through a medium or vacuum from one to another location.
This disturbance carries energy from one location to
another. We can also describe wave as the transfer of
energy from one location to another.

Based on their mode of travel, waves are categorized into:

1. Electromagnetic Waves
An Electromagnetic wave can travel through vacuum and
does not require material medium for transmission.
2. Mechanical Waves
It can not travel through vacuum and needs a material
medium for transmission. Modern communication systems
use electromagnetic waves to transfer information.
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2.2.1 Wave Properties

Waves have properties that affect the information carried

by them. The various properties of a wave are -
1. Peak Amplitude.
2. Period.
3. Frequency.
4. Wavelength.
5. Phase.
6. Speed of propagation.

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Peak Amplitude

Amplitude
Peak
Amplitude

Amplitude

Time

Figure 2.1: Peak Amplitude

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Period and Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a wave needs
to complete one cycle. The period of a wave is measured in
seconds.
The frequency of a wave refers to the number of periods in
one second. Its unit is Hertz (Hz).
Amplitude

Time

Figure 2.2: Period frequency and wavelength (  ) of a wave

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 Note

1
Frequency and period inverses each otherf i.e.

T

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 Note

The wavelength of a wave () and the frequency of that wave is

1
 
inversely related to each other f

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Phase

(a) 00 (b) 900 (c) 1800

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 Note

The position of the waveform relative to time zero is called Phase.

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 Note

Electrical energy or electromagnetic energy is a form of energy

present in any electric field or magnetic field, or in any volume
containing electromagnetic radiation.

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2.2.3 Propagation of EM Waves

The two types of electromagnetic waves that are used to

carry information are-
1. Radio waves
2. Light waves
Based on the characteristics of propagation, radio waves
are divided into three categories -
1. Ground waves
2. Sky waves
3. Line-of-sight waves.

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2.2.4 Transmission Impairments

The four types of impairments are:

1. Attenuation.
2. Distortion.
3. Free space loss.
4. Noise.

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1. Attenuation

Original signal Amplified signal Amplified signal

Amplifier Amplifier
Transmission media Transmission media

Sender Receiver

Attenuated signal Attenuated signal

Figure 2.4: Attenuation

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2. Distortion

Figure 2.5: Distortion

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3. Noise

Unwanted waves modify the waves carrying

information during transmission. These
unwanted waves are referred to as noise.
Noise is divided into the following categories -
1. Thermal noise
2. Induced noise
3. Cross talk
4. Impulse noise

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 Note

The random motion of electrons in a medium produces thermal

noise; thermal noise is also known as white noise or Johnson nois

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Fundamentals of Communication 20 Chapter 2: Waves and Signals
 Note

Data are defined as entities that convey meaning or information

signals are electric or electromagnetic representation of data.

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2.3.1 Types of Signals

The three types of signals used in telecommunications are

1. Electrical signals
2. Light signals
3. Electromagnetic signals other than light (or radio
waves)

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2.3.2 Properties of Electrical Signals

Bandwidth of an Electrical Signal

Data Rate of an Electrical Signal

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 Note

The absolute value of the difference between the lowest and hig
frequencies of a signal is called Bandwidth and the range of tha
signal spans from minimum to maximum is called Spectrum.

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2.3.3 Properties of Light Signals

Refraction
Bandwidth
Loss
Data Rate

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Refraction

Less Less Less

dense dense dense

More
dense
I More I More I
dense dense

I < critical angle I = critical angle I > critical angle

Figure 2.6: Bending of light ray

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2.3.4 Forms of Data and Signals

The two types of signals used in a telecommunication

network are-
1. Analog
2. Digital

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 Note
Signal is the electrical representation of data. Signal and data both
have analog and digital forms.

Analog signals take an infinite number of values in a range. Digital

signals take a limited number of values in a range.

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Analog and Digital Signal

Amplitude Amplitud
e0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

Time Time
(a) (b)

Figure 2.7: (a) Analog signal (b) Digital signal

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Types of Analog Signal
Amplitud
e

Time

Figure 2.8: A simple analog signal

Figure
Fundamentals of Communication 2.9: A simple
30 analog signal
Chapter 2: Waves and Signals
Bit Interval

Amplitude 1 second = 8 bit intervals

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

Bit interval
Time

Figure 2.11: Bit interval and bit rate

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2.4 Data Rate Limits

Data rate depends on three factors

1. Available bandwidth.
2. Level of signals.
3. Quality of the channel.

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 Note

Signal levels refer to the number of values allowed in a particular

signal and data levels refer to the number of values used to repres
data.

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2.5 Comparing Analog and Digital Signals

1. Impact of Noise
2. Information Loss
3. Introduction of Error

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