Chapter 8

Introduction to Solutions &

Aqueous Reactions
Chapter 8.2
Solutions
A Solution is a homogenous mixture of solvent and
solute that is uniform throughout

Solute and solvent

is the substance is the medium in
dissolved in a solvent to which solute dissolved
form a solution. to form a solution.

e.g. NaCl + water

 Types of solutions
Examples?

Solute Solvent
Gas Liquid
Liquid Liquid
Solid Liquid
Gas Gas
Solid Solid
Chapter 8.2
Solution Concentration
How much solute is dissolved
in the certain amount of solution?

Concentration is the amount of solute dissolved in the

unit quantity of solution or solvent.

Symbol of concentration is [substance]

[NaCl] means “concentration of NaCl”
 Molarity
Most common way to express concentration is Molarity

Molarity (or Molar concentration) M

is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
Units of Molarity are moles/L denoted as M (means moles/L)

M =number of moles/Volume of solution

M=n/V
 Solution Concentration
How many moles of NaOH in 1 L of 0.75 M
solution of NaOH ?
 Solution Concentration
How many moles of NaOH in 1 L of 0.75 M
solution of NaOH ?

0.75 moles
 Solution Concentration
How many moles of NaOH in 2.0 L of 0.75 M solution of NaOH ?

in 3.5 L of 0.5 M solution of NaOH ?

 Solution Concentration
How many moles of NaOH in 2.0 L of 0.75 M solution of NaOH ?

in 3.5 L of 0.5 M solution of NaOH ?

n = M*V

n = 0.75M * 2.0L = 1.5 mol

n = 0.5M * 3.5L = 1.75 mol

 Molarity
M =number of moles/Volume of solution

how to prepare 2.0 L of 0.15 M NaOH?

 Molarity
M =number of moles/Volume of solution

how to prepare 2.0 L of 0.15 M NaOH?

1) find the number of moles of NaOH required

2) convert 0.30 mol NaOH to g NaOH

Dissolve 12.0g of NaOH in some amount of water and then

bring the volume of the solution up to 2.0 L.
 Molarity
the concentration of NaCl in blood serum is 0.14 M.
What volume of serum contains 2.0 g of NaCl?
 Molarity
the concentration of NaCl in blood serum is 0.14 M.
What volume of serum contains 2.0 g of NaCl?

–find the number of moles NaCl in 2.0 g NaCl

–find the volume in liters that contains that many

moles of NaCl
 Dilution to Lower concentration
•If we dilute a solution, the number of grams and moles of
solute remains the same after dilution as before dilution; we
can then use these relationships:

M1V1 = M2V2
# moles before dilution # moles after dilution
How many mL of 10.0 M hydrochloric acid are required to
prepare 1000 mL of 0.10 M of HCl ?

M1V1 = M2V2
How many mL of 2.3 M hydrochloric acid are required to
prepare 0.7L of 0.50 M of HCl ?
What is molarity of KCl solution after addition of 0.5 L of
water to 50 ml of 0.9 M solution of KCl?
Chapter 8.3
Stoichiometric calculations
for reactions in solutions

Use the definition of molarity to perform stoichiometric calculations.

M =number of moles/Volume of solution

Consider the reaction between 30.0 ml of 1.5M silver nitrate and 20.0 ml of 1.0M
KBr.
Which one is a limiting reactant?
How much precipitate (in grams) can be collected? (Assume 100% yeld)
 EXAMPLE 9.1 Calculating Solution Concentration
If you dissolve 25.5 g KBr in enough water to make 1.75 L of solution, what is the molarity of the solution?

SORT You are given the mass of KBr and the volume of GIVEN: 25.5 g KBr, 1.75 L of solution
a solution and asked to find its molarity. FIND: molarity (M)

STRATEGIZE When formulating the conceptual plan, CONCEPTUAL PLAN

think about the definition of molarity: the amount of
solute in moles per liter of solution.

You are given the mass of KBr, so first use the molar
mass of KBr to convert from g KBr to mol KBr.

Then use the number of moles of KBr and liters of

solution to find the molarity.

RELATIONSHIPS USED
molar mass of KBr = 119.00 g/mol

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.1 Calculating Solution Concentration
Continued

SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan. Begin with g KBr and SOLUTION
convert to mol KBr; then use mol KBr and L solution to
calculate molarity.

CHECK The units of the answer (M) are correct. The magnitude is reasonable since common solutions range
in concentration from 0 to about 18 M. Concentrations significantly above 18 M are suspect and should be
double-checked.

FOR PRACTICE 9.1

Calculate the molarity of a solution made by adding 45.4 g of NaNO 3 to a flask and dissolving it with water to create
a total volume of 2.50 L.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.1 Calculating Solution Concentration
Continued

FOR MORE PRACTICE 9.1

What mass of KBr (in grams) do you need to make 250.0 mL of a 1.50 M KBr solution?

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.2 Using Molarity in Calculations
How many liters of a 0.125 M NaOH solution contain 0.255 mol of NaOH?

SORT You are given the concentration of an NaOH GIVEN: 0.125 M NaOH solution, 0.255 mol NaOH
solution. You are asked to find the volume of the solution FIND: volume of NaOH solution (in L)
that contains a given amount (in moles) of NaOH.

STRATEGIZE The conceptual plan begins with mol CONCEPTUAL PLAN

NaOH and shows the conversion to L of solution using
molarity as a conversion factor.

RELATIONSHIPS USED

SOLVE Follow the conceptual plan. Begin with mol SOLUTION

NaOH and convert to L solution.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.2 Using Molarity in Calculations
Continued

CHECK The units of the answer (L) are correct. The magnitude is reasonable because the solution contains 0.125 mol
per liter. Therefore, roughly 2 L contains the given amount of moles (0.255 mol).

FOR PRACTICE 9.2

How many grams of sucrose (C12H22O11) are in 1.55 L of 0.758 M sucrose solution?

FOR MORE PRACTICE 9.2

How many mL of a 0.155 M KCl solution contains 2.55 g KCl?

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.3 Solution Dilution
To what volume should you dilute 0.200 L of a 15.0 M NaOH solution to obtain a 3.00 M NaOH solution?

SORT You are given the initial volume, initial GIVEN: V1 = 0.200 L
concentration, and final concentration of a solution, and M1 = 15.0 M
you need to determine the final volume. M2 = 3.00 M
FIND: V2

STRATEGIZE Equation 9.1 relates the initial and final CONCEPTUAL PLAN
volumes and concentrations for solution dilution
problems. You are asked to find V2. The other quantities
(V1, M1, and M2) are all given in the problem.

RELATIONSHIPS USED
M1V1 = M2V2

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.3 Solution Dilution
Continued

SOLVE Begin with the solution dilution equation and SOLUTION

solve it for V2.

Substitute in the required quantities and calculate V2.

Make the solution by diluting 0.200 L of the stock

solution to a total volume of 1.00 L (V2). The resulting
solution has a concentration of 3.00 M.

CHECK The final units (L) are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable because the solution is diluted from
15.0 M to 3.00 M, a factor of five. Therefore the volume should increase by a factor of five.

FOR PRACTICE 9.3

To what volume (in mL) should you dilute 100.0 mL of a 5.00 M CaCl 2 solution to obtain a 0.750 M CaCl2 solution?

FOR MORE PRACTICE 9.3

What volume of a 6.00 M NaNO3 solution should you use to make 0.525 L of a 1.20 M NaNO3 solution?

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.4 Solution Stoichiometry
What volume (in L) of 0.150 M KCl solution will completely react with 0.150 L of a 0.175 M Pb(NO 3)2 solution
according to this balanced chemical equation?

2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

SORT You are given the volume and GIVEN: 0.150 L of Pb(NO3)2 solution, 0.175 M Pb(NO3)2
concentration of a Pb(NO3)2 solution. You are solution, 0.150 M KCl solution
asked to find the volume of KCl solution (of a FIND: volume KCl solution (in L)
given concentration) required to react with it.

STRATEGIZE The conceptual plan has the CONCEPTUAL PLAN

form: volume A → amount A (in moles) →
amount B (in moles) → volume B. Use the
molar concentrations of the KCl and Pb(NO3)2
solutions as conversion factors between the
number of moles of reactants in these
solutions and their volumes. Use the
stoichiometric coefficients from the balanced
equation to convert between number of moles
of Pb(NO3)2 and number of moles of KCl.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.4 Solution Stoichiometry
Continued

RELATIONSHIPS USED

SOLVE Begin with L Pb(NO3)2 solution and follow the SOLUTION

conceptual plan to arrive at L KCl solution.

CHECK The final units (L KCl solution) are correct. The magnitude (0.350 L) is reasonable because the reaction
stoichiometry requires 2 mol of KCl per mole of Pb(NO3)2. Since the concentrations of the two solutions are not very
different (0.150 M compared to 0.175 M), the volume of KCl required is roughly two times the 0.150 L of Pb(NO 3)2
given in the problem.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.4 Solution Stoichiometry
Continued

FOR PRACTICE 9.4

What volume (in mL) of a 0.150 M HNO3 solution will completely react with 35.7 mL of a 0.108 M Na 2CO3 solution
according to this balanced chemical equation?

Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) → 2 NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

FOR MORE PRACTICE 9.4

In the reaction in For Practice 9.4, what mass (in grams) of carbon dioxide forms?

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 8.4
What happens when a compound dissolves in water?
Separate particles (ions or molecules) surrounded by molecules of water

[Link]
o

Dissociation – ionic compound,

CaCl2 + water upon dissolution, breaks apart
Melting point is 772 C into its constituent ions
 Water molecules are dipoles

Oxygen has partially negative charge

hydrogens have partially positive charge
 Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Dissolving in Water
• Each ion is attracted to the
surrounding water
molecules and pulled off
and away from the crystal.

• When it enters the solution,

the ion is surrounded by
water molecules, insulating
it from other ions.

• The result is a solution with

free moving charged
particles able to conduct
electricity.
 Ionic equation of dissociation
Separate particles (ions or molecules) surrounded by molecules of water

Dissociation – ionic compound, upon dissolution, breaks

apart into its constituent ions
CaCl2(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
 Elements and their ions
Elements and their ions have very
different properties.

+
Na
Na+Cl-
Cl
slide by courtesy of Dr. Rittenhouse
Write the equation of dissociation for

NaNO3

MgCl2

K2SO4
 Electrolytes

• Ions in water can migrate from one place to another

• Cations are attracted to and migrate to the negative electrode
(the cathode).
• Anions are attracted to and migrate to the positive electrode
(the anode).
• The movement of ions constitutes an electric current.
 Electrolytes
Electrolyte – a solution that conducts electricity
e.g. solution of NaCl, NaOH, sulfuric acid

Nonelectrolyte – a solution or liquid that

doesn’t conduct electricity
e.g. solution of sucrose, benzene,
acetone

The necessary condition of being an electrolyte is

presence of ions in the solution
Dissolution of molecular compounds
Electrolyte Non - Electrolyte

CaCl2 + water sucrose + water

Dipole – ion interaction dipole-dipole interaction
Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) No ions in the solution
 Ionic Electrolytes

• Conduct electricity in solution or melt (because they

will dissociate on separate ions), don’t conduct
electricity as crystals
 Acids, bases and salts
as an example of electrolytes

Bases – compound that dissolves in water to produce

hydroxide ion
e.g. NaOH, Ca(OH)2

Acid - compound that dissolves in water to produce

hydrogen ion (also called proton)
e.g. HCl, H2SO4

Salts - compound that dissolves in water to produce a

cation and an anion
e.g. NaCl, MgBr2
 Ionic Electrolytes
Ionic Electrolytes – ionic compounds such as salts and
strong bases

Write an equation of dissociation of calcium hydroxide

 Molecular Electrolytes
Some Molecular compounds will be ionized upon
dissolution in water that will make them electrolytes
Molecular Electrolytes – acids and weak bases
Acid - compound that dissolves in water to produce hydrogen
ion (also called proton)
e.g. HCl, H2SO4

Ionization – molecular compound form ions when it dissolves

Write an equation of ionization of sulfuric acid
 Molecular Electrolytes
Molecular Electrolytes – acids and weak bases

Weak base – ionizes water

 Strong and weak electrolytes
Strong electrolytes dissociate completely.
All ionic compounds and strong acids

Weak electrolytes dissociate

only insignificantly
 Strong and weak electrolytes
Strong electrolytes dissociate completely.
All soluble ionic compounds and strong acids

Complete ionization

Weak electrolytes dissociate

only insignificantly

Dynamic equilibrium
Only insignificant dissociation
 Strong electrolytes
Strong Acids Strong Bases Soluble salts

Group 1A metal hydroxides NaCl, CaBr2, KNO3,

(LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH ,CsOH) and many others
Heavy group 2A metal hydroxides
[Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2]
Electrolytic Properties of Solution

CH3COOH (aq)
 Dissociation of an ionic compound
Separate ions surrounded by
molecules of water

Energy required to break the crystal lattice of an ionic compound is

partially compensated by energy of bonds created between water
molecules and ions.
(or between water molecules and molecular dipoles.)
Some compounds are more soluble, some are less
soluble.
 Solubility
Solubility depends on the nature
of the solvent and solute

The general rule:

Like dissolves like
Polar solvents will dissolve
polar and ionic substances
And vise versa:

Non-polar solvents will dissolve non-polar

substances
 Solubility
Solubility: the maximum amount of a solute that dissolves in a
given amount of solvent at a given temperature and pressure.

Common unit – g/100g of solvent

 Saturated vs Unsaturated
• saturated solution: a solution that contains the maximum
amount of a solute that can be dissolved at equilibrium at a
given temperature
• unsaturated solution: a solution that contains less than the
maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved at a given
temperature
• supersaturated solution: a solution that contains more than
the maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved under
equilibrium conditions at a given temperature; when this
solution is disturbed in any way, the excess solute separates
and the equilibrium solubility is restored
 Factors influencing Solubility
Temperature
– the solubility of solids in liquids generally increases as
temperature increases
– the solubility of gases in liquids almost always decreases
as temperature increases
Pressure
– pressure has little effect on the solubility of liquids
or solids in each other
– solubility of gases increases with increasing pressure
 Influence of temperature on Solubility

Temperature
–the solubility of solids in liquids
generally increases as temperature
increases
 Soluble vs insoluble
Solubility: the maximum amount of a solute that dissolves
in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature and
pressure.
Some compounds are more soluble, some are less
soluble.
Each solid has a different solubility in every liquid;
those with low solubility are said to be insoluble, those
with higher solubility are said to be soluble.
Some liquids are insoluble in each other, as for example
gasoline in water. Other liquids have limited solubility
in each other, as for example diethyl ether in water (6
g/100 g H2O). Still other liquids are completely soluble
in each other, as for example ethanol and water.
Solubility rules
Solubility rules
Chapter 8.5

Precipitation reactions
If we’ll mix solutions of two different ionic compounds that might
lead to formation of a precipitate as a product of exchange
reaction between these ionic compounds.

soluble soluble insoluble soluble

Chapter 8.5

Precipitation reactions
If we’ll mix solutions of two different ionic compounds that might
lead to formation of a precipitate as a product of exchange
reaction between these ionic compounds.

soluble soluble insoluble soluble

The insoluble product is called a precipitate.

This is Metathesis or Exchange or Double replacement reaction

the cations trade anions

[Link]
 Precipitation of Lead(II) Iodide
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 2 KNO3(aq) + PbI(s)
(soluble) (soluble) (soluble) (insoluble)

When a potassium iodide

solution is mixed with a lead(II)
nitrate solution, a yellow
lead(II) iodide precipitate forms.
Predicting Precipitation Reactions: Illustration
Chapter 8.6 Representing Aqueous Reactions
•An equation showing the complete neutral formulas for each
compound in the aqueous reaction as if they existed
as molecules is called a molecular equation.

2 KOH(aq) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) → 2 KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

•In actual solutions of soluble ionic compounds, dissolved

substances are present as ions. Equations that describe the
material’s structure when dissolved are called complete ionic
equations.

2 K+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) →

2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
 Ionic Equation Rules
•Rules of writing the complete ionic equation:

– Aqueous (aq) strong electrolytes are written as ions.

• Soluble salts, strong acids, strong bases

– Insoluble substances, weak electrolytes, and

nonelectrolytes are written in molecule form.
• Solids (s), liquids (l), and gases (g) are not dissolved, hence
why they are in a molecule form.

2 K+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) →

2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
 Ionic Equation Writing

• Notice that in the complete ionic equation,

some of the ions in the solution appear
unchanged on both sides of the equation.

• These ions are called spectator ions because

they do not participate in the reaction.
 Net Ionic Equation

2 K+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) → 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

A net ionic equation differs from a complete ionic

equation because it does NOT have spectator ions in
the equation.

When the spectator ions are removed, the chemical

reaction is refereed to as the net ionic equation.

2 OH−(aq) + Mg2+(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)

Examples of Writing Molecular, Complete Ionic, and Net
Ionic Equations

Molecular:
K2SO4(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq) → 2 KNO3(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)

Complete ionic:
2 K+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + 2 Ag+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq)
→ 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3−(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)
Net ionic:
2 Ag+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → Ag2SO4(s)
 Predicting Precipitation Reactions
[Link] what ions each of the aqueous reactants have.

[Link] formulas of possible products.

– Exchange (switch) ions.
• Cation ((+) ion) from one reactant pairs up with the anion
((–) ion) from the other reactant
– Balance charges of combined ions to get the formula
of each product.

[Link] the solubility of each product in water.

– Use the solubility rules to determine if a product is
insoluble or slightly soluble (e.g., it will precipitate) or
if it forms a soluble compound.
 Predicting Precipitation Reactions: Continued

4.
f neither product will precipitate, write no reaction after
the arrow.

5.
f products are insoluble, write their formulas as the
products of the reaction using (s) after the formula to
indicate solid. Write any soluble products with (aq) after
the formula to indicate aqueous.

. Balance the equation.

– Remember to only change coefficients, not subscripts.
 Representing Aqueous Reactions

Ionic equations
Molecular equation

Full ionic equation

Net ionic equation

 Ionic equations
Molecular equation

Full ionic equation

Spectator ions
Net ionic equation
Write the equation of reaction between
barium nitrate and sodium sulfate
 Write the equation of reaction between
barium nitrate and sodium sulfate

Molecular equation
 Write the equation of reaction between
barium nitrate and sodium sulfate

Molecular equation

Full ionic equation

 Write the equation of reaction between
barium nitrate and sodium sulfate

Molecular equation

Full ionic equation

 Write the equation of reaction between
barium nitrate and sodium sulfate

Molecular equation

Full ionic equation

Net ionic equation

 Write the equation of reaction between
barium nitrate and sodium sulfate

Molecular equation

Full ionic equation

Net ionic equation

 How to write ionic equations
1. Write and balance the molecular equation, predicting the products assuming
that the cations trade anions
2. Write the ionic equation by separating strong electrolytes into their constituent
ions.
3. Write the net ionic equation by canceling spectator ions
 EXAMPLE 9.5 Predicting Ionic Compound Solubility
Predict whether each compound is soluble or insoluble.

(a) PbCl2 (b) CuCl2 (c) Ca(NO3)2 (d) BaSO4

SOLUTION
(a) Insoluble. Compounds containing Cl– are normally soluble, but Pb2+ is an exception.
(b) Soluble. Compounds containing Cl– are normally soluble, and Cu2+ is not an exception.
(c) Soluble. Compounds containing NO3– are always soluble.
(d) Insoluble. Compounds containing SO42– are normally soluble, but Ba2+ is an exception.

FOR PRACTICE 9.5

Predict whether each compound is soluble or insoluble.

(a) NiS (b) Mg3(PO4)2 (c) Li2CO3 (d) NH4Cl

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.6 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions
Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when you mix solutions of potassium carbonate
and nickel(II) chloride.
PROCEDURE FOR WRITING EQUATIONS FOR PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

1. Write the formulas of the two compounds K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) →

being mixed as reactants in a chemical equation.

2. Below the equation, write the formulas of

the products that could form from the reactants. Obtain
these by combining the cation from each reactant with the
anion from the other. Make sure to write correct formulas
for these ionic compounds, as described in Section 5.6.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.6 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions
Continued

3. Refer to the solubility rules in Table 9.1 to KCl is soluble. (Compounds containing Cl− are usually
determine whether any of the possible products are soluble, and K+ is not an exception.)
insoluble.
NiCO3 is insoluble. (Compounds containing CO32− are
usually insoluble, and Ni2+ is not an exception.)

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.6 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions
Continued

4. If all of the possible products are soluble, Since this example has an insoluble product, we proceed to
there will be no precipitate. Write NO REACTION after the next step.
the arrow.

5. If any of the possible products are insoluble, K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) → NiCO3(s) + KCl(aq)
write their formulas as the products of the reaction using
(s) to indicate solid. Write any soluble products with (aq)
to indicate aqueous.

6. Balance the equation. Remember to adjust K2CO3(aq) + NiCl2(aq) → NiCO3(s) + 2KCl(aq)

only coefficients, not subscripts.

FOR PRACTICE 9.6

Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when you mix solutions of ammonium chloride and
iron(III) nitrate.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.7 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions
Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when you mix solutions of sodium nitrate and
lithium sulfate.
PROCEDURE FOR WRITING EQUATIONS FOR PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
1. Write the formulas of the two compounds NaNO3(aq) + Li2SO4(aq) →
being mixed as reactants in a chemical equation.

2. Below the equation, write the formulas of

the products that could form from the reactants. Obtain
these by combining the cation from each reactant with the
anion from the other. Make sure to write correct formulas
for these ionic compounds, as described in Section 5.6.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.7 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions
Continued

3. Refer to the solubility rules in Table 9.1 to LiNO3 is soluble. (Compounds containing NO3− are
determine whether any of the possible products are soluble, and Li+ is not an exception.)
insoluble.
Na2SO4 is soluble. (Compounds containing SO42− are
generally soluble, and Na+ is not an exception.)

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.7 Writing Equations for Precipitation Reactions
Continued

4. If all of the possible products are soluble, Since this example has no insoluble product, there is no
there will be no precipitate. Write NO REACTION after reaction.
the arrow.
NaNO3(aq) + Li2SO4(aq) → NO REACTION

5. If any of the possible products are insoluble,

write their formulas as the products of the reaction using
(s) to indicate solid. Write any soluble products with (aq)
to indicate aqueous.

6. Balance the equation. Remember to adjust

only coefficients, not subscripts.

FOR PRACTICE 9.7

Write an equation for the precipitation reaction that occurs (if any) when you mix solutions of sodium hydroxide
and copper(II) bromide.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.8 Writing Complete Ionic and Net Ionic Equations
Consider the following precipitation reaction occurring in aqueous solution:

3 SrCl2(aq) + 2 Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 6 LiCl(aq)

Write the complete ionic equation and net ionic equation for this reaction.
SOLUTION Write the complete ionic equation by Complete ionic equation:
separating aqueous ionic compounds into their 3 Sr2+(aq) + 6 Cl−(aq) + 6 Li+(aq) + 2 PO43−(aq) →
constituent ions. The Sr3(PO4)2(s), precipitating as a Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 6 Li+(aq) + 6 Cl−(aq)
solid, remains as one unit.

Write the net ionic equation by eliminating the spectator Net ionic equation:
ions, those that do not change from one side of the 3 Sr2+(aq) + 2 PO43−(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s)
reaction to the other.

FOR PRACTICE 9.8

Consider the following reaction occurring in aqueous solution:

2 HI(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + BaI2(aq)

Write the complete ionic equation and net ionic equation for this reaction.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.8 Writing Complete Ionic and Net Ionic Equations
Continued

FOR MORE PRACTICE 9.8

Write complete ionic and net ionic equations for the following reaction occurring in aqueous solution:

2 AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2(aq) → 2 AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 8.7
Acids and bases

Bases – compound that dissolves in water to produce

hydroxide ion
e.g. NaOH, Ca(OH)2

Acid - compound that dissolves in water to produce

hydrogen ion (also called proton)
e.g. HCl, H2SO4
Acids and bases
 Litmus paper
One way to determine acidity or basicity of solution is use of Litmus paper

acid - red color base - blue color

61
 Chemical Nomenclature
Some commonly used acids

H2CO3 carbonic acid

HNO3 nitric acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid

H2SO4 sulfuric acid

CH3COOH acetic acid

Some Common Acids and Bases

CH3COOH
Acids
Binary Acids and Oxyacids
Binary Acids:
• Have H+1 cation and nonmetal anion
• Example:
– HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid, HF(aq) hydrofluoric acid

Oxyacids:
• Have H+ cation and polyatomic anion
• Example:
– HNO3 (nitric acid), H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)

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Naming BinaryaAcids
How to Name Binary Acid
• Write a hydro- prefix.
• Follow with the nonmetal name.
• Change the ending on the nonmetal name to ic.
• Write the word acid at the end of the name.
• Example:
– What is the name of HI(aq)?
• The H in the formula is Hydro.
• The I (nonmetal in the formula) is iodine changed
to iodic.
• The name is hydroiodic acid.

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How to Name an Oxyacid
•If a polyatomic ion name ends in
–ate, then change the ending to a
–ic suffix.
– Example:
• NO3− is the nitrate ion, so it
would become nitric.
•If a polyatomic ion name ends in
–ite, then change the ending to a
–ous suffix.
– Example:
• SO32− is the sulfite ion, so it
would become sulfurous.
•Finally, write the word acid at the end of
all names.
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 Organic acids

HCOOH formic acid Acidic proton

CH3COOH acetic acid

C2H5COOH propanoic acid

Name theNaming
Practice Following
Acids

1. H 2S

2. HClO3

3. CH3COOH

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Answers

1. H 2S hydrosulfuric acid

2. HClO3 chloric acid

3. CH3COOH acetic acid

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Monoprotic and polyprotic acids

HCl, HF, HI, HNO3 – monoprotic acids

H2CO3, H2SO4 – diprotic acids

H3PO4 – triprotic acid

73
 Hydronium ion
• When dissolved in water, H+ ions combine with
water molecules to form the more stable
hydronium ion (H3O+).

H+ (aq) actually represents H3O+ (aq).

 Reaction of neutralization
as an exchange reaction

H2SO4 + NaOH  Na2SO4 +

acid
2HOH base salt water

An acid and a base “neutralize” each other and they

don’t exhibit acidic and basic properties anymore

Reaction of neutralization - a chemical reaction in which

an acid and a base interact with the formation of a salt
 Acid-base reaction -
reaction of Neutralization
 Acid-base reaction -
reaction of Neutralization

Full ionic equation

 Acid-base reaction -
reaction of Neutralization

molecular
Full ionic equation
 Acid-base reaction -
reaction of Neutralization

molecular
Full ionic equation

Net ionic equation

 Acid-base reaction -
reaction of Neutralization

Full ionic equation

Net ionic equation

simplification

We should write H+ as a hydronium ion

Predict the Product of Acid–Base Reactions

HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → ?

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Predict the Product of Acid–Base Reactions

HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → ?

(H+ + Cl−) + (Ba2+ + OH−) → (H+ + OH−) + (Ba2+ + Cl−)

HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → H2O(l) + BaCl2

2 HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + BaCl2(aq)

Predict the Product of Acid–Base Reactions

H2SO4(aq) + LiOH(aq) → ?

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Predict the Product of Acid–Base Reactions

H2SO4(aq) + LiOH(aq) → ?

(H+ + SO42−) + (Li+ + OH−) → (H+ + OH−) + (Li+ + SO42−)

H2SO4(aq) + LiOH(aq) → H2O(l) + Li2SO4

H2SO4(aq) + 2 LiOH(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + Li2SO4(aq)

Write the reaction between sulfuric acid and potassium
hydroxide
 EXAMPLE 9.11 Writing Equations for Acid–Base Reactions
Write a molecular and net ionic equation for the reaction between aqueous HI and aqueous Ba(OH) 2.

SOLUTION First identify these substances as an acid

and a base. Begin by writing the unbalanced equation in
which the acid and the base combine to form water and a
salt.

Balance the equation; this is the molecular equation.

Write the net ionic equation by removing the spectator

ions.

FOR PRACTICE 9.11

Write a molecular and a net ionic equation for the reaction that occurs between aqueous H 2SO4 and aqueous LiOH.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
There were mixed 15.0 ml of 1.1M HBr and 10.0 ml of 0.45M barium hydroxide.
What is a limiting reactant?
How many moles of non-limiting reactant will be leftover?
How many moles of BaBr2 were formed ? How many grams?
 Acid-Base titration
In titration –a solution of accurately known concentration, called a
standard solution, is added gradually to a solution of unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between two solutions is
complete.

[Link]
 Acid-Base titration
Burette – the glassware used for titration
 Acid-Base titration
In titration –a solution of accurately known concentration, called a
standard solution, is added gradually to a solution of unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between two solutions is
complete.

Titrant - a solution of known concentration which is

added to another solution to determine its
concentration
As a titrant we should use a solution with precisely
know concentration - a standard solution.
 Acid-Base titration
In titration –a solution of accurately known concentration, called a
standard solution, is added gradually to a solution of unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between two solutions is
complete.
Indicator – the substance (usually an organic
compound) that change the color when media
changing from acidic to basic and vise versa.
(Phenolphthalein, methyl orange)

End point – the point of titration when indicator

changed the color.

Equivalence point – the point of titration when

equimolar amount of acid and base reacted (all acid
is completely neutralized by base)

The Equivalence point is not the same as the End

point because we always overtitrate.
 Acid-Base titration
In titration –a solution of accurately known concentration, called a
standard solution, is added gradually to a solution of unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between two solutions is
complete.

Macid * Vacid = Mbase * Vbase

Moles of acid Moles of base
 Acid-Base titration
In titration –a solution of accurately known concentration, called a
standard solution, is added gradually to a solution of unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between two solutions is
complete.

Macid * Vacid = Mbase * Vbase

Moles of acid Moles of base
 Acid-Base titration
In titration –a solution of accurately known concentration, called a
standard solution, is added gradually to a solution of unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between two solutions is
complete.

Macid * Vacid = Mbase * Vbase

Moles of acid Moles of base

a, b are stoichiometric coefficients for an acid and a base

1/a * Macid * Vacid =1/b * Mbase * Vbase

There were 15.0 ml of 0.72M NaOH spend for titration of 21.0 ml of HCl.
Calculate the HCl molarity.
22.0 ml of 1.2M HCl used to titrate 20.0 ml of Ba(OH)2.
Calculate the molarity of Ba(OH)2.
How many ml of 1.10M NaOH do you need to titrate 25.0 ml
of 0.8M H2SO4
 EXAMPLE 9.12 Acid–Base Titration
The titration of a 10.00-mL sample of an HCl solution of unknown concentration requires 12.54 mL of a 0.100 M
NaOH solution to reach the equivalence point. What is the concentration of the unknown HCl solution in M?
SORT You are given the volume and concentration of GIVEN: 12.54 mL of NaOH solution, 0.100 M NaOH
NaOH solution required to titrate a given volume of solution, 10.00 mL of HCl solution
HCl solution. You are asked to find the concentration FIND: concentration of HCl solution
of the HCl solution.

STRATEGIZE Since this problem involves an acid– HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
base neutralization reaction between HCl and NaOH,
you start by writing the balanced equation. CONCEPTUAL PLAN

The first part of the conceptual plan has the form:

volume A → moles A → moles B. The concentration of
the NaOH solution is a conversion factor between
moles and volume of NaOH. The balanced equation
provides the relationship between number of moles of
NaOH and number of moles of HCl.

In the second part of the conceptual plan, use the

number of moles of HCl (from the first part) and the
volume of HCl solution (given) to calculate the
molarity of the HCl solution.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.12 Acid–Base Titration
Continued

RELATIONSHIPS USED

SOLVE First determine the number of moles of SOLUTION

HCl in the unknown solution.

Next divide the number of moles of HCl by the

volume of the HCl solution in L. 10.0 mL is
equivalent to 0.010 L.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.12 Acid–Base Titration
Continued

CHECK The units of the answer (M HCl) are correct. The magnitude of the answer (0.125 M) is reasonable because
it is similar to the molarity of the NaOH solution, as expected from the reaction stoichiometry (1 mol HCl reacts with
1 mol NaOH) and the similar volumes of NaOH and HCl.

FOR PRACTICE 9.12

The titration of a 20.0-mL sample of an H2SO4 solution of unknown concentration requires 22.87 mL of a 0.158 M
KOH solution to reach the equivalence point. What is the concentration of the unknown H 2SO4 solution?

FOR MORE PRACTICE 9.12

What volume (in mL) of 0.200 M NaOH do we need to titrate 35.00 mL of 0.140 M HBr to the equivalence point?

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 8.8

Formation of Gas or molecular species

Decomposition of carbonic acid

Write the reaction between
nitric acid and sodium sulfide
Write the reaction between
hydrobromic acid and lithium sulfide
Write the reaction between sulfuric acid and calcium
carbonate
Write the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium
acetate
 EXAMPLE 9.13 Writing Equations for Gas-Evolution Reactions
Write a molecular equation for the gas-evolution reaction that occurs when you mix aqueous nitric acid and aqueous
sodium carbonate.
Begin by writing an unbalanced equation in which the
cation of each reactant combines with the anion of
the other.

You must then recognize that H2CO3(aq) decomposes

into H2O(l) and CO2(g) and write these products into the
equation.

Finally, balance the equation.

FOR PRACTICE 9.13

Write a molecular equation for the gas-evolution reaction that occurs when you mix aqueous hydrobromic acid and
aqueous potassium sulfite.

FOR MORE PRACTICE 9.13

Write a net ionic equation for the reaction that occurs when you mix hydroiodic acid with calcium sulfide.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Compounds That Undergo Gas-
Evolution Reactions

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Write the equation of reaction between
Calcium nitrate and sodium chloride

2 NaCl(aq) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
Write the equation of reaction between
Calcium nitrate and sodium chloride

2 NaCl(aq) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
Full Ionic equation
Write the equation of reaction between
Calcium nitrate and sodium chloride

2 NaCl(aq) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)

Full Ionic equation

All ions are spectator ions – no reaction

If products of reaction are strong electrolytes (soluble, no gas
formation)
then no overall reaction occurs.
All of the ions remain dissociated in solution.

Ca(NO3)2, NaCl, CaCl2 & NaNO3 are all soluble

– NO EXCHANGE REACTION
An exchange reaction will occur only if one of the potential products
removes ions from the solution.

[Link] insoluble ionic compound forms &

precipitates from the solution.
2.A molecular compound forms (usually
soluble) that will not dissociate back to its
ionic components:
H2O in the reaction of neutralization
weak acid e.g
acetic acid CH3COOH
carbonic acid H2CO3
hydrosulfuric acid H2S
Chapter 8.9

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
In the ion exchange reactions ions don’t change their
charges.
Chemical substances only exchange their ionic partners.

Ba2+Cl2-(aq) + Na2+SO42-(aq) Ba2+ SO42-(s) + 2Na+ Cl-(aq)

In the oxidation-reduction reactions species do

change their oxidation states

2Ca0 + O20 2Ca2+O2-

Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
• The reactions in which electrons are transferred from one
reactant to the other are called oxidation–reduction reactions.
–These are also called redox reactions.
–Many redox reactions involve the reaction of a substance
with oxygen.
–Examples:
4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Fe2O3(s) (rusting)

2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g) (combustion)

2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)

 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
In the oxidation-reduction reactions species change
their oxidation states. An oxidation-reduction reaction
involves the transfer of electrons from one reactant to
another. 2e-

2Ca0 + O20 2(Ca0 + O0)  2 Ca2+O2-

 Combustion as Redox
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)
Hydrogen and Oxygen reacts to form water in the
gaseous state (steam).

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 Redox without Combustion
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)
Sodium metal transfers electrons to chlorine gas to form solid sodium
chloride. The sodium metal is reduced and chlorine is oxidized.

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 Oxidation state (or Oxidation number)
The oxidation state is the charge an atom (in a molecule) would have
if electrons were transferred completely.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

–4 +1 0 +4 –2 +1 –2

That is not the same as a charge – you can not say that in the
molecule of methane charge for carbon is -4 because it is a covalent
bond and electrons are shared.
Designation:
Oxidation state O-2 Charge O2-
 Rules for Assigning Oxidation States

The following rules are in order of priority:

1. Free elements have an oxidation state = 0.

– Na = 0 and Cl2 = 0 in 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)

2. Monatomic ions have an oxidation state equal to their

charge.
– Na = +1 and Cl = −1 in NaCl

3. (a) The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a

compound is 0.
– Na = +1 and Cl = −1 in NaCl, (+1) + (−1) = 0

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 Rules for Assigning Oxidation States Continued
3. (b) The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in a
polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion.
– N = +5 and O = −2 in NO3–, (+5) + 3(−2) = −1

4. (a) Group I metals have an oxidation state of +1 in all their

compounds.
– Na = +1 in NaCl

4. (b) Group II metals have an oxidation state of +2 in all their

compounds.
– Mg = +2 in MgCl2

5. In their compounds, nonmetals have oxidation states according to the table

below.
– Nonmetals higher on the table take priority.

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 Oxidation States
• Some elements have the same oxidation state in almost all
compounds - can be used as reference points.

– Hydrogen: +1 unless attached to metal (eg. NaH) - then -1

– Halogens: -1 except in interhalogen compounds (eg. BrCl) – then 0; F is

always -1

– Oxygen: -2 except in peroxides (eg. H2O2) –then -1

– Group 6A (O, S, Se, Te): -2 in most compounds

 Rules for Assigning Oxidation States

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 Oxidation
2e-

2Ca0 + O20 2(Ca0 + O0)  2Ca2+O2-

When a substance gains electrons, it is said to be reduced.

In a reduction, there is a decrease (reduction) in electric charge on
the atom.
A reactant that is reduced in a redox reaction is called an oxidizing
agent because it is simultaneously oxidizing the other reactant.
In this reaction Oxygen is oxidizing agent
and
Oxygen was reduced
 Reduction
2e-

2Ca0 + O20 2(Ca0 + O0)  2Ca2+O2-

When a substance loses electrons, it is said to be oxidized.

In an oxidation, there is an increase in the electric charge on
the atom.
A reactant that is oxidized in a redox reaction is called a
reducing agent because it is simultaneously reducing the
other reactant.
In this reaction Calcium is reducing agent
and
Calcium was oxidized
160
Redox Reactions
• Oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously.
– If an atom loses electrons, another atom must take them.

• The reactant that reduces an element in another reactant is called the

reducing agent.
– The reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized.

• The reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant is called the

oxidizing agent.
– The oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced.

• Example: 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)

Na is oxidized, while Cl is reduced.
Na is the reducing agent, and Cl2 is the
oxidizing agent.

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 EXAMPLE 9.14 Assigning Oxidation States
Assign an oxidation state to each atom in each element, ion, or compound.

(a) Cl2 (b) Na+ (c) KF (d) CO2 (e) SO42− (f) K2O2
SOLUTION Because Cl2 is a free element, the oxidation state of
both Cl atoms is 0 (rule 1).

Because Na+ is a monoatomic ion, the oxidation state of the Na +

ion is +1 (rule 2).

The oxidation state of K is +1 (rule 4). The oxidation state of F is

−1 (rule 5). Because this is a neutral compound, the sum of the
oxidation states is 0.

The oxidation state of oxygen is -2 (rule 5). You must

deduce the oxidation state of carbon using rule 3, which says that
the sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms must be 0.

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.14 Assigning Oxidation States
Continued

The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 (rule 5). You would

ordinarily expect the oxidation state of S to be −2 (rule 5).
However, if that were the case, the sum of the oxidation states
would not equal the charge of the ion. Because O is higher on
the list than S, it takes priority and you calculate the oxidation
state of sulfur by setting the sum of all of the oxidation states
equal to −2 (the charge of the ion).

The oxidation state of potassium is +1 (rule 4). You would

ordinarily expect the oxidation state of O to be −2 (rule 5),
but rule 4 takes priority, and you need to deduce the oxidation
state of O by setting the sum of all of the oxidation states
equal to 0.

FOR PRACTICE 9.14

t
Assign an oxidation state to each atom in each element, ion, or compound.

(a) Cr (b) Cr3+ (c) CCL4 (d) SrBr2 (e) SO3 (f) NO3−

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.15 Using Oxidation States to Identify Oxidation and
Reduction
Use oxidation states to identify the element that is oxidized and the element that is reduced in the redox reaction.
Mg(s) + 2 H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

SOLUTION Begin by assigning an oxidation state to each atom in the reaction.

Since Mg increased in the oxidation state, it was oxidized. Since H decreased in the oxidation state, it was reduced.

FOR PRACTICE 9.15

Use oxidation states to identify the element that is oxidized and the element that is reduced in the redox reaction.

Sn(s) + 4 HNO3(aq) → SnO2(s) + 4 NO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.15 Using Oxidation States to Identify Oxidation and
Reduction
Continued

FOR MORE PRACTICE 9.15

t
Determine whether or not each reaction is a redox reaction. If the reaction is a redox reaction,
identify which element is oxidized and which is reduced.

(a) Hg2(NO3)2(aq) + 2 KBr(aq) → Hg2Br2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

(b) 4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 Al2O3(s)
(c) CaO(s) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s)

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.16 Identifying Redox Reactions, Oxidizing Agents, and
Reducing Agents
Determine whether or not each reaction is an oxidation–reduction reaction. For each oxidation–reduction reaction,
identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.

(a) 2 Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2 MgO(s)

(b) 2 HBr(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → 2 H2O(l ) + CaBr2 (aq)
(c) Zn(s) + Fe2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Fe(s)

SOLUTION This is a redox reaction because (a)

magnesium increases in oxidation number (oxidation)
and oxygen decreases in oxidation number (reduction).

This is not a redox reaction because none of the (b) 2 HBr(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + CaBr2(aq)
+1−1 +2−2+1 +1−2 +2−1
atoms undergoes a change in oxidation number.

This is a redox reaction because zinc increases in (c)

oxidation number (oxidation) and iron decreases
in oxidation number (reduction).

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 EXAMPLE 9.16 Identifying Redox Reactions, Oxidizing Agents, and
Reducing Agents
Continued

FOR PRACTICE 9.16

Determine whether or not each reaction is a redox reaction. For all redox reactions, identify the oxidizing agent and
the reducing agent.

(a) 2 Li(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 LiCl(s)

(b) 2 Al(s) + 3 Sn2+(aq) → 2 Al3+(aq) + 3 Sn(s)
(c) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 LiCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2 LiNO3(aq)
(d) C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

Nivaldo J. Tro: Chemistry: Structure and Properties, First Edition © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Chapter 8
Introduction to Solutions &
Aqueous Reactions

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.