DEBARK UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Compiled Note for Exit Exam competency

COURSE TITLE: Fluid and thermal physics

Prepared by: Mekonnen Legesse

March 2023
Debark, Ethiopia

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Contents
.1 Course description ................................................................................................................................ 4
a Course Rationale .................................................................................................................................... 4
b Course Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 4
c learning outcomes .................................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Fluid Mechanics ............................................................................................................................................ 5
1.1 Definition of a fluid ............................................................................................................................. 5
1.1.1 Elasticity Moduli .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Classification of Fluid ............................................................................................................................. 8
1.2.2 Types of Fluids ................................................................................................................................ 8
Fig 1.1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Density .................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Pressure in a Fluid ................................................................................................................................. 10
1.5 Pressure, Depth, and Pascal‘s Law ....................................................................................................... 11
1.6 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure ................................................................................................. 14
1.6.1 Pressure Gauges ............................................................................................................................. 14
1.7 Buoyancy .............................................................................................................................................. 16
1.8 Surface Tension .................................................................................................................................... 19
1.9 Fluid Flow ............................................................................................................................................. 19
1.10 The Continuity Equation ..................................................................................................................... 20
1.10 Bernoulli‘s Equation .......................................................................................................................... 20
1.11 Viscosity and Turbulence................................................................................................................ 21
1.11.1 Viscosity ................................................................................................................................. 21
1.11.2 Turbulence .................................................................................................................................. 21
Chapter Two................................................................................................................................................ 22
Hydrodynamics and aerodynamics ............................................................................................................. 22
2.1 AERODYNAMICS: CLASSIFICATION AND PRACTICAL OBJECTIVES ............................... 22
2.2 SOME FUNDAMENTAL AERODYNAMIC VARIABLES .......................................................... 24
2.3 AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS .............................................................................. 26
2.4 CENTER OF PRESSURE ................................................................................................................ 29
2.5 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS: THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM ........................................... 30
2.6 FLOW SIMILARITY ....................................................................................................................... 31
2.7 Applications of aerodynamics ............................................................................................................... 32
2.7.1 Why do we study compressible aerodynamics or gas dynamics? .................................................. 32

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Chapter Three.............................................................................................................................................. 34
Thermodynamics......................................................................................................................................... 34
Basic Concept and definition .................................................................................................................. 34
3.1 Thermodynamics system, surrounding and universe. ....................................................................... 36
3.2 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids ............................................................................................ 43
Learning Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 43
3.3 Linear Thermal Expansion—Thermal Expansion in One Dimension .......................................... 44
3.4 Thermal Expansion in Two and Three Dimensions ...................................................................... 46
3.5 Thermal Expansion in Two Dimensions ....................................................................................... 46
3.6 Thermal Expansion in Three Dimensions ..................................................................................... 47
3.7 Making Connections: Real-World Connections—Filling the Tank .............................................. 48
3.8 Thermal Stress .................................................................................................................................. 50
3.9 The Ideal Gas Law ................................................................................................................................ 50
3.10 Ideal Gas Law ................................................................................................................................. 50
3.11 Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature ........................... 53
Learning Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 53
3.12 Making Connections: Things Great and Small—Atomic and Molecular Origin of Pressure in a
Gas ...................................................................................................................................................... 55
3.13 Making Connections: Historical Note—Kinetic Theory of Gases.............................................. 59
3.14 Distribution of Molecular Speeds ............................................................................................... 59
Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................................... 63
4.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics ................................................................................................... 63
4.2 Work Done by a System ................................................................................................................... 63
4.3 Internal Energy.................................................................................................................................. 64
4.4 First Law of Thermodynamics .......................................................................................................... 65
Thermodynamic Sign Conventions for Heat and Work .......................................................................... 66
4.5 Thermodynamic Processes................................................................................................................ 66
4.6 Quasi-static and Non-quasi-static Processes ..................................................................................... 66
Chapter Five ................................................................................................................................................ 67
5.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics .................................................................................................. 67
5.2 Heat Engines ..................................................................................................................................... 68
5.3 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps .......................................................................................................... 69
5.4 Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics ......................................................................... 72
5.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics (Kelvin statement) ....................................................................... 72
5.6 The Carnot Cycle .............................................................................................................................. 73

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 5.7 Entropy.............................................................................................................................................. 73

.1 Course description

a Course Rationale
The aim of this course is to develop a sound understanding of the central concepts of fluids and
thermal physics at the conceptual level so that solving relevant and practical problems is
possible. A calculus based approach is adopted for simplifying complexities in solving problems
regarding fluid flow, hydrostatic hydrodynamic and thermal phenomenon. Emphasis will be
given to basic understanding rather than the development of mathematical theory. It also
describes the fundamental concepts of fluid behavior under both static and dynamic conditions to
enable the learner to analyze many practical problems in which fluid are the working medium.
Greater attention has been given to temperature, thermal energy transfer, thermodynamic laws
and heat engines in order to engage students to participate in practical works such laboratory
activity and identifying devices working with fluids and thermodynamics laws. Moreover,
thermal conductivity and black body radiations is discussed to elicit the learner to visualize and
recap the basic knowledge of thermal properties of matter and blackbody radiations.

b Course Objectives
In this course, students will understand the phenomenon of fluid statistics and fluid dynamics. In
addition, they will also understand the laws of thermodynamics and thermal properties of matter
from macroscopic and microscopic point of view and develop a habit of solving problems.

c learning outcomes
After completing this course, students will be able to:
 Explain characteristics of fluids at rest,
 States Archimedes‘ and Pascal‘s principles
 Describe fluid flow, continuity equations and flow rate,
 Explain Bernoulli‘s equations and its applications.
 Explain hydrodynamics and aerodynamics,
 Compare and contrast the classical and modern aerodynamic theory.
 Use the concept of temperature to explain thermal equilibrium
 Explain thermal expansion of solids, real and apparent expansions of liquids and gases
 Explain the Kinetic theory of gases.
 Use laws of thermodynamics to sketch state variable relation diagrams and determine
work done from the diagram.
 State the second law of thermodynamics and determine the efficiency of engines
 Explain entropy, second law of thermodynamics, and third law of thermodynamics
 Differentiate reversible and irreversible process

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  Explain Equi-partition theory of energy and apply to solve problems
 Explain molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure and volume
 List some of the mechanisms of heat transfer
 Describe the phenomenon of thermal conductivity and rate of thermal energy flow
 Explain thermoelectric effect, thermal diffusivity and black body radiations.

CHAPTER ONE

Fluid Mechanics

1.1 Definition of a fluid

A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously under the action of a shear stress,
however small magnitude present. It means that a fluid deforms under very small shear stress,
but a solid may not deform under that magnitude of the shear stress. By contrast a solid deforms
when a constant shear stress is applied, but its deformation does not continue with increasing
time. a shear force F is applied to the upper plate to which the solid has been bonded, a shear
stress resulted by the force equals to

where A is the contact area of the upper plate. We know that in the case of the solid block the
deformation is proportional to the shear stress provided the elastic limit of the solid material is
not exceeded.

 In short, a fluid continues in motion under the application of a shear stress and
can not sustain any shear stress when at rest.
 fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and held together by
weak cohesive forces and by forces exerted by the walls of a container. Both
liquids and gases are fluids.
 Matter exists in two states; the solid and the fluid, the fluid state being commonly
divided into the liquid and gaseous states.
 In our treatment of the mechanics of fluids, we shall see that we do not need to
learn any new physical principles to explain such effects as the buoyant force
acting on a submerged object and the dynamic lift acting on an airplane wing.
 First, we consider the mechanics of a fluid at rest—that is, fluid statics
 We then treat the mechanics of fluids in motion—that is, fluid dynamics. We can
describe a fluid in motion by using a model in which we make certain simplifying

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 assumptions. We use this model to analyze some situations of practical
importance. An analysis leading to Bernoulli’s equation enables us to determine
relationships between the pressure, density, and velocity at every point in a fluid.
 Strain-measures the amount of deformation by the applied stress and defined as
the change in configuration of a body divided by its initial configuration. Strain is
unit less quantity.

There are three kinds of strains:

i. Tensile Strain:
When the ends of a bar(rod or wire) of uniform cross-sectional area A are pulled with
equal and opposite forces of magnitude F⊥ (Figure 1(a)), the bar will undergo a
stretch by the tensile stress defined as the ratio of the force magnitude F⊥ to the
cross-sectional area A
……………………………………… (3)
The fractional change in length of an object under a tensile stress is called the tensile
strain

ii. Shear Stress and Strain

Another type of deformation occurs when an object is subjected to a force parallel to
one of its faces while the opposite face is held fixed by another force. The stress in
this case is called a shear stress. If the object is originally a rectangular block, a shear
stress results in a shape whose cross section is a parallelogram. A book pushed
sideways is an example of an object subjected to a shear stress. To a first
approximation (for small distortions), no change in volume occurs with this
deformation. We define the shear stress as F/A, the ratio of the tangential force to the
area A of the face being sheared.

The shear strain is defined as the ratio x/h, where x is the horizontal distance that the sheared
face moves and h is the height of the object. In terms of these quantities, the shear modulus is

iii. Volume Stress and Strain

Volume Stress is a stress which causes volume deformation on an object and defined as the
ratio of the change in the magnitude of the applied force ∆F to the surface area A

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Volume strain is the fractional change in volume that is - the change in volume, ∆V , divided by
the original volume V0

1.1.1 Elasticity Moduli

The stress will be proportional to the strain if the stress is sufficiently small. In this regard, the
proportionality constant known as elastic modulus depends on the material being deformed and
on the nature of the deformation.

This relationship between stress and strain is analogous to Hooke‗s law ( ), relationship
between force and extension of a spring. The elastic modulus is analogous to a spring constant.
Corresponding to the three types of strains, there are three types of elastic module.

1. Young‘s Modulus: is the ratio of the tensile stress to the tensile strain. It measures the
resistance of a solid to a change in its length and typically used to characterize a rod or wire
stressed under either tension or compression. Note that because strain is a dimensionless
quantity, Y has units of force per unit area. Typical values are given in Table 3.1.
Experiments show (a) that for a fixed applied force, the change in length is proportional to
the original length and (b) that the force necessary to produce a given strain is proportional to
the cross-sectional area.

2. Shear Modulus (S): with units of Pascal, is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. It is the
measure of the resistance to motion of the planes within a solid parallel to each other. A material
having a large shear modulus is difficult to bend. Like Young‗s modulus, the unit of shear
modulus is the ratio of that for force to that for area.

……………………………………….(8)
⁄

3. Bulk Modulus: its SI unit is Pascal, is the ratio of the volume stress to the volume strain. Bulk
modulus measures the resistance of solids or liquids to changes in their volume. A material
having a large bulk modulus doesn‗t compress easily. Note that a negative sign is included in this
defining equation so that B is always positive. An increase in pressure (positive ∆P) causes a
decrease in volume negative ∆V) and vice versa.
⁄
⁄

A negative sign is inserted in this defining equation so that B is a positive number. This
maneuver is necessary because an increase in pressure (positive ) because a decrease in volume
(negative ) and vice versa. If you look up such values in a different source, you often find that

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the reciprocal of the bulk modulus is listed. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the
compressibility of the material.

1.2 Classification of Fluid

Fluids are classified into four types depending on their flow, they are:

1. Steady or unsteady
2. Compressible or incompressible
3. Viscous or non-viscous
4. Rotational or irrotational

 Steady fluid: It is the fluid whose density remains constant at each and every point while
flowing.
 Unsteady fluid: It is the fluid whose velocity differs between any two points while
flowing.
 Compressible fluid and incompressible fluids: These are classified based on the Mach
Number. The incompressible fluid has Mach Number<0.3 and the compressible fluid has
Mach Number between 0.3 and 1.
 Viscous or Non-viscous : Fluids with more thickness or viscosity are known as viscous
fluids, they are generally very gloppy fluids. Examples: shampoo and motor oil.

 Fluids with comparatively less thickness or viscosity are known as non-viscous

fluids. These are the fluids with no resistance or negligible resistance to internal
friction. Non-viscous fluids flow without any loss of kinetic energy.
 Example: Superfluid liquid helium

 Rotational or irrotational: If the angle between the two intersecting lines of the boundary of
the fluid element changes while moving in the flow, the flow is a rotational flow. Depending
on the angular motion of the fluid, it is classified into rotational fluid or irrotational fluid.

 If the fluid rotates as a whole with no change in angles between the boundary lines,
the flow of the fluid is classified as irrotational flow.

1.2.2 Types of Fluids

After learning the properties of fluids along with their classification, let us learn the types of
fluids.

 Ideal fluid
 Real fluid
 Newtonian fluid
 Non-Newtonian fluid
 Ideal plastic fluid
 Incompressible fluid
 Compressible fluid

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 Ideal fluid: It is a fluid that does not have viscosity and cannot be compressed. This type of
fluid cannot exist practically.
 Real fluid: All types of fluids that possess viscosity are classified as real fluids. Examples:
Kerosene and castor oil.
 Newtonian fluid: A real fluid that abides by Newton‘s law of viscosity is known as a
Newtonian fluid. Example: Hydrogen and water
 Non-Newtonian fluid: Fluids that do not abide by Newton‘s law of viscosity are known as
Non-Newtonian fluid. Example: Oobleck and flubber
 Ideal plastic fluid: If the shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient, and if
the value of shear stress is greater than the resultant, it is referred to as ideal plastic fluid.
 Incompressible fluid: If a fluid‘s density does not vary with the application of force, it is
known as an incompressible fluid. Example: The stream of water flowing at high speed from
a garden hose pipe.
 Compressible fluid: If a fluid‘s density varies with the application of force, it is called a
compressible fluid. Example: gas, vapour, and steam.

Fig 1.1 Types of fluid

1.3 Density
An important property of any material is its density, defined as its mass per unit volume. A
homogeneous material such as ice or iron has the same density throughout. We use (the Greek
letter rho) for density. If a mass m of homogeneous material has volume V, the density is

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 Two objects made of the same material have the same density even though they may
have different masses and different volumes. That‘s because the ratio of mass to volume
is the same for both objects.
The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic meter 1kg/m3.
The densest material found on earth is the metal osmium .
The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to the density of water at 4 0c ,
100kg/m3 it is a pure number without units. For example, the specific gravity of
aluminum is 2.7. ―Specific gravity‖ is a poor term, since it has nothing to do with gravity;
―relative density‖ would have been better.
The density of some materials varies from point to point within the material.
In general, the density of a material depends on environmental factors such as
temperature and pressure.

1.4 Pressure in a Fluid

When a fluid (either liquid or gas) is at rest, it exerts a force perpendicular to any surface in
contact with it, such as a container wall or a body immersed in the fluid. This is the force that
you feel pressing on your legs when you dangle them in a swimming pool. While the fluid as a
whole is at rest, the molecules that make up the fluid are in motion; the force exerted by the fluid
is due to molecules colliding with their surroundings.

If we think of an imaginary surface within the fluid, the fluid on the two sides of the surface
exerts equal and opposite forces on the surface. (Otherwise, the surface would accelerate and the
fluid would not remain at rest.) Consider a small surface of area dA centered on a point in the
fluid; the normal force exerted by the fluid on each side is . We define the pressure p at that
point as the normal force per unit area—that is, the ratio of to dA

(definition of pressure)

If the pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane surface with area A, then

The SI unit of pressure is the pascal.

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the earth‘s atmosphere, the pressure at the
bottom of this sea of air in which we live. This pressure varies with weather changes and
with elevation. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1
atmosphere (atm), defined to be exactly 101,325 Pa. To four significant figures

= 1.013 bar = 1013 millibar = 14.70 ⁄

Example 1 The weight of a roomful of air

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 1. Find the mass and weight of the air at 20°C in a living room with a floor and a 4.0 m x
5.0 m ceiling 3.0 m high, and the mass and weight of an equal volume of water.
2. what is the total downward force on the floor due to an air pressure of 1.00 atm?

Solution: for 1. We assume that the air density is the same throughout the room. (Air is less
dense at high elevations than near sea level, but the density varies negligibly over the room‘s 3.0-
m height, to relate the mass to the room‘s volume V (which we‘ll calculate) and the air density

We have
V = 4.0 m x 5.0 m x 3 m =60 m3

1.20 kg/m3) x (60 m3) = 72 kg

=(72 kg) x (9.8 m/ s2) = 700 kg m/ s2=700N=160 lb

The mass and weight of an equal volume of water are

1000 kg/m3) x (60 m3)= 6.0 x 104 kg

6.0 x 104 kg) x (9.8 m/ s2)= 5.9 x 105 N=1.3 x 105 lb= 66 tons

Solution: for 2; We have A= 4.0 m x 5.0 m=20 m2,

=( 1.013 x 105 N/m2)(20) m2= 2 x 106 N=4.6 x 105 lb= 230 tons

1.5 Pressure, Depth, and Pascal’s Law

If the weight of the fluid can be neglected, the pressure in a fluid is the same throughout its
volume. But often the fluid‘s weight is not negligible. Atmospheric pressure is less at high
altitude than at sea level, which is why an airplane cabin has to be pressurized when flying at
35,000 feet. When you dive into deep water, your ears tell you that the pressure increases rapidly
with increasing depth below the surface.

We can derive a general relationship between the pressure p at any point in a fluid at rest and the
elevation y of the point. We‘ll assume that the density has the same value throughout the fluid
(that is, the density is uniform), as does the acceleration due to gravity g. If the fluid is in
equilibrium, every volume element is in equilibrium.

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 (b)
fig 1.5 (a) The forces on an element of fluid in equilibrium
Consider a thin element of fluid with thickness dy (Fig. 1.5a). The bottom and top surfaces each
have area A, and they are at elevations y and above some reference level where, .
The volume of the fluid element is its mass is and its weight is

What are the other forces on this fluid element (Fig 1.5b)? Let‘s call the pressure at the bottom
surface p; then the total y-component of upward force on this surface is pA. The pressure at the
top surface is and the total y-component of (downward) force on the top surface is
. The fluid element is in equilibrium, so the total y-component of force, including
the weight and the forces at the bottom and top surfaces, must be zero:
∑

When we divide out the area A and rearrange, we get

This equation shows that when y increases, p decreases; that is, as we move upward in the fluid,
pressure decreases, as we expect. If and are the pressures at elevations and respectively, and if
and y1 y2, g are constant, then

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 It‘s often convenient to express Eq. (1.8) in
terms of the depth below the surface of a fluid
(Fig. 1.6). Take point 1 at any level in the fluid
and let p represent the pressure at this point.
Take point 2 at the surface of the fluid, where the
pressure is (subscript zero for zero depth). The
depth of point 1 below the surface is
and Eq. (1.8) becomes

The pressure p at a depth h is greater than the pressure at the surface by an amount Note
that the pressure is the same at any two points at the same level in the fluid. The shape of the
container does not matter.
Fig 1.6 How pressure varies with depth in a fluid with uniform density

Equation (1.8) shows that if we increase the pressure at the top surface, possibly by using a
piston that fits tightly inside the container to push down on the fluid surface, the pressure p at
any depth increases by exactly the same amount. This fact was recognized in 1653 by the French
scientist Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) and is called Pascal’s law.

Pascal’s law: Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every

portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.

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Fig(1.7) The hydraulic lift is an application of Pascal‘s law. The size of the fluid-filled container
is exaggerated for clarity.
Pascal law can be written as

1.6 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure

If the pressure inside a car tire is equal to atmospheric pressure, the tire is flat. The pressure has
to be greater than atmospheric to support the car, so the significant quantity is the difference
between the inside and outside pressures. When we say that the pressure in a car tire is ―32
pounds‖ (actually 32 lb/in2 equal to 220 kPa or 2.2 x 105 Pa), we mean that it is greater than
atmospheric pressure.

The total pressure in the tire is then 47 lb/in2 or 320 kPa. The excess pressure above
atmospheric pressure is usually called gauge pressure, and the total pressure is called
absolute pressure.
Engineers use the abbreviations psig and psia for ―pounds per square inch gauge‖ and
―pounds per square inch absolute,‖ respectively.
If the pressure is less than atmospheric, as in a partial vacuum, the gauge pressure is
negative.
Example 2 Finding absolute and gauge pressures

Water stands 12.0 m deep in a storage tank whose top is open to the atmosphere. What
are the absolute and gauge pressures at the bottom of the tank?
Solution We have and 1 atm = 1.01 x 105 Pa.
Absolute: = (1.01 x 105 Pa) + (1000 kg/m3)(9.80 m/s2)(12.0 m2)= 2.19 x
105 Pa = 2.16 atm = 31.8 lb/in.2
gauge: (2.19 − 1.01) ∗ 105 Pa= 1.18 x 105 Pa = 1.16 atm = 17.1 lb/in.2

1.6.1 Pressure Gauges

The simplest pressure gauge is the open-tube manometer. The U-shaped tube contains a liquid of
density often mercury or water. The left end of the tube is connected to the container where the
pressure p is to be measured, and the right end is open to the atmosphere at pressure .
The pressure at the bottom of the tube due to the fluid in the left column is and the
pressure at the bottom due to the fluid in the right column is These pressures are
measured at the same level, so they must be equal:

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In Eq. (1.11), p is the absolute pressure, and the difference between absolute and atmospheric
pressure is the gauge pressure. Thus the gauge pressure is proportional to the difference in height
of the liquid columns.

Two types of pressure gauge.

Another common pressure gauge is the mercury barometer. It consists of a long glass tube,
closed at one end, that has been filled with mercury and then inverted in a dish of mercury (Fig.
1.8b). The space above the mercury column contains only mercury vapor; its pressure is
negligibly small, so the pressure at the top of the mercury column is practically zero.

Thus the mercury barometer reads the atmospheric pressure directly from the height
of the mercury column.
Example 3 A tale of two fluids

A manometer tube is partially filled with water. Oil (which does not mix with water) is
poured into the left arm of the tube until the oil–water interface is at the midpoint of the tube
as shown. Both arms of the tube are open to the air. Find a relationship between the and
?

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 Solution The relationship between pressure and depth
given by Eq. (1.9) applies only to fluids of uniform
density; we have two fluids of different densities, so we
must write a separate pressure–depth relationship for
each. Both fluid columns have pressure p at the bottom
(where they are in contact and in equilibrium) and are
both at atmospheric pressure at the top (where both
are in contact with and in equilibrium with the air)

for water and for oil,

Since the pressure p at the bottom of the tube is the same for both fluids, we set these two
expressions equal to each other and solve for . in terms of . You can show that the
result is

and then evaluate we get that

 this shows that It takes a greater height of low-density oil to produce the same pressure p
at the bottom of the tube.

1.7 Buoyancy
Buoyancy is a familiar phenomenon: A body immersed in water seems to weigh less than when
it is in air. When the body is less dense than the fluid, it floats. The human body usually floats in
water, and a helium-filled balloon floats in air.
Archimedes’s principle: When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, the
fluid exerts an upward force on the body equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body.
To prove this principle, we consider an arbitrary element of fluid at rest. In Fig. 1.8.(a) the
irregular outline is the surface boundary of this element of fluid. The arrows represent the forces
exerted on the boundary surface by the surrounding fluid. The entire fluid is in equilibrium, so
the sum of all the y-components of force on this element of fluid is zero. Hence the sum of the y-
components of the surface forces must be an upward force equal in magnitude to the weight mg
of the fluid inside the surface. Also, the sum of the torques on the element of fluid must be zero,
so the line of action of the resultant y-component of surface force must pass through the center of

16
gravity of this element of fluid. Now we remove the fluid inside the surface and replace it with a
solid body having exactly the same shape (Fig. 1.8(b)).

The pressure at every point is exactly the same as before. So the total upward force
exerted on the body by the fluid is also the same, again equal in magnitude to the weight
mg of the fluid displaced to make way for the body. We call this upward force the
buoyant force on the solid body.
The line of action of the buoyant force again passes through the center of gravity of the
displaced fluid (which doesn‘t necessarily coincide with the center of gravity of the
body).
When a balloon floats in equilibrium in air, its weight (including the gas inside it) must
be the same as the weight of the air displaced by the balloon.
A practical example of buoyancy is the hydrometer, used to measure the density of
liquids.

Fig.1.8 Archimedes‘s principle.

Example 4 Buoyancy

A 15.0-kg solid gold statue is raised from the sea bottom (Fig. 1.9). What is the tension in the
hoisting cable (assumed massless) when the statue is ( use ) and

(a) at rest and completely underwater and

(b) at rest and completely out of the water?

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Solution: for (a):, In both cases the statue is in equilibrium and experiences three forces: its
weight, the cable tension, and a buoyant force equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the statue (seawater in part (a), air in part (b)). shows the free-body diagram for the
statue. Our target variables are the values of the tension in seawater and in air We
are given the mass , and we can calculate the buoyant force in seawater and in air
using Archimedes‘s principle.

By using the density of gold we can find the statue‘s volume V .

The buoyant force equals the weight of this same volume of seawater. Again:

The statue is at rest, so the net external force acting on it is zero. So that:

 A spring scale attached to the upper end of the cable will indicate a tension 7.84 N less
than the statue‘s actual weight
Solution:for (B)

 This is negligible compared to the statue‘s actual weight . So within

the precision of our data, the tension in the cable with the statue in air is

 Note that :
 the buoyant force is proportional to the density of the fluid in which the statue is
immersed, not the density of the statue.

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  The denser the fluid, the greater the buoyant force and the smaller the cable
tension. If the fluid had the same density as the statue, the buoyant force would be
equal to the statue‘s weight and the tension would be zero (the cable would go
slack).
 If the fluid were denser than the statue, the tension would be negative: The
buoyant force would be greater than the statue‘s weight, and a downward force
would be required to keep the statue from rising upward.

1.8 Surface Tension

An object less dense than water, such as an air-filled beach ball, floats with part of its volume
below the surface. Conversely, a paper clip can rest atop a water surface even though its density
is several times that of water. This is an example of surface tension

Surface tension arises because the molecules of the liquid exert attractive forces on each other.
There is zero net force on a molecule inside the volume of the liquid, but a surface molecule is
drawn into the volume. Thus the liquid tends to minimize its surface area, just as a stretched
membrane does.

Surface tension explains why freely falling raindrops are spherical (not teardropshaped): A
sphere has a smaller surface area for its volume than any other shape. It also explains why hot,
soapy water is used for washing.

1.9 Fluid Flow

We are now ready to consider motion of a fluid. Fluid flow can be extremely complex, as shown
by the currents in river rapids or the swirling flames of a campfire. But some situations can be
represented by relatively simple idealized models. An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible
(that is, its density cannot change) and has no internal friction (called viscosity). Liquids are
approximately incompressible in most situations, and we may also treat a gas as incompressible
if the pressure differences from one region to another are not too great. Internal friction in a fluid
causes shear stresses when two adjacent layers of fluid move relative to each other, as when fluid
flows inside a tube or around an obstacle. In some cases we can neglect these shear forces in
comparison with forces arising from gravitation and pressure differences.
The path of an individual particle in a moving fluid is called a flow line. If the overall flow
pattern does not change with time, the flow is called steady flow. In steady flow, every element
passing through a given point follows the same flow line. In this case the ―map‖ of the fluid
velocities at various points in space remains constant, although the velocity of a particular
particle may change in both magnitude and direction during its motion. A streamline is a curve
whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the fluid velocity at that point. When the flow
pattern changes with time, the streamlines do not coincide with the flow lines. We will consider
only steady-flow situations, for which flow lines and streamlines are identical.

19
The flow lines passing through the edge of an imaginary element of area, such as the area A in
Fig. 12.18, form a tube called a flow tube. From the definition of a flow line, in steady flow no
fluid can cross the side walls of a flow tube; the fluids in different flow tubes cannot mix.
Figure 12.19 shows patterns of fluid flow from left to right around three different obstacles. The
photographs were made by injecting dye into water flowing between two closely spaced glass
plates. These patterns are typical of laminar flow, in which adjacent layers of fluid slide
smoothly past each other and the flow is steady. (A lamina is a thin sheet.) At sufficiently high
flow rates, or when boundary surfaces cause abrupt changes in velocity, the flow can become
irregular and chaotic. This is called turbulent flow (Fig. 12.20). In turbulent flow there is no
steady-state pattern; the flow pattern changes continuously.

1.10 The Continuity Equation

The mass of a moving fluid doesn‘t change as it flows. This leads to an important quantitative
relationship called the continuity equation.

……….(1.13)
The product is the volume flow rate dv/dt

The mass flow rate is the mass flow per unit time through a cross section. This is equal to the
density times the volume flow rate dV/dt .

Equ(1.13) shows that the volume flow rate has the same value at all points along any flow tube.
When the cross section of a flow tube decreases, the speed increases, and vice versa.

If the fluid is incompressible so that are always equal.

1.10 Bernoulli’s Equation

According to the continuity equation, the speed of fluid flow can vary along the paths of the
fluid. The pressure can also vary; it depends on height as in the static situation and it also
depends on the speed of flow. We can derive an important relationship called Bernoulli’s
equation
that relates the pressure, flow speed, and height for flow of an ideal, incompressible fluid.
Bernoulli‘s equation is an essential tool in analyzing plumbing systems, hydroelectric
generating stations, and the flight of airplanes.
The dependence of pressure on speed follows from the continuity equation, When an
incompressible fluid flows along a flow tube with varying cross section, its speed must

20
 change, and so an element of fluid must have an acceleration. If the tube is horizontal, the
force that causes this acceleration has to be applied by the surrounding fluid.
This means that the pressure must be different in regions of different cross section; if it
were the same everywhere, the net force on every fluid element would be zero. When a
horizontal flow tube narrows and a fluid element speeds up, it must be moving toward a
region of lower pressure in order to have a net forward force to accelerate it. If the
elevation also changes, this causes an additional pressure difference.

Bernoulli’s equation. It states that the work done on a unit volume of fluid by the
surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of the changes in kinetic and potential energies per
unit volume that occur during the flow.

Note that when the fluid is not moving .

1.11 Viscosity and Turbulence

1.11.1 Viscosity
is internal friction in a fluid. Viscous forces oppose the motion of one portion of a fluid
relative to another. Viscosity is the reason it takes effort to paddle a canoe through calm
water, but it is also the reason the paddle works. Viscous effects are important in the flow
of fluids in pipes, the flow of blood, the lubrication of engine parts, and many other
situations.
Fluids that flow readily, such as water or gasoline, have smaller viscosities than do
―thick‖ liquids such as honey or motor oil. Viscosities of all fluids are strongly
temperature dependent, increasing for gases and decreasing for liquids as the temperature
increases.

1.11.2 Turbulence
When the speed of a flowing fluid exceeds a certain critical value, the flow is no longer
laminar. Instead, the flow pattern becomes extremely irregular and complex, and it
changes continuously with time; there is no steady-state pattern. This irregular, chaotic
flow is called turbulence.

21
Chapter Two

Hydrodynamics and aerodynamics

The term “aerodynamics” is generally used for problems arising from flight and other topics
involving the flow of air. Ludwig Prandtl, 1949
Aerodynamics: The dynamics of gases, especially atmospheric interactions with moving objects

Why learn about aerodynamics? For an answer, just take a look at the following five photographs
showing a progression of airplanes over the past 70 years. The Douglas DC-3, one of the most
famous aircraft of all time, is a low-speed subsonic transport designed during the 1930s. Without
a knowledge of low-speed aerodynamics, this aircraft would have never existed.

Airplanes are by no means the only application of aerodynamics. The air flow over an
automobile, the gas flow through the internal combustion engine powering an automobile,
weather and storm prediction, the flow through a windmill, the production of thrust by gas
turbine jet engines and rocket engines, and the movement of air through building heater and air-
conditioning systems are just a few other examples of the application of aerodynamics. The
material in this book is powerful stuff—important stuff. Have fun reading and learning about
aerodynamics.

2.1 AERODYNAMICS: CLASSIFICATION AND PRACTICAL OBJECTIVES

A distinction between solids, liquids, and gases can be made in a simplistic sense as follows. Put
a solid object inside a larger, closed container. The solid object will not change; its shape and
boundaries will remain the same. Now put a liquid inside the container. The liquid will change
its shape to conform to that of the container and will take on the same boundaries as the
container up to the maximum depth of the liquid. Now put a gas inside the container. The gas
will completely fill the container, taking on the same boundaries as the container.
The word fluid is used to denote either a liquid or a gas. A more technical distinction between a
solid and a fluid can be made as follows. When a force is applied tangentially to the surface of a
solid, the solid will experience a finite deformation, and the tangential force per unit area—the
shear stress—will usually be proportional to the amount of deformation. In contrast, when a
tangential shear stress is applied to the surface of a fluid, the fluid will experience a continuously
increasing deformation, and the shear stress usually will be proportional to the rate of change of
the deformation.

The most fundamental distinction between solids, liquids, and gases is at the atomic and
molecular level. In a solid, the molecules are packed so closely together that their nuclei and
electrons form a rigid geometric structure, ―glued‖ together by powerful intermolecular forces. In
a liquid, the spacing between molecules is larger, and although intermolecular forces are still
strong, they allow enough movement of the molecules to give the liquid its ―fluidity.‖ In a gas,

22
the spacing between molecules is much larger (for air at standard conditions, the spacing
between molecules is, on the average, about 10 times the molecular diameter). Hence, the
influence of intermolecular forces is much weaker, and the motion of the molecules occurs rather
freely throughout the gas. This movement of molecules in both gases and liquids leads to similar
physical characteristics, the characteristics of a fluid—quite different from those of a solid.
Therefore, it makes sense to classify the study of the dynamics of both liquids and gases under
the same general heading, called fluid dynamics. On the other hand, certain differences exist
between the flow of liquids and the flow of gases; also, different species of gases (say, N2, He,
etc.) have different properties. Therefore, fluid dynamics is subdivided into three areas as
follows:

 Hydrodynamics—flow of liquids Gas

 dynamics—flow of gases
 Aerodynamics—flow of air
These areas are by no means mutually exclusive; there are many similarities and identical
phenomena between them. Also, the word ―aerodynamics‖ has taken on a popular usage that
sometimes covers the other two areas. As a result, this author tends to interpret the word
aerodynamics very liberally, and its use throughout this book does not always limit our
discussions just to air.
Aerodynamics is an applied science with many practical applications in engineering. No matter
how elegant an aerodynamic theory may be, or how mathematically complex a numerical
solution may be, or how sophisticated an aerodynamic experiment may be, all such efforts are
usually aimed at one or more of the following practical objectives:

1. The prediction of forces and moments on, and heat transfer to, bodies moving through a
fluid (usually air). For example, we are concerned with the generation of lift, drag, and
moments on airfoils, wings, fuselages, engine nacelles, and most importantly, whole
airplane configurations. We want to estimate the wind force on buildings, ships, and other
surface vehicles. We are concerned with the hydrodynamic forces on surface ships,
submarines, and torpedoes. We need to be able to calculate the aerodynamic heating of
flight vehicles ranging from the supersonic transport to a planetary probe entering the
atmosphere of Jupiter. These are but a few
Examples:
2. Determination of flows moving internally through ducts. We wish to calculate and
measure the flow properties inside rocket and air-breathing jet engines and to calculate
the engine thrust. We need to know the flow conditions in the test section of a wind
tunnel. We must know how much
fluid can flow through pipes under various conditions.

23
The applications in item 1 come under the heading of external aerodynamics since they deal with
external flows over a body. In contrast, the applications in item 2 involve internal aerodynamics
because they deal with flows internally within ducts. In external aerodynamics, in addition to
forces, moments, and aerodynamic heating associated with a body, we are frequently interested
in the details of the flow field away from the body. For example, the communication blackout
experienced by the space shuttle during a portion of its reentry trajectory is due to a
concentration of free electrons in the hot shock layer around the body. We need to calculate the
variation of electron density throughout such flow fields. Another example is the propagation of
shock waves in a supersonic flow; for instance, does the shock wave from the wing of a
supersonic airplane impinge upon and interfere with the tail surfaces? Yet another example is the
flow associated with the strong vortices trailing downstream from the wing tips of large subsonic
airplanes such as the Boeing 747. What are the properties of these vortices, and how do they
affect smaller aircraft which happen to fly through them?

The above is just a sample of the myriad applications of aerodynamics. One purpose of
this book is to provide the reader with the technical background necessary to fully
understand the nature of such practical aerodynamic applications.

2.2 SOME FUNDAMENTAL AERODYNAMIC VARIABLES

The four of the most frequently used words in aerodynamics: pressure, density, temperature,
and flow velocity. Consider a surface immersed in a fluid. The surface can be a real, solid surface
such as the wall of a duct or the surface of a body; it can also be a free surface which we simply
imagine drawn somewhere in the middle of a fluid. Also, keep in mind that the molecules of the
fluid are constantly in motion. Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface due
to the time rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on (or crossing) that
surface. It is important to note that even though pressure is defined as force ―per unit area,‖ you
do not need a surface that is exactly 1 ft2 or 1 m2 to talk about pressure. In fact, pressure is
usually defined at a point in the fluid or a point on a solid surface and can vary from one point to
another. To see this more clearly, consider a point B in a volume of fluid. Let
dA = elemental area at B
dF = force on one side of dA
due to pressure Then, the pressure at point B in the fluid is defined as

The pressure p is the limiting form of the force per unit area, where the area of interest has
shrunk to nearly zero at the point B.

Therefore, the density ρ is the limiting form of the mass per unit volume, where the volume of
interest has shrunk to nearly zero around point B. (Note that dv cannot achieve the value of zero
for the reason discussed in the footnote concerning dA in the definition of pressure.)

24
Temperature takes on an important role in high-speed aerodynamics The temperature T of a gas
is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules of the fluid. In fact, if KE
is the mean molecular kinetic energy, then temperature is given by KE =3/2kT , where k is the
Boltzmann constant. Hence, we can qualitatively visualize a high-temperature gas as one in
which the molecules and atoms are randomly rattling about at high speeds, whereas in a low-
temperature gas, the random motion of the molecules is relatively slow. Temperature is also a
point property, which can vary from point to point in the gas.

The principal focus of aerodynamics is fluids in motion. Hence, flow velocity is an extremely
important consideration. The concept of the velocity of a fluid is slightly more subtle than that of
a solid body in motion. Consider a solid object in translational motion, say, moving at 30 m/s.
Then all parts of the solid are simultaneously translating at the same 30 m/s velocity. In contrast,
a fluid is a ―squishy‖ substance, and for a fluid in motion, one part of the fluid may be traveling
at a different velocity from another part. Hence, we have to adopt a certain perspective, as
follows. Consider the flow of air over an airfoil Lock your eyes on a specific, infinitesimally
small element of mass in the gas, called a fluid element, and watch this element move with time.
Both the speed and direction of this fluid element can vary as it moves from point to point in the
gas.

Flow velocity can now be defined as follows: The velocity of a flowing gas at any fixed point B
in space is the velocity of an infinitesimally small fluid element as it sweeps through B. The flow
velocity V has both magnitude and direction; hence, it is a vector quantity. This is in contrast to
p, ρ, and T , which are scalar variables. The scalar magnitude of V is frequently used and is
denoted by V . Again, we emphasize that velocity is a point property and can vary from point to
point in the flow.
a moving fluid element traces out a fixed path in space. As long as the flow is steady (i.e., as
long as it does not fluctuate with time), this path is called a streamline of the flow. Drawing the
streamlines of the flow field is an important way of visualizing the motion of the gas; we will
frequently be sketching the streamlines of the flow about various objects.

The streamlines are an infinitesimal distance, dy, apart. At point 1 on streamline b the flow
velocity is V; at point 2 on streamline a the flow velocity is slightly higher, V + dV. You can
imagine that streamline a is rubbing against streamline b and, due to friction, exerts a force of
magnitude dF f on streamline b acting tangentially toward the right. Furthermore, imagine this
force acting on an elemental area dA, where dA is perpendicular to the y axis and tangent to the
streamline b at point 1. The local shear stress, τ, at point 1 is

( )

25
 fig.(2.1) Generation of frictional force due to a velocity gradient in a flow

The shear stress τ is the limiting form of the magnitude of the frictional force per unit area, where
the area of interest is perpendicular to the y axis and has shrunk to nearly zero at point 1. Shear
stress acts tangentially along the streamline. For the type of gases and liquids of interest in
aerodynamic applications, the value of the shear stress at a point on a streamline is proportional
to the spatial rate of change of velocity normal to the streamline at that point (i.e., for the flow
illustrated in above figure )
The constant of proportionality is defined as the viscosity coefficient, μ. Hence

( )

where dV/dy is the velocity gradient. In reality, μ is not really a constant; it is a function of the
temperature of the fluid.

2.3 AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS

At first glance, the generation of the aerodynamic force on a giant Boeing 747 may seem
complex, especially in light of the complicated three-dimensional flow field over the wings,
fuselage, engine nacelles, tail, etc. Similarly, the aerodynamic resistance on an automobile
traveling at 55 mi/h on the highway involves a complex interaction of the body, the air, and the
ground. However, in these and all other cases, the aerodynamic forces and moments on the body
are due to only two basic sources:
1. Pressure distribution over the body surface
2. Shear stress distribution over the body surface
No matter how complex the body shape may be, the aerodynamic forces and moments on the
body are due entirely to the above two basic sources. The only mechanisms nature has for
communicating a force to a body moving through a fluid are pressure and shear stress

26
distributions on the body surface. Both pressure p and shear stress τ have dimensions of force per
unit area (pounds per square foot or newtons per square meter). p acts normal to the surface, and
τ acts tangential to the surface. Shear stress is due to the ―tugging action‖ on the surface, which
is caused by friction between the body and the air The net effect of the p and τ distributions
integrated over the complete body surface is a resultant aerodynamic force R and moment M on
the body

fig.(2.2) Illustration of pressure and shear stress on an aerodynamic surface.

Fig.(2.3a) Resultant aerodynamic force and moment on the body fig.(2.3b) Resultant
aerodynamic force and the

components into
which it splits

which are shown in above fig(2.3a) and fig(2.3b) V∞ is the relative wind, defined as the flow
velocity far ahead of the body. The flow far away from the body is called the freestream, and
hence V∞ is also called the freestream velocity.
L ≡ lift ≡ component of R perpendicular to V∞

27
 D ≡ drag ≡ component of R parallel to V∞
The chord c is the linear distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the body.
Sometimes, R is split into components perpendicular and parallel to the chord By definition,

N ≡ normal force ≡ component of R perpendicular to c

A ≡ axial force ≡ component of R parallel to c
The angle of attack α is defined as the angle between c and V∞. Hence, α is also the angle
between L and N and between D and A. The geometrical relation between these two sets of
components is

L = N cos α - A sin α
(2.4)
D = N sin α + A cos α

Fig.(2.4) Nomenclature for the integration of pressure and shear stress distributions over a two-
dimensional body surface

The chord line is drawn horizontally, and hence the relative wind is inclined relative to the
horizontal by the angle of attack α. An xy coordinate system is oriented parallel and
perpendicular, respectively, to the chord. The distance from the leading edge measured along the
body surface to an arbitrary point A on the upper surface is su; similarly, the distance to an
arbitrary point B on the lower surface is sl. The pressure and shear stress on the upper surface are
denoted by pu and τu, both pu and τu are functions of su. Similarly, pl and τl are the
corresponding quantities on the lower surface and are functions of sl. At a given point, the
pressure is normal to the surface and is oriented at an angle θ relative to the perpendicular; shear
stress is tangential to the surface and is oriented at the same angle θ relative to the horizontal. In

28
Figure 2.4, the sign convention for θ is positive when measured clockwise from the vertical line
to the direction of p and from the horizontal line to the direction of τ.

Fig(2.5) Aerodynamic force on an element of the body surface.

upper body surface are

d N ′u = -pudsu cos θ - τudsu sin θ
dA′ u = -pudsu sin θ + τudsu cos θ (2.5)
On the lower body surface, we have
d N ′ l = pldsl cos θ - τldsl sin θ
dA′ l = pldsl sin θ + τldsl cos θ (2.6)

2.4 CENTER OF PRESSURE

we see that the normal and axial forces on the body are due to the distributed loads imposed by
the pressure and shear stress distributions. Moreover, these distributed loads generate a moment
about the leading edge If the aerodynamic force on a body is specified in terms of a resultant
single force R, or its components such as N and A, where on the body should this resultant be
placed? The answer is that the resultant force should be located on the body such that it produces
the same effect as the distributed loads. For example, the distributed load on a two-dimensional
body such as an airfoil produces a moment about the leading edge. therefore, N ′ and A′ must be
placed on the airfoil at such a location to generate the same moment about the leading edge. If A′
is placed on the chord line then N ′ must be located at a distance downstream of the leading
edge such that

29
2.5 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS: THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM
The aerodynamic forces and moments on a body, and the corresponding force and moment
coefficients The resultant aerodynamic force is R. On a physical, intuitive basis, we expect R to
depend on:
1. Freestream velocity V∞.
2. Freestream density ρ∞.
3. Viscosity of the fluid. We have seen that shear stress τ contributes to the aerodynamic
forces and moments, and that τ is proportional to the velocity gradients in the flow. For
example, if the velocity gradient is given by
∂u/∂y, then τ = μ∂u/∂y.
4. The constant of proportionality is the viscosity coefficient μ. Hence, let us represent the
influence of viscosity on aerodynamic forces and moments by the freestream viscosity
coefficient μ∞.
5. The size of the body, represented by some chosen reference length. In the convenient
reference length is the chord length c.
6. The compressibility of the fluid. For our present purposes, let us just say that
compressibility is related to the variation of density throughout the flow field, and
certainly the aerodynamic forces and moments should be sensitive to any such variation.
In turn, compressibility is related to the speed of sound a in the fluid, Therefore, let us
represent the influence of compressibility on aerodynamic forces and moments by the
freestream speed of sound, a∞. In light of the above, and without any a priori knowledge
about the variation of R, we can use common sense to write

R = f (ρ∞, V∞, c, μ∞,a∞) (2.7)

Equation (2.7) is a general functional relation, and as such is not very practical for the
direct calculation of R. In principle, we could mount the given body in a wind tunnel, incline it at
the given angle of attack, and then systematically measure the variation of R due to variations of
ρ∞, V∞, c, μ∞, and a∞, taken one at a time. By cross-plotting the vast bulk of data thus obtained,
we might be able to extract a precise functional relation for Equation (2.7). However, it would be
hard work, and it would certainly be costly in terms of a huge amount of required wind-tunnel
time. Fortunately, we can simplify the problem and considerably reduce our time and effort by
first employing the method of dimensional analysis.

Dimensional analysis is based on the obvious fact that in an equation dealing with the real
physical world, each term must have the same dimensions. For example, if

30
is a physical relation, then ψ, η, ζ, and φ must have the same dimensions. Otherwise we would be
adding apples and oranges. The above equation can be made dimensionless by dividing by any
one of the terms, say,

These ideas are formally embodied in the Buckingham pi theorem, stated below without
derivation.

2.6 FLOW SIMILARITY

Consider two different flow fields over two different bodies. By definition, different flows are
dynamically similar if:
1. The streamline patterns are geometrically similar.
2. The distributions of V/V∞, p/p∞, T/T∞, etc., throughout the flow field are the same when
plotted against common non dimensional coordinates.
3. The force coefficients are the same. Actually, item 3 is a consequence of item 2; if the non
dimensional pressure and shear stress distributions over different bodies are the same, then the
non dimensional force coefficients will be the same.

31
The definition of dynamic similarity was given above. Question: What are the criteria to ensure
that two flows are dynamically similar? The answer comes from the results of the dimensional
analysis. Two flows will be dynamically similar if:
1. The bodies and any other solid boundaries are geometrically similar for
both flows.
2. The similarity parameters are the same for both flows.
So far, we have emphasized two parameters, Re and M∞. For many aerodynamic applications,
these are by far the dominant similarity parameters. Therefore, in a limited sense, but applicable
to many problems, we can say that flows over geometrically similar bodies at the same Mach and
Reynolds numbers are dynamically similar, and hence the lift, drag, and moment coefficients
will be identical for the bodies. This is a key point in the validity of wind-tunnel testing. If a
scale model of a flight vehicle is tested in a wind tunnel, the measured lift, drag, and moment
coefficients will be the same as for free flight as long as the Mach and Reynolds numbers of the
wind-tunnel test-section flow are the same as for the free-flight case. As we will see in
subsequent chapters, this statement is not quite precise because there are other similarity
parameters that influence the flow. In addition, differences in freestream turbulence between the
wind tunnel and free flight can have an important effect on CD and the maximum value of CL.
However, direct simulation of the free-flight Re and M∞ is the primary goal of many wind-
tunnel tests.

2.7 Applications of aerodynamics

2.7.1 Why do we study compressible aerodynamics or gas dynamics?
The answer lies in the following:
Knowledge of compressible aerodynamics/gas dynamics will equip the aerospace engineer to
compute:
(a) Lift,
(b) Drag,
(c) Moments; on any vehicle moving at high speed.
Recall that lift is the force which keeps the aircraft at the flying altitude, drag is the force due to
the resistance of the air moving past the aircraft, and moments or aerodynamic moments are
produced by the pressure and shear stress distribution on the aircraft body. The coefficients ofeach
of the above are more commonly computed for applications. These forces and moments or
their coefficients are used in stability, control, propulsion, structures, and aircraft design.
We study aerodynamics (high speed or low speed) to estimate
(a) Normal stresses (pressure)

32
 (b) Shear stresses
(c) Surface temperature
which leads to the estimation of all forces and moments acting on the aircraft and hence its lift,
drag, and moments or their coefficients.
The study of high speed aerodynamics or gas dynamics has the following applications:
(a) Design and analysis of high speed aircraft.
(b) Gas turbines.
(c) Steam turbines.
(d) Reciprocating engines
(e) Gas transmission lines
(f) Combustion chambers and many others.
 The field of applied aerodynamics covers a broad range of applications, involving generally any
object that experiences aerodynamic forces in fluid flow, though common applications include
 fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft,
 wind turbines and propellers,
 ground and marine vehicles,
 internal flows,
 avian and insect flight, and atmospheric flows.

Design of transport systems:

External aerodynamics:

1. Aircrafts (involving subsonic, trans-sonic and supersonic wing design,

spoilers, tailplane, Nose cone, landing gear etc), Passenger cabin design (to
simulate optimum air flow for passenger comfort)
2. Implementing Noise reduction techniques (example, read about the Chevrons
in the Boeing 787 dream-liner engines. Chevrons reduce engine noise by
facilitating the mixture of bypass air with the ambient air stream). Also, NASA
is designing a supersonic aircraft with low noise especially when crossing the
sound barrier at Mach 1.0
3. Launch vehicles/missiles (nose, fins etc)
4. Spacecraft design (planetary missions to heavenly bodies with atmosphere,
example Mars missions involving entry descend and landing) or capsules
involving Earth re-entry missions (example Space shuttle, Orion, asteroid
sample return missions)
5. helicopters (main rotor, tail rotor), Ships, submarines, (high speed) trains,
buses, from basic cars to F1 cars, helmet designs for cyclists etc).

33
Chapter Three

Thermodynamics

Basic Concept and definition

Introduction:
Thermodynamics (Science of energy): It is the branch/field of science which deals with energy in
the form of heat and work and conversion of one in to another and its effect on the properties of
the system.
Thermodynamics stem from the thermo means heat and dynamics means power i.e. conversion
of heat in to power.
Thermodynamics is a science that governs the following:
Energy and its transformation
Feasibility of a process involving transformation of energy
Feasibility of a process involving transfer of energy
Equilibrium processes
Thermodynamics is based upon observations of common experience which have been
formulated in laws of thermodynamics. The principle of thermodynamics is summarized in the
four laws of thermodynamics as the Zeroth law, First law, Second law and Third
law.
 The Zeroth law of thermodynamics deals with the thermal equilibrium and provides
a means of measuring temperature.
 The first law of thermodynamics is the conservation of energy and introduces the
concept of internal energy.
 The second law of thermodynamics dictates the limits on the conversion of internal
energy of matter into work and provides a yardstick to evaluate the performance of
various processes. It also tells us whether a particular change is feasible or not and
introduces the important concept of entropy.
 The third law of thermodynamics defines the absolute zero of entropy.

Scope of thermodynamics
Application to any system
Only to a certain set of states ,called equilibrium states , macroscopic

34
 No specific, quantitative predictions instead, limits and relationships.
The scope is restricted to the study of heat and work and the conversion of one into
another .thermodynamics laws are applied to work producing and work absorbing devices
in order to understand functioning and improve their performance.
Areas of Application of Thermodynamics: All natural processes are governed by the principles
of thermodynamics. However, the following engineering devices are typically designed based on
the principles of thermodynamics. Automotive engines, Turbines, Compressors, Pumps, Fossil
and Nuclear Power Plants, Propulsion systems for the Aircrafts, Separation and Liquefication
Plant, Refrigeration, Air-conditioning and Heating Devices.
Macroscopic and Microscopic Approaches.
Behavior of matter can be studied by these two
In microscopic approach, the effect of molecular motion is considered.e.g.: At microscopic
level the pressure of a gas is not constant, the temperature of a gas is a function of the velocity of
molecules. Most microscopic properties cannot be measured with common instruments nor can
perceived by human senses.

 In macroscopic approach, certain quantity of matter is considered, without a concern on the

events occurring at the molecular level. These effects can be perceived by human senses or
measured by instruments.
e.g.: pressure, temperature

Macroscopic approach Microscopic approach

1. In this approach a certain quantity of 1. The approach considers that the system
matter is considered without taking into is made up of a very large number of
account the events occurring at molecular discrete particles known as molecules.
level. In other words this approach to These molecules have different velocities
thermodynamics is concerned with gross and energies. The values of these energies
or overall behaviour. This is known as are constantly changing with time. This
classical thermodynamics. approach to thermodynamics, which is
2. The analysis of macroscopic system concerned directly with the structure of
requires simple mathematical formulae. the matter, is known as statistical
3. The values of the properties of the system thermodynamics.
are their average values. For example, 2. The behaviour of the system is found by
consider a sample of a gas in a closed using statistical methods, as the number
container. The pressure of the gas is the of molecules is very large. so advanced
average value of the pressure exerted by statistical and mathematical methods are
millions of individual molecules. needed to explain the changes in the
Similarly the temperature of this gas is system.
the average value of transnational kinetic 3. The properties like velocity, momentum,

35
energies of millions of individual molecules. impulse, kinetic energy, and instruments
these properties like pressure cannot easily measure force of impact etc.
and temperature can be measured very that describe the molecule. Our senses
easily. The changes in properties can be cannot feel them.
felt by our senses. 4. Large numbers of variables are needed
4. In order to describe a system only a few to describe a system. So the approach is
properties are needed. complicated.

3.1 Thermodynamics system, surrounding and universe.

In thermodynamics the system is defined as the quantity of matter or region in space upon which
the attention is concentrated for the sake of analysis. These systems are also referred to as
thermodynamics system. It is bounded by an arbitrary surface called boundary. The boundary
may be real or imaginary, may be at rest or in motion and may change its size or shape.
Everything out side the arbitrary selected boundaries of the system is called surrounding or
environment.

Types of system
The analysis of thermodynamic processes includes the study of the transfer of mass and energy
across the boundaries of the system. On the basis the system may be classified mainly into three
parts.
(1) Open system (2) Closed System (3) Isolated system
(1) Open system
The system which can exchange both the mass and energy (Heat and work) with its surrounding.
The mass within the system may not be constant. The nature of the processes occurring in such
system is flow type. For example

36
1. Water Pump: Water enters at low level and pumped to a higher level, pump being driven by an
electric motor. The mass (water) and energy (electricity) cross the boundary of the system (pump
and motor).

2. Scooter engine: Air arid petrol enters and burnt gases leave the engine. The engine delivers
mechanical energy to the wheels.
3. Boilers, turbines, heat exchangers. Fluid flow through them and heat or work is taken out or
supplied to them. Most of the engineering machines and equipment are open systems.
(2) Closed System
The system, which can exchange energy with their surrounding but not the mass. The quantity of
matter thus remains fixed. And the system is described as control mass system. The physical
nature and chemical composition of the mass of the system may change. Water may evaporate
into steam or steam may condense into water. A chemical reaction may occur between two or
more components of the closed [Link] example
1. Car battery, Electric supply takes place from and to the battery but there is no material
transfer.
2. Tea kettle, Heat is supplied to the kettle but mass of water remains constant.

3. Water in a tank
4. Piston – cylinder assembly.
(3) Isolated System
In an Isolated system, neither energy nor masses are allowed to cross the boundary. The system
has fixed mass and energy. No such system physically exists. Universe is the only example,
which is perfectly isolated system.
Other Special System

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1. Adiabatic System: A system with adiabatic walls can only exchange work and not heat with
the surrounding. All adiabatic systems are thermally insulated from their surroundings.
Example is Thermos flask containing a liquid.
2. Homogeneous System: A system, which consists of a single phase, is termed as
homogeneous system. For example, Mixtures of air and water vapour, water plus nitric acid and
octane plus heptanes.
3. Heterogeneous System: A system, which consists of two or more than two phase, is termed
as heterogeneous system. For example, Water plus steam, Ice plus water and water plus oil.
Property: Thermodynamic properties are macroscopic characteristics which describe the state
of a system. The essential features of a property are
It should have a definite value when a system is in a particular state.
The value of a property of a system is independent of the process or the path followed by
the system in reaching a particular state.
The change in the value of the property depends only on the initial and the final states.
Mathematically, if P is a property of the system, then the change in the property in going from
the initial state 1 to the final state 2 is given by

If P = P (x, y) then,

where,

If , then dP is said to be an exact differential, and P is a point function. A thermodynamic

property is a point function and not a path function. Pressure, temperature, volume or molar
volumes are some of the quantities which satisfy these requirements.
Properties further divided into three parts;

Intensive Properties
Intensive properties are those, which have same value for any part of the system or the properties
that are independent of the mass of the system. Ex: pressure, temp.

38
Extensive Properties
Extensive properties are those, which dependent upon the mass of the system and do not
maintain the same value for any part of the system. EX; mass, volume, energy, [Link]
two identical systems S1 and S2 as shown in Figure. Both the systems are in identical states.
Let S3 be the combined system. Is the value of property for S3 same as that for S1 (and S2)?

 If the answer is yes, then the property is intensive

 If the answer is no, then the property is extensive

Specific Properties
The extensive properties when estimated on the unit mass basis result in intensive property,
which is also known as specific property. EX; sp. Heat, sp. Volume, sp. Enthalpy
State, change of state, path and process of a system:
‘State’ of a system indicates the specific condition of the system. When all the properties of a
system have definite values, the system is said to be exit at a definite state .i.e. the properties are
the co ordinates to describe the state of a system. Ex. For defining a gas inside the cylinder one
may have to define the state using pressure and temperature as 12 bar, 298 K.
Any operation in which one or more of the properties of the system changes is called a change
of state. i.e. When the thermodynamic properties defining a state undergo a change in their
values it is said to be the ‗change of state‘.
The succession of states passed through during a change of state is called the path of the change
of state. When the path is completely specified, the change of state is called a process, i.e. the
mode in which the change of state of a system takes place is termed as the process such as
constant pressure process, constant volume process etc.
Let us take gas contained in a cylinder and being heated up. The heating of gas in the cylinder
shall result in change in state of gas as its pressure, temperature etc. increase. However, the mode
in which this change of state in gas takes place during heating shall be constant volume mode
and hence the process shall be called constant volume heating process.
Thermodynamic Cycle

39
A thermodynamic cycle is defined as a series of state change such that the final and initial states
are identical, a cycle is the one in which the processes occur one after the other so as to finally
bring the system at the same state. Thermodynamic path in a cycle is in closed loop form.

Mathematically, it can be said that the cyclic integral of any property in a cycle is zero, i.e.
dp = 0, where p is any thermodynamic property.
Thermodynamic processes, path and cycle
Thermodynamic equilibrium: A system is said to be exit in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium when no change in any macroscopic property is registered, if the system is isolated
from its surrounding. Thermodynamic equilibrium of a system may be ensured by ensuring the
thermal mechanical and chemical equilibrium.
Thermal equilibrium : If there is no further change in the thermal condition (temperature) of a
system when it is isolated, the system is said to be in a state of thermal equilibrium. In a state of
thermal equilibrium, there is no temperature gradient within the system, and system has a
uniform temperature, a unique value can be specified for the temperature of the system. Criterion
for thermal equilibrium of two systems A and B is given by
TA = TB (T =temperature)
Mechanical equilibrium: If there are no unbalance forces in a system when it is isolated, the
system is said to be in a state of mechanical equilibrium in a state of mechanical equilibrium, the
system has a uniform pressure and a unique value can be specified for the pressure of the system.
Criterion for mechanical equilibrium of two systems A and B is given by
PA = PB (P = pressure)
Chemical equilibrium: If the system composition does not undergo any change due to
diffusion, solution, masstransfer or chemical reaction and if there is no tendency for a change in
its chemical composition when the system is isolated, it is said ton be in a state of chemical
equilibrium. The difference in the chemical potential causes diffusion, mass transfer or chemical
reaction. The criterion for chemical equilibrium of two system A and B each consisting of N
components is given by

For i =1, 2…N Where μi indicate chemical potential

Processes:
Quasi- Static process: A process which infinitesimally departs from the equilibrium state is
called a quasi-static process. Or, a process which takes place very slowly and with infinitesimal
driving force is called a quasi-static process. A quasi-static process is also known as quasi-
equilibrium process. . It is an ideal process in which the system changes very slowly its state,

40
under the influence of infinite small pressure or temperature difference. Quasi means ―almost‖.
Infinite slowness is the characteristic feature of this process. It is also a reversible process.
If a process takes place at a faster rate, then the intermediate conditions cannot be defined.
Therefore, an assumption is made such that the process is taking place at such a rate that the
intermediate conditions can be defined and hence must be represented on a thermodynamic
property diagram.

Consider a system of gas contained in a cylinder. Initially at state 1 the system is in equilibrium
and state of the system is represented by the properties P1, V1 and T1. The upward force exerted
by the gas is balanced by weight on the piston. The unbalanced force will set up between system
and surrounding and under gas pressure by removing weights on the piston. As a result, piston
will move up and as it hits the stops, the system regains equilibrium condition (state 2) and
properties of the system are represented by P2, V2 and T2. State 1 and state 2 are the initial and
final equilibrium states. Let us consider intermediate points between 1 and 2. These points
represent the intermediate states passed through by the system, and are called non-equilibrium
states. These non-equilibrium states are not definable on thermodynamic co-ordinates. Assume
the weight on piston consists of many small pieces and are removed slowly one by one, the
process could be considered as quasi-equilibrium. So every state passed through by the system
will be an equilibrium state.
Reversible and irreversible process: A process of a system is reversible if the system and all
parts of its surroundings can be exactly restored to their respective initial states after the process
has taken place. A process is called irreversible if the system and all parts of its surroundings
cannot be exactly restored to their respective initial states after the process has occurred. Some
of the examples for reversible processes are: Motion without friction, expansion or compression

41
 with no pressure difference, heat transfer without temperature gradient, reversible adiabatic
process, etc.
Irreversible processes normally include one or more of the following
Irreversibilities:
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
Unrestrained expansion of a gas or liquid to a lower pressure
Spontaneous chemical reaction
Spontaneous mixing of matter at different compositions or states
Friction—sliding friction as well as friction in the flow of fluids
Electric current flow through a resistance
Magnetization or polarization with hysteresis
Inelastic deformation
Reversible processes are purely hypothetical. No process can be reversible that involves
spontaneous heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, an unrestrained expansion of a
gas or liquid, friction, or any of the other irreversibilities listed previously. In a strict sense of the
word, a reversible process is one that is perfectly executed.
 All actual processes are irreversible
 A reversible process is always a quasi-static process, but all quasi-static processes are not
reversible
 An isobaric process occurs at constant pressure. An example would be to have a movable
piston in a cylinder, so that the pressure inside the cylinder is always at atmospheric pressure,
although it is isolated from the atmosphere. In other words, the system is dynamically
connected, by a movable boundary, to a constant-pressure reservoir.
 An isochoric process is one in which the volume is held constant, meaning that the work done
by the system will be zero. It follows that, for the simple system of two dimensions, any heat
energy transferred to the system externally will be absorbed as internal energy. An isochoric
process is also known as an isometric process or an isovolumetric process. An example would be
to place a closed tin can containing only air into a fire. To a first approximation, the can will not
expand, and the only change will be that the gas gains internal energy, as evidenced by its
increase in temperature and pressure. Mathematically, δQ = dU. We may say that the system
is dynamically insulated, by a rigid boundary, from the environment.
 An isothermal process occurs at a constant temperature. An example would be to have a system
immersed in a large constant-temperature bath. Any work energy performed by the system will
be lost to the bath, but its temperature will remain constant. In other words, the system
is thermally connected, by a thermally conductive boundary to a constant-temperature reservoir.
 An adiabatic process is a process in which there is no energy added or subtracted from the
system by heating or cooling. For a reversible process, this is identical to an isentropic
process. We may say that the system is thermally insulated from its environment and that its
boundary is a thermal insulator. If a system has entropy which has not yet reached its

42
 maximum equilibrium value, the entropy will increase even though the system is thermally
insulated.
An isentropic process occurs at constant entropy. For a reversible process this is
identical to an adiabatic process. If a system has entropy which has not yet reached its
maximum equilibrium value, a process of cooling may be required to maintain that value
of entropy

3.2 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Define and describe thermal expansion.

 Calculate the linear expansion of an object given its initial length, change in temperature,
and coefficient of linear expansion.
 Calculate the volume expansion of an object given its initial volume, change in
temperature, and coefficient of volume expansion.
 Calculate thermal stress on an object given its original volume, temperature change,
volume change, and bulk modulus.

Figure 13.10 Thermal expansion joints like these in the Auckland Harbour Bridge in New
Zealand allow bridges to change length without buckling. (credit: Ingolfson, Wikimedia
Commons)

The expansion of alcohol in a thermometer is one of many commonly encountered examples of

thermal expansion, the change in size or volume of a given mass with temperature. Hot air rises
because its volume increases, which causes the hot air‘s density to be smaller than the density of

43
surrounding air, causing a buoyant (upward) force on the hot air. The same happens in all liquids
and gases, driving natural heat transfer upwards in homes, oceans, and weather systems. Solids
also undergo thermal expansion. Railroad tracks and bridges, for example, have expansion joints
to allow them to freely expand and contract with temperature changes.

What are the basic properties of thermal expansion? First, thermal expansion is clearly related to
temperature change. The greater the temperature change, the more a bimetallic strip will bend.
Second, it depends on the material. In a thermometer, for example, the expansion of alcohol is
much greater than the expansion of the glass containing it.

What is the underlying cause of thermal expansion? As is discussed in Kinetic Theory: Atomic
and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature, an increase in temperature implies an
increase in the kinetic energy of the individual atoms. In a solid, unlike in a gas, the atoms or
molecules are closely packed together, but their kinetic energy (in the form of small, rapid
vibrations) pushes neighboring atoms or molecules apart from each other. This neighbor-to-
neighbor pushing results in a slightly greater distance, on average, between neighbors, and adds
up to a larger size for the whole body. For most substances under ordinary conditions, there is no
preferred direction, and an increase in temperature will increase the solid‘s size by a certain
fraction in each dimension.

3.3 Linear Thermal Expansion—Thermal Expansion in One Dimension

The change in length ΔL is proportional to length L. The dependence of thermal expansion on

temperature, substance, and length is summarized in the equation According to experiments, the
dependence of thermal expansion on temperature, substance, and original initial length is
summarized in the equation

where is the instantaneous change in length per temperature, L is the length, and is the
coefficient of linear expansion, a material property that varies slightly with temperature. As is
nearly constant and also very small, for practical purposes, we use the linear approximation:

where ΔL is the change in length L, ΔT is the change in temperature, and α is the coefficient of
linear expansion, which varies slightly with temperature.

Table 1 lists representative values of the coefficient of linear expansion, which may have units of
1/ºC or 1/K. Because the size of a kelvin and a degree Celsius are the same, both α and ΔT can be
expressed in units of kelvins or degrees Celsius. The equation ΔL=αLΔT is accurate for small

44
changes in temperature and can be used for large changes in temperature if an average value of α
is used.

Coefficient of linear Coefficient of volume

Material expansion expansion
α(1/ºC) β(1/ºC)

Solids

Aluminum 25×10–6 75×10–6

Brass 19×10–6 56×10–6

Copper 17×10–6 51×10–6

Gold 14×10–6 42×10–6

Iron or Steel 12×10–6 35×10–6

Invar (Nickel-iron alloy) 0.9×10–6 2.7×10–6

Lead 29×10–6 87×10–6

Silver 18×10–6 54×10–6

Glass (ordinary) 9×10–6 27×10–6

Glass (Pyrex®) 3×10–6 9×10–6

Quartz 0.4×10–6 1×10–6

Concrete, Brick ~12×10–6 ~36×10–6

Marble (average) 7×10–6 2.1×10–5

Liquids

Ether 1650×10–6

Ethyl alcohol 1100×10–6

Petrol 950×10–6

Glycerin 500×10–6

45
 Coefficient of linear Coefficient of volume
Material expansion expansion
α(1/ºC) β(1/ºC)

Mercury 180×10–6

Water 210×10–6

Gases

Air and most other gases at

3400×10–6
atmospheric pressure

Table 13.2 Thermal Expansion Coefficients at 20ºC 1

Example 13.3
Calculating Linear Thermal Expansion: The Golden Gate Bridge

The main span of San Francisco‘s Golden Gate Bridge is 1275 m long at its coldest. The bridge
is exposed to temperatures ranging from –15ºC to 40ºC. What is its change in length between
these temperatures? Assume that the bridge is made entirely of steel.

Solution

Use the equation for linear thermal expansion ΔL=αLΔT to calculate the change in length , ΔL.
Use the coefficient of linear expansion, α, for steel from Table 1 and note that the change in
temperature, ΔT, is 55º[Link] all of the known values into the equation to solve for ΔL.

ΔL=αLΔT=( ⁄ )(1275 m)(55ºC)=0.84 m.

3.4 Thermal Expansion in Two and Three Dimensions

Objects expand in all dimensions, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. That is, their areas and volumes, as
well as their lengths, increase with temperature. Holes also get larger with temperature. If you
cut a hole in a metal plate, the remaining material will expand exactly as it would if the plug was
still in place. The plug would get bigger, and so the hole must get bigger too. (Think of the ring
of neighboring atoms or molecules on the wall of the hole as pushing each other farther apart as
temperature increases. Obviously, the ring of neighbors must get slightly larger, so the hole gets
slightly larger).

3.5 Thermal Expansion in Two Dimensions

For small temperature changes, the change in area ΔA is given by

46
where ΔA is the change in area A, ΔT is the change in temperature, and α is the coefficient of
linear expansion, which varies slightly with temperature.

Figure 4.1 In general, objects expand in all directions as temperature increases. In these
drawings, the original boundaries of the objects are shown with solid lines, and the expanded
boundaries with dashed lines. (a) Area increases because both length and width increase. The
area of a circular plug also increases. (b) If the plug is removed, the hole it leaves becomes larger
with increasing temperature, just as if the expanding plug were still in place. (c) Volume also
increases, because all three dimensions increase.

3.6 Thermal Expansion in Three Dimensions

The relation ship between the volume and the temperature

The change in volume ΔV is very nearly ΔV=3αVΔT. This equation is usually written as

where β is the coefficient of volume expansion and β≈3α. Note that the values of β are almost
exactly equal to 3α.

In general, objects will expand with increasing temperature. Water is the most important
exception to this rule. Water expands with increasing temperature (its density decreases) when it
is at temperatures greater than 4ºC(40ºF). However, it expands with decreasing temperature
when it is between +4ºC and 0ºC(40ºF to 32ºF). Water is densest at +4ºC. Perhaps the most
striking effect of this phenomenon is the freezing of water in a pond. When water near the
surface cools down to 4ºC it is denser than the remaining water and thus will sink to the bottom.
This ―turnover‖ results in a layer of warmer water near the surface, which is then cooled.
Eventually the pond has a uniform temperature of 4ºC. If the temperature in the surface layer
drops below 4ºC, the water is less dense than the water below, and thus stays near the top. As a
result, the pond surface can completely freeze over. The ice on top of liquid water provides an
insulating layer from winter‘s harsh exterior air temperatures. Fish and other aquatic life can

47
survive in 4ºC water beneath ice, due to this unusual characteristic of water. It also produces
circulation of water in the pond that is necessary for a healthy ecosystem of the body of water.

Figure 4.2 The density of water as a function of temperature. Note that the thermal expansion is
actually very small. The maximum density at +4ºC is only 0.0075% greater than the density at
2ºC, and 0.012% greater than that at 0ºC.

3.7 Making Connections: Real-World Connections—Filling the Tank

Differences in the thermal expansion of materials can lead to interesting effects at the gas station.
One example is the dripping of gasoline from a freshly filled tank on a hot day. Gasoline starts
out at the temperature of the ground under the gas station, which is cooler than the air
temperature above. The gasoline cools the steel tank when it is filled. Both gasoline and steel
tank expand as they warm to air temperature, but gasoline expands much more than steel, and so
it may overflow.

This difference in expansion can also cause problems when interpreting the gasoline gauge. The
actual amount (mass) of gasoline left in the tank when the gauge hits ―empty‖ is a lot less in the
summer than in the winter. The gasoline has the same volume as it does in the winter when the
―add fuel‖ light goes on, but because the gasoline has expanded, there is less mass. If you are
used to getting another 40 miles on ―empty‖ in the winter, beware—you will probably run out
much more quickly in the summer.

48
Figure 4.3 Because the gas expands more than the gas tank with increasing temperature, you
can‘t drive as many miles on ―empty‖ in the summer as you can in the winter. (credit: Hector
Alejandro, Flickr)
Example 4.2
Calculating Thermal Expansion: Gas vs. Gas Tank

Suppose your 60.0-L (15.9-gal) steel gasoline tank is full of gas, so both the tank and the
gasoline have a temperature of 15.0ºC. How much gasoline has spilled by the time they warm to
35.0ºC?

Solution
The tank and gasoline increase in volume, but the gasoline increases more, so the amount spilled
is the difference in their volume changes. (The gasoline tank can be treated as solid steel.) We
can use the equation for volume expansion to calculate the change in volume of the gasoline and
of the tank.

1. Use the equation for volume expansion to calculate the increase in volume of the steel tank:

ΔVs=βsVsΔT.

2. The increase in volume of the gasoline is given by this equation:

ΔVgas=βgasVgasΔT.

3. Find the difference in volume to determine the amount spilled as

Vspill=ΔVgas−ΔVs.

Alternatively, we can combine these three equations into a single equation. (Note that the
original volumes are equal.)

49
Vspill===(βgas−βs)VΔT=[(950−35)× /ºC](60.0L)(20.0ºC)=1.10L.

If you try to cap the tank tightly to prevent overflow, you will find that it leaks anyway, either
around the cap or by bursting the tank. Tightly constricting the expanding gas is equivalent to
compressing it, and both liquids and solids resist being compressed with extremely large forces.
To avoid rupturing rigid containers, these containers have air gaps, which allow them to expand
and contract without stressing them.

3.8 Thermal Stress

Thermal stress is created by thermal expansion or contraction. Thermal stress can be destructive,
such as when expanding gasoline ruptures a tank. It can also be useful, for example, when two
parts are joined together by heating one in manufacturing, then slipping it over the other and
allowing the combination to cool. Thermal stress can explain many phenomena, such as the
weathering of rocks and pavement by the expansion of ice when it freezes.

3.9 The Ideal Gas Law

In this section, we continue to explore the thermal behavior of gases. In particular, we examine
the characteristics of atoms and molecules that compose gases. (Most gases, for example
nitrogen, N2 , and oxygen, O2 , are composed of two or more atoms. We will primarily use the
term ―molecule‖ in discussing a gas because the term can also be applied to monatomic gases,
such as helium.) Gases are easily compressed. you will note that gases have the largest
coefficients of volume expansion. The large coefficients mean that gases expand and contract
very rapidly with temperature changes. In addition, you will note that most gases expand at the
same rate, or have the same β . This raises the question as to why gases should all act in nearly
the same way, when liquids and solids have widely varying expansion rates.
The answer lies in the large separation of atoms and molecules in gases. Because atoms and
molecules have large separations, forces between them can be ignored, except when they collide
with each other during collisions. The motion of atoms and molecules (at temperatures well
above the boiling temperature) is fast, such that the gas occupies all of the accessible volume and
the expansion of gases is rapid. In contrast, in liquids and solids, atoms and molecules are closer
together and are quite sensitive to the forces between them.
At room temperatures, collisions between atoms and molecules can be ignored. In this case, the
gas is called an ideal gas, in which case the relationship between the pressure, volume, and
temperature is given by the equation of state called the ideal gas law.

3.10 Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law states that
(4.6)
where P is the absolute pressure of a gas, V is the volume it occupies, N is the number of atoms
and molecules in the gas, and T is its absolute temperature. The constant k is called the

50
Boltzmann constant in honor of Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) and has the
value

The ideal gas law can be derived from basic principles, but was originally deduced from
experimental measurements of Charles‘ law (that volume occupied by a gas is proportional to
temperature at a fixed pressure) and from Boyle‘s law (that for a fixed temperature, the product
PV is a constant). In the ideal gas model, the volume occupied by its atoms and molecules is a
negligible fraction of V . The ideal gas law describes the behavior of real gases under most
conditions. (Note, for example, that N is the total number of atoms and molecules, independent
of the type of gas.)
Let us see how the ideal gas law is consistent with the behavior of filling the tire when it is
pumped slowly and the temperature is constant. At first, the pressure P is essentially equal to
atmospheric pressure, and the volume V increases in direct proportion to the number of atoms
and molecules N put into the tire.
Once the volume of the tire is constant, the equation PV = NkT predicts that the pressure
should increase in proportion to the number N of atoms and molecules.
Example 13.6 Calculating Pressure Changes Due to Temperature Changes: Tire Pressure

Example 4.3 Calculating Pressure Changes Due to Temperature Changes: Tire Pressure
Suppose your bicycle tire is fully inflated, with an absolute pressure of 7.00×105 Pa (a gauge
pressure of just under 90.0 lb/in2 ) at a temperature of 18.0ºC . What is the pressure after its
temperature has risen to 35.0ºC ? Assume that there are no appreciable leaks or changes in
volume.
Solution
The pressure in the tire is changing only because of changes in temperature. First we need to
identify what we know and what we want to know, and then identify an equation to solve for the
unknown. We know the initial pressure P0 = 7.00×105 Pa , the initial temperature T0 = 18.0ºC ,
and the final temperature Tf = 35.0ºC . We must find the final pressure Pf . How can we use the
equation ?
 At first, it may seem that not enough information is given, because the volume V and
number of atoms N are not specified. What we can do is use the equation twice:
P0 V0 = NkT0 and Pf Vf = NkTf .
If we divide Pf Vf by P0 V0 we can come up with an equation that allows us to solve for
Pf .

Since the volume is constant, Vf and V0 are the same and they cancel out. The same is true for Nf
and N0 , and k , which is a constant.
Therefore, .

51
where the temperature must be in units of kelvins, because T0 and Tf are absolute temperatures.
1. Convert temperatures from Celsius to Kelvin.
T0 = (18.0 + 273)K =291K
Tf = (35.0 + 273)K = 308 K
2. Substitute the known values into the equation.
= 7.00×105 Pa( )
= 7.41×105 Pa

Discussion
The final temperature is about 6% greater than the original temperature, so the final pressure is
about 6% greater as well. Note that absolute pressure and absolute temperature must be used in
the ideal gas law.
Making Connections: Take-Home Experiment—Refrigerating a Balloon
Inflate a balloon at room temperature. Leave the inflated balloon in the refrigerator overnight.
What happens to the balloon, and why?
Example 13.7 Calculating the Number of Molecules in a Cubic Meter of Gas
How many molecules are in a typical object, such as gas in a tire or water in a drink? We can
use the ideal gas law to give us an idea of how large N typically is. Calculate the number of
molecules in a cubic meter of gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP), which is defined
to be 0ºC and atmospheric pressure.
Solution
Because pressure, volume, and temperature are all specified, we can use the ideal gas law
PV = NkT , to find N .
1. Identify the knowns.
T = 0ºC = 273 K
P = 1.01×105 Pa V = 1.00 m3 k = 1.38×10-23 J/K
2. Identify the unknown: number of molecules, N .
3. Rearrange the ideal gas law to solve for N .

4. Substitute the known values into the equation and solve for N .
(1.01×105 Pa) (1.00 m3)/(1.38×10-23 J/K)(273 K)
= 2.68×1025 molecules
Discussion
This number is undeniably large, considering that a gas is mostly empty space. N is huge, even in
small volumes. For example, 1 cm3 of a gas at STP has 2.68×1019 molecules in it. Once again,
note that N is the same for all types or mixtures of gases.
Moles and Avogadro‘s Number

52
It is sometimes convenient to work with a unit other than molecules when measuring the amount
of substance. A mole (abbreviated mol) is defined to be the amount of a substance that contains
as many atoms or molecules as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams (0.012 kg) of carbon-12.
The actual number of atoms or molecules in one mole is called Avogadro’s number (NA) , in
recognition of Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856). He developed the concept of the
mole, based on the hypothesis that equal volumes of gas, at the same pressure and temperature,
contain equal numbers of molecules. That is, the number is independent of the type of gas. This
hypothesis has been confirmed, and the value of Avogadro‘s number is
NA = 6.02×1023 mol-1 .
Avogadro‘s Number
One mole always contains 6.02×1023 particles (atoms or molecules), independent of the element
or substance. A mole of any substance has a mass in grams equal to its molecular mass, which
can be calculated from the atomic masses given in the periodic table of elements.
NA = 6.02×1023 mol-1

3.11 Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Express the ideal gas law in terms of molecular mass and velocity.
 Define thermal energy.
 Calculate the kinetic energy of a gas molecule, given its temperature.
 Describe the relationship between the temperature of a gas and the kinetic energy of
atoms and molecules.
 Describe the distribution of speeds of molecules in a gas.

We have developed macroscopic definitions of pressure and temperature. Pressure is the force
divided by the area on which the force is exerted, and temperature is measured with a
thermometer. We gain a better understanding of pressure and temperature from the kinetic theory
of gases, which assumes that atoms and molecules are in continuous random motion.

53
Figure 3.1 When a molecule collides with a rigid wall, the component of its momentum
perpendicular to the wall is reversed. A force is thus exerted on the wall, creating pressure.

Figure 3.1 shows an elastic collision of a gas molecule with the wall of a container, so that it
exerts a force on the wall (by Newton‘s third law). Because a huge number of molecules will
collide with the wall in a short time, we observe an average force per unit area. These collisions
are the source of pressure in a gas. As the number of molecules increases, the number of
collisions and thus the pressure increase. Similarly, the gas pressure is higher if the average
velocity of molecules is higher. The actual relationship is derived in the Things Great and Small
feature below. The following relationship is found:

where P is the pressure (average force per unit area), V is the volume of gas in the container, N is
the number of molecules in the container, m is the mass of a molecule, and v¯2 is the average of
the molecular speed squared.

What can we learn from this atomic and molecular version of the ideal gas law? We can derive a
relationship between temperature and the average translational kinetic energy of molecules in a
gas. Recall the previous expression of the ideal gas law:

Equating the right-hand side of this equation with the right-hand side of PV= gives

54
3.12 Making Connections: Things Great and Small—Atomic and Molecular Origin of
Pressure in a Gas

Figure 3.1 shows a box filled with a gas. We know from our previous discussions that putting
more gas into the box produces greater pressure, and that increasing the temperature of the gas
also produces a greater pressure. But why should increasing the temperature of the gas increase
the pressure in the box? A look at the atomic and molecular scale gives us some answers, and an
alternative expression for the ideal gas law.

The figure shows an expanded view of an elastic collision of a gas molecule with the wall of a
container. Calculating the average force exerted by such molecules will lead us to the ideal gas
law, and to the connection between temperature and molecular kinetic energy. We assume that a
molecule is small compared with the separation of molecules in the gas, and that its interaction
with other molecules can be ignored. We also assume the wall is rigid and that the molecule‘s
direction changes, but that its speed remains constant (and hence its kinetic energy and the
magnitude of its momentum remain constant as well). This assumption is not always valid, but
the same result is obtained with a more detailed description of the molecule‘s exchange of
energy and momentum with the wall.

Figure 13.21 Gas in a box exerts an outward pressure on its walls. A molecule colliding with a
rigid wall has the direction of its velocity and momentum in the x-direction reversed. This
direction is perpendicular to the wall. The components of its velocity momentum in the y- and z-
directions are not changed, which means there is no force parallel to the wall.

55
If the molecule‘s velocity changes in the x-direction, its momentum changes from –mvx to +mvx.
Thus, its change in momentum is – – . The force exerted on the
molecule is given by

There is no force between the wall and the molecule until the molecule hits the wall. During the
short time of the collision, the force between the molecule and wall is relatively large. We are
looking for an average force; we take Δt to be the average time between collisions of the
molecule with this wall. It is the time it would take the molecule to go across the box and back (a
distance 2l) at a speed of vx. Thus Δt=2l/vx, and the expression for the force becomes

This force is due to one molecule. We multiply by the number of molecules N and use their
average squared velocity to find the force

where the bar over a quantity means its average value. We would like to have the force in terms
of the speed v, rather than the x-component of the velocity. We note that the total velocity
squared is the sum of the squares of its components, so that

Because the velocities are random, their average components in all directions are the same:

Thus,

=3 ,

Substituting into the expression for F gives

The pressure is F/A, so that we obtain

56
where we used for the volume. This gives the important result.

This equation is another expression of the ideal gas law.

We can get the average kinetic energy of a molecule, from the right-hand side of the
equation by canceling N and multiplying by 3/2. This calculation produces the result that the
average kinetic energy of a molecule is directly related to absolute temperature.

The average translational kinetic energy of a molecule, KE, is called thermal energy. The equation

is a molecular interpretation of temperature, and it has been found to be valid for gases and
reasonably accurate in liquids and solids. It is another definition of temperature based on an
expression of the molecular energy. It is sometimes useful to rearrange , and
solve for the average speed of molecules in a gas in terms of temperature,

√ √

where vrms stands for root-mean-square (rms) speed.

Example 3.10
Calculating Kinetic Energy and Speed of a Gas Molecule

(a) What is the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule at 20.0ºC (room temperature)? (b) Find
the rms speed of a nitrogen molecule (N2) at this temperature.

Strategy for (a)

The known in the equation for the average kinetic energy is the temperature.

57
Before substituting values into this equation, we must convert the given temperature to kelvins.
This conversion gives T=(20.0+273)K = 293K.

Solution for (a)

The temperature alone is sufficient to find the average translational kinetic energy. Substituting
the temperature into the translational kinetic energy equation gives

KE¯¯¯¯¯=32kT=32(1.38×10−23J/K)(293K)=6.07×10−21J.
Strategy for (b)

Finding the rms speed of a nitrogen molecule involves a straightforward calculation using the
equation

v¯2−−√=vrms=3kTm−−−−√,
13.59

but we must first find the mass of a nitrogen molecule. Using the molecular mass of nitrogen N2
from the periodic table,

m=2(14.0067)×10−3kg/mol6.02×1023mol−1=4.65×10−26kg.
13.60
Solution for (b)

Substituting this mass and the value for k into the equation for vrms yields

vrms=3kTm−−−−√=3(1.38×10–23J/K)(293 K)4.65×10–
26kg−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√=511m/s.
13.61
Discussion

Note that the average kinetic energy of the molecule is independent of the type of molecule. The
average translational kinetic energy depends only on absolute temperature. The kinetic energy is
very small compared to macroscopic energies, so that we do not feel when an air molecule is
hitting our skin. The rms velocity of the nitrogen molecule is surprisingly large. These large
molecular velocities do not yield macroscopic movement of air, since the molecules move in all

58
directions with equal likelihood. The mean free path (the distance a molecule can move on
average between collisions) of molecules in air is very small, and so the molecules move rapidly
but do not get very far in a second. The high value for rms speed is reflected in the speed of
sound, however, which is about 340 m/s at room temperature. The faster the rms speed of air
molecules, the faster that sound vibrations can be transferred through the air. The speed of sound
increases with temperature and is greater in gases with small molecular masses, such as helium.
(See Figure 13.22.)

Figure 13.22 (a) There are many molecules moving so fast in an ordinary gas that they collide a
billion times every second. (b) Individual molecules do not move very far in a small amount of
time, but disturbances like sound waves are transmitted at speeds related to the molecular speeds.

3.13 Making Connections: Historical Note—Kinetic Theory of Gases

The kinetic theory of gases was developed by Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782), who is best known
in physics for his work on fluid flow (hydrodynamics). Bernoulli‘s work predates the atomistic
view of matter established by Dalton.

3.14 Distribution of Molecular Speeds

The motion of molecules in a gas is random in magnitude and direction for individual molecules,
but a gas of many molecules has a predictable distribution of molecular speeds. This distribution
is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, after its originators, who calculated it based on
kinetic theory, and has since been confirmed experimentally. (See Figure 13.23.) The distribution
has a long tail, because a few molecules may go several times the rms speed. The most probable
speed vp is less than the rms speed vrms. Figure 13.24 shows that the curve is shifted to higher
speeds at higher temperatures, with a broader range of speeds.

59
Figure 13.23 The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds in an ideal gas. The most
likely speed vp is less than the rms speed vrms. Although very high speeds are possible, only a
tiny fraction of the molecules have speeds that are an order of magnitude greater than vrms.

The distribution of thermal speeds depends strongly on temperature. As temperature increases,

the speeds are shifted to higher values and the distribution is broadened.

Figure 13.24 The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is shifted to higher speeds and is broadened at
higher temperatures.

What is the implication of the change in distribution with temperature shown in Figure 13.24 for
humans? All other things being equal, if a person has a fever, they are likely to lose more water
molecules, particularly from linings along moist cavities such as the lungs and mouth, creating a
dry sensation in the mouth.

Example 13.11

60
Calculating Temperature: Escape Velocity of Helium Atoms

In order to escape Earth‘s gravity, an object near the top of the atmosphere (at an altitude of 100
km) must travel away from Earth at 11.1 km/s. This speed is called the escape velocity. At what
temperature would helium atoms have an rms speed equal to the escape velocity?

Strategy

Identify the knowns and unknowns and determine which equations to use to solve the problem.

Solution

1. Identify the knowns: v is the escape velocity, 11.1 km/s.

2. Identify the unknowns: We need to solve for temperature, T. We also need to solve for the
mass m of the helium atom.

3. Determine which equations are needed.

 To solve for mass m of the helium atom, we can use information from the periodic table:

m=molar massnumber of atoms per mole.

13.62

 To solve for temperature T, we can rearrange either

KE¯¯¯¯¯=12mv2¯¯¯=32kT

13.63

or

v2¯¯¯−−√=vrms=3kTm−−−−√

13.64

to yield

T=mv2¯¯¯3k,

13.65

61
 where k is the Boltzmann constant and m is the mass of a helium atom.

4. Plug the known values into the equations and solve for the unknowns.

m=molar mass number of atoms per mole=4.0026×10−3kg/mol 6.02×1023mol=6.65×10−27kg

T=(6.65×10−27kg)(11.1×103m/s)23(1.38×10−23J/K)=1.98×104K

62
Chapter Four

4.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Heat is the transfer of energy due to a temperature difference between two systems. Heat
describes the process of converting from one form of energy into another. A car engine, for
example, burns gasoline. Heat is produced when the burned fuel is chemically transformed into
mostly CO2 and H2O which are gases at the combustion temperature. These gases exert a force
on a piston through a displacement, doing work and converting the piston‘s kinetic energy into a
variety of other forms—into the car‘s kinetic energy; into electrical energy to run the spark
plugs, radio, and lights; and back into stored energy in the car‘s battery.
Energy is conserved in all processes, including those associated with thermodynamic systems.
The roles of heat transfer and internal energy change vary from process to process and affect
how work is done by the system in that process.

4.2 Work Done by a System

A force created from any source can do work by moving an object through a displacement. Then
how does a thermodynamic system do work? Figure 4.1 shows a gas confined to a cylinder that
has a movable piston at one end. If the gas expands against the piston, it exerts a force through a
distance and does work on the piston. If the piston compresses the gas as it is moved inward,
work is also done—in this case, on the gas. The work associated with such volume changes can
be determined as follows: Let the gas pressure on the piston face be p. Then the force on the
piston due to the gas is pA, where A is the area of the face. When the piston is pushed outward
an infinitesimal distance dx, the magnitude of the work done by the gas is
……………………………..(4.1)
Since the change in volume of the gas is this becomes

For a finite change in volume from we can integrate this equation from V1 to V2 find
the net work:
∫
This integral is only meaningful for a quasi-static process, which means a process that takes
place in infinitesimally small steps, keeping the system at thermal equilibrium. (We examine this
idea in more detail later in this chapter.) Only then does a well-defined mathematical relationship
(the equation of state) exist between the pressure and volume. This relationship can be plotted on
a pV diagram of pressure versus volume, where the curve is the change of state.

63
Fig(4.1). The work done by a confined gas in moving a piston a distance
The first process is an isothermal expansion, with the volume of the gas changing its volume
from . This isothermal process is represented by the curve between points A and C. The gas is
kept at a constant temperature T by keeping it in thermal equilibrium with a heat reservoir at that
temperature.
From equation 4.3

∫ ∫

The expansion is isothermal, so T remains constant over the entire process. Since n and R are
also constant, the only variable in the integrand is V, so the work done by an ideal gas in an
isothermal process is

Notice that if (expansion), W is positive, as expected

4.3 Internal Energy

Internal energies of a thermodynamic system is, by definition, the sum of the mechanical
energies of all the molecules or entities in the system. If the kinetic and potential energies of
molecule are respectively, then the internal energy of the system is the average of the
total mechanical energy of all the entities

where the summation is over all the molecules of the system, and the bars over indicate the
average the kinetic energy and potential energy.

 the kinetic energy of an individual molecule includes contributions due to its rotation and
vibration, as well as its translational energy.

64
  potential energy is associated only with the interactions between molecule i and the other
molecules of the system. In fact, neither the system‘s location nor its motion is of any
consequence as far as the internal energy is concerned. The internal energy of the system
is not affected by moving it from the basement to the roof of a 100-story building or by
placing it on a moving train.

The internal energy is just the number of molecules multiplied by the average mechanical energy
per molecule. Thus for n moles of an ideal monatomic gas,

Notice that the internal energy of a given quantity of an ideal monatomic gas depends on just the
temperature and is completely independent of the pressure and volume of the gas. For other
systems, the internal energy cannot be expressed so simply. However, an increase in internal
energy can often be associated with an increase in temperature.
We know from the zeroth law of thermodynamics that when two systems are placed in thermal
contact, they eventually reach thermal equilibrium, at which point they are at the same
temperature. As an example, suppose we mix two monatomic ideal gases. Now, the energy per
molecule of an ideal monatomic gas is proportional to its temperature. Thus, when the two gases
are mixed, the molecules of the hotter gas must lose energy and the molecules of the colder gas
must gain energy. This continues until thermal equilibrium is reached, at which point, the
temperature, and therefore the average translational kinetic energy per molecule, is the same for
both gases. The approach to equilibrium for real systems is somewhat more complicated than for
an ideal monatomic gas. Nevertheless, we can still say that energy is exchanged between the
systems until their temperatures are the same.

4.4 First Law of Thermodynamics

Now that we have seen how to calculate internal energy, heat, and work done for a
thermodynamic system
undergoing change during some process, we can see how these quantities interact to affect the
amount of
change that can occur. This interaction is given by the first law of thermodynamics. British
scientist and
novelist C. P. Snow (1905–1980) is credited with a joke about the four laws of thermodynamics.
His humorous
statement of the first law of thermodynamics is stated ―you can‘t win,‖ or in other words, you
cannot get more
energy out of a system than you put into it. We will see in this chapter how internal energy, heat,
and work all
play a role in the first law of thermodynamics.

65
Suppose Q represents the heat exchanged between a system and the environment, and W is the
work done by or on the system. The first law states that the change in internal energy of that
system is given by . Since added heat increases the internal energy of a system, Q is positive
when it is added to the system and negative when it is removed from the system. hen a gas
expands, it does work and its internal energy decreases. Thus, W is positive when work is done
by the system and negative when work is done on the system.

where Q and W represent, respectively, the heat exchanged by the system and the work done by
or on the system.

Thermodynamic Sign Conventions for Heat and Work

Process Convention

Heat added to system Q>0

Heat removed from system Q<0

Work done by system W>0

Work done on system W<0

 The first law is a statement of energy conservation. It tells us that a system can exchange
energy with its surroundings by the transmission of heat and by the performance of work.
 The net energy exchanged is then equal to the change in the total mechanical energy of
the molecules of the system (i.e., the system‘s internal energy). Thus, if a system is
isolated, its internal energy must remain constant.

4.5 Thermodynamic Processes

The thermal behavior of a system is described in terms of thermodynamic variables. For an ideal
gas, these variables are pressure, volume, temperature, and the number of molecules or moles of
the gas. Different types of systems are generally characterized by different sets of variables. For
example, the thermodynamic variables for a stretched rubber band are tension, length,
temperature, and [Link] state of a system can change as a result of its interaction with the
environment. The change in a system can be fast or slow and large or small. The manner in
which a state of a system can change from an initial state to a final state is called a
thermodynamic process. For analytical purposes in thermodynamics, it is helpful to divide up
processes as either quasi-static or non-quasi-static, as we now explain.

4.6 Quasi-static and Non-quasi-static Processes

A quasi-static process refers to an idealized or imagined process where the change in state is
made infinitesimally slowly so that at each instant, the system can be assumed to be at a
thermodynamic equilibrium with itself and with the environment.

66
Quasi-static processes are done slowly enough that the system remains at thermodynamic
equilibrium at each instant, despite the fact that the system changes over time. The
thermodynamic equilibrium of the system is necessary for the system to have well-defined
values of macroscopic properties such as the temperature and the pressure of the system at each
instant of the process. Therefore, quasi-static processes can be shown as well-defined paths in
state space of the system.
In a non-quasi-static process, the states between two states are not known, and hence no path
can be drawn. It may follow the dashed line as shown in the figure or take a very different path.

fig(4.2) Quasi-static and non-quasi-static processes between states A and B of a gas.

Chapter Five

5.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

67
According to the first law of thermodynamics, the only processes that can occur are those that
conserve energy. But this cannot be the only restriction imposed by nature, because many
seemingly possible thermodynamic processes that would conserve energy do not occur. For
example, when two bodies are in thermal contact, heat never flows from the colder body to the
warmer one, even though this is not forbidden by the first law. So some other thermodynamic
principles must be controlling the behavior of physical systems.

One such principle is the second law of thermodynamics, which limits the use of energy within a
source. Energy cannot arbitrarily pass from one object to another, just as we cannot transfer heat
from a cold object to a hot one without doing any work. We cannot unmix cream from coffee
without a chemical process that changes the physical characteristics of the system or its
environment. We cannot use internal energy stored in the air to propel a car, or use the energy of
the ocean to run a ship, without disturbing something around that object.
In the chapter covering the first law of thermodynamics, we started our discussion with a joke by
C. P. Snow stating that the first law means ―you can‘t win.‖ He paraphrased the second law as
―you can‘t break even, except on a very cold day.‖ Unless you are at zero kelvin, you cannot
convert 100% of thermal energy into work. We start by discussing spontaneous processes and
explain why some processes require work to occur even if energy would have been conserved.

Second Law of Thermodynamics (Clausius statement) Heat never flows spontaneously from a
colder object to a hotter object.
This statement turns out to be one of several different ways of stating the second law of
thermodynamics. The form of this statement is credited to German physicist Rudolf Clausius
(1822-1888) and is referred to as the Clausius statement of the second law of
thermodynamics. The word ―spontaneously‖ here means no other effort has been made by a
third party, or one that is neither the hotter nor colder object. We will introduce some other major
statements of the second law and show that they imply each other. In fact, all the different
statements of the second law of thermodynamics can be shown to be equivalent, and all lead to
the irreversibility of spontaneous heat flow between macroscopic objects of a very large number
of molecules or particles

5.2 Heat Engines

A heat engine is a device used to extract heat from a source and then convert it into mechanical
work that is used for all sorts of applications. For example, a steam engine on an old-style train
can produce the work needed for driving the train. Several questions emerge from the
construction and application of heat engines. For example, what is the maximum percentage of
the heat extracted that can be used to do work? This turns out to be a question that can only be
answered through the second law of thermodynamics.
The second law of thermodynamics can be formally stated in several ways. One statement
presented so far is about the direction of spontaneous heat flow, known as the Clausius
statement. A couple of other statements are based on heat engines. Whenever we consider heat

68
engines and associated devices such as refrigerators and heat pumps, we do not use the normal
sign convention for heat and work. For convenience, we assume
that the symbols Qh, Qc and W represent only the amounts of heat transferred and work
delivered, regardless
what the givers or receivers are.

Fig 5.1 A schematic representation of a heat engine. Energy flows from the hot reservoir to the
cold reservoir while doing work.
Actual heat engines have many different designs. Examples include internal combustion engines,
such as those used in most cars today, and external combustion engines, such as the steam
engines used in old steam engine trains.
The most important measure of a heat engine is its efficiency (e), which is simply ―what we get
out‖ divided by
―what we put in‖ during each cycle, as defined by

Where

5.3 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

The cycles we used to describe the engine in the preceding section are all reversible, so each
sequence of steps can just as easily be performed in the opposite direction. In this case, the
engine is known as a refrigerator or a heat pump, depending on what is the focus: the heat
removed from the cold reservoir or the heat dumped to the hot reservoir. Either a refrigerator or a
heat pump is an engine running in reverse. For a refrigerator, the focus is on removing heat
from a specific area. For a heat pump, the focus is on dumping heat to a specific area.

The purpose of this engine is to remove heat from the cold reservoir, which is the space inside
the refrigerator for an actual household refrigerator or the space inside a building for an air-
conditioning unit.

69
Fig 5.3 A schematic representation of a refrigerator (or a heat pump). The arrow next to work
(W) indicates work being put into the
System
A refrigerator (or heat pump) absorbs heat Qc from the cold reservoir at Kelvin temperature Tk
and discards heat Qh to the hot reservoir at Kelvin temperature Th while work W is done on the
engine‘s working substance, as shown by the arrow pointing toward the system in the figure. A
household refrigerator removes heat from the food within it while exhausting heat to the
surrounding air. The required work, for which we pay in our electricity bill, is performed by the
motor that moves a coolant through the coils.

70
Fig 5.4 A schematic diagram of a household refrigerator. A coolant with a boiling temperature
below the freezing point of water is sent through the cycle (clockwise in this diagram). The
coolant extracts heat from the refrigerator at the evaporator, causing coolant to vaporize.

The effectiveness or coefficient of performance(KR) of a refrigerator is measured by the heat

removed from the cold reservoir divided by the work done by the working substance cycle by
cycle:

The effectiveness or coefficient of performance(KP) of a heat pump is measured by the heat

dumped to the hot reservoir divided by the work done to the engine on the working substance
cycle by cycle:

71
5.4 Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Earlier in this chapter, we introduced the Clausius statement of the second law of
thermodynamics, which is based on the irreversibility of spontaneous heat flow. As we remarked
then, the second law of thermodynamics can be stated in several different ways, and all of them
can be shown to imply the others. In terms of heat engines, the second law of thermodynamics
may be stated as follows:

5.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics (Kelvin statement)

It is impossible to convert the heat from a single source into work without any other effect.

This is known as the Kelvin statement of the second law of thermodynamics. This statement
describes an unattainable ―perfect engine,‖ Note that ―without any other effect‖ is a very strong
restriction. For example, an engine can absorb heat and turn it all into work, but not if it
completes a cycle. Without completing a cycle, the substance in the engine is not in its original
state and therefore an ―other effect‖ has occurred. Another example is a chamber of gas that can
absorb heat from a heat reservoir and do work isothermally against a piston as it expands.
However, if the gas were returned to its initial state (that is, made to complete a cycle), it would
have to be compressed and heat would have to be extracted from it.

The Kelvin statement is a manifestation of a well-known engineering problem. Despite

advancing technology,
we are not able to build a heat engine that is efficient 100%. The first law does not exclude the
possibility of
constructing a perfect engine, but the second law forbids it.

We can show that the Kelvin statement is equivalent to the Clausius statement if we view the two
objects in the Clausius statement as a cold reservoir and a hot reservoir. Thus, the Clausius
statement becomes: It is impossible to construct a refrigerator that transfers heat from a cold
reservoir to a hot reservoir without aid from an external source. The Clausius statement is related
to the everyday observation that heat never flows spontaneously from a cold object to a hot
object. Heat transfer in the direction of increasing temperature always requires some energy
input. A ―perfect refrigerator,

72
Fig Combining a perfect refrigerator and a real heat engine yields a perfect heat engine because
W= change Q

Using the second law of thermodynamics, we now prove two important properties of heat
engines operating between two heat reservoirs. The first property is that any reversible engine
operating between two reservoirs has a greater efficiency than any irreversible engine operating
between the same two reservoirs.
The second property to be demonstrated is that all reversible engines operating between the same
two reservoirs have the same efficiency.

5.6 The Carnot Cycle

In the early 1820s, Sadi Carnot (1786-1832), a French engineer, became interested in improving
the efficiencies of practical heat engines. In 1824, his studies led him to propose a hypothetical
working cycle with the highest possible efficiency between the same two reservoirs, known now
as the Carnot cycle. An engine operating in this cycle is called a Carnot engine. The Carnot
cycle is of special importance for a variety of reasons. At a practical level, this cycle represents a
reversible model for the steam power plant and the refrigerator or heat pump. Yet, it is also very
important theoretically, for it plays a major role in the development of another important
statement of the second law of thermodynamics. Finally, because only two reservoirs are
involved in its operation, it can be used along with the second law of thermodynamics to define
an absolute temperature scale that is truly independent of any substance used for temperature
measurement.

Carnot’s Principle
No engine working between two reservoirs at constant temperatures can have a greater efficiency
than a reversible engine.

5.7 Entropy
The second law of thermodynamics is best expressed in terms of a change in the thermodynamic
variable known as entropy, which is represented by the symbol S. Entropy, like internal energy,
is a state function. This means that when a system makes a transition from one state into another,
the change in entropy is independent of path and depends only on the thermodynamic variables
of the two states. We first consider for a system undergoing a reversible process at a constant
temperature. In this case, the change in entropy of the system is given by

Second Law of Thermodynamics (Entropy statement) The entropy of a closed system and the
entire universe never decreases.

A fundamental issue still remains: Is it possible to cool a system all the way down to zero kelvin?
We understand that the system must be at its lowest energy state because lowering temperature
reduces the kinetic energy of the constituents in the system. What happens to the entropy of a

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system at the absolute zero temperature? It turns out the absolute zero temperature is not
reachable—at least, not though a finite number of cooling steps. This is a statement of the third
law of thermodynamics, whose proof requires quantum mechanics that we do not present here.

Like the second law of thermodynamics, the third law of thermodynamics can be stated in
different ways. One of the common statements of the third law of thermodynamics is: The
absolute zero temperature cannot be reached through any finite number of cooling steps. In other
words, the temperature of any given physical system must be finite, that is, . This produces a
very interesting question in physics The reason a system is unable to reach 0 K is fundamental
and requires quantum mechanics to fully understand its origin. But we can certainly ask what
happens to the entropy of a system when we try to cool it down to 0 K. Because the amount of
heat that can be removed from the system becomes vanishingly small, we expect that the change
in entropy of the system along an isotherm approaches zero, that is,

This can be viewed as another statement of the third law, with all the isotherms becoming
isentropic, or into a reversible ideal adiabatic. We can put this expression in words: A system
becomes perfectly ordered when its temperature approaches absolute zero and its entropy
approaches its absolute minimum.
The third law of thermodynamics puts another limit on what can be done when we look for
energy resources. If there could be a reservoir at the absolute zero temperature, we could have
engines with efficiency of which would, of course, violate the second law of thermodynamics.

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