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A01-16029
AM A A

AIAA 2001 -0095

Contamination Effects due to Space
Environmental Interactions
Philip T. Chen
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NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Greenbelt, MD 20771

39- Aerospace Sciences Meeting & Exhibit

8-11 January 2001
Reno, Nevada
For permission to copy or to republish, contact the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
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Contamination Effects due to Space Environmental Interactions

Philip T. Chen
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Mail Code 545
Greenbelt, Maryland 20771
phi lip. chen@gsfc. nasa. gov

ABSTRACT spacecraft is accelerated by the vacuum and solar

heating conditions of the space environment
Molecular and paniculate contaminants are Particulate and molecular contaminants present in the
commonly generated from the orbital spacecraft space environment tend to move around the spacecraft
operations that are under the influence of the space due to the localized spacecraft environment. The
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environment Once generated, these contaminants may presence of the contaminants will affect spacecraft's
attach to the surfaces of the spacecraft or may remain in original design performance. Returned hardware from
the vicinity of the spacecraft. In the event these Space Shuttles, Solar Max Repair Mission (SMRM),
contaminants come to rest on the surfaces of the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), Hubble Space
spacecraft or situated in the line-of-sight of the Telescope (HST), and MIR have provided evidence of
observation path, they will create various degrees of both short-term and long-term effects of space
contamination effect which may cause undesirable environment on spacecraft. Information learned from
effects for normal spacecraft operations. There will be these returned hardware is invaluable because the space
circumstances in which the spacecraft may be subjected environment is complex and is very difficult to
to special space environment due to operational reproduce in a space simulation facility on the ground.
conditions. Interactions between contaminants and
special space environment may alter or greatly increase The space environment provides a dynamic
the contamination effect due to the synergistic effect. boundary for an operational spacecraft in orbit When a
spacecraft is operating in space, it is mostly interfered
This paper will address the various types of by the spacecraft's local space environment Therefore,
contamination generation on orbit, the general effects of a key consideration of the interactions between a
the contamination on spacecraft systems, and the spacecraft and its space environment is the localized
typical impacts on the spacecraft operations due to the conditions which change tremendously according to the
contamination effect. In addition, this paper will altitude and orbit The space environment to be
explain the contamination effect induced by the space considered in this paper includes orbits ranging in
environment and will discuss the intensified altitude from Low Earth Orbit (LEO) to
contamination effect resulting from the synergistic Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) and beyond.
effect with the special space environment
SPACE ENVIRONEMNT
Key Words: Contamination, Space Environment, and
Synergy The operations of a spacecraft need to consider
the effect of the diverse space environment and its
INTRODUCTION associated parameters. According to Purvis[1] the
space environment can be characterized into four
The contamination generation, transport, and categories: the ionizing radiation, the natural plasmas,
impact on spacecraft systems are greatly influenced by the micrometeorites and debris, and the neutral
the space environment Material outgassing from the environment Among these environmental factors,

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local environment related to gravity, B & E Fields, Plasma is defined as an electrically neutral
neutral atmosphere, and plasma are strongly coupled ionized gas. Plasma are encountered in the ionosphere,
with the spacecraft systems. A detailed examination plasmasphere, magnetospheric storms, and plasmas
can be performed by analyzing the interactions between induced by the spacecraft. At LEO, the solar UV
the system and its local environment A list of ionizes the major atmospheric constituents, oxygen and
environmental factors and their effects on space nitrogen atoms, to produce plasma. Interactions
systems in near-Earth space was provided by Purvis in between the spacecraft and the plasma include arcing,
Table 1. current collection, and spacecraft charging. The
charging due to different potentials on spacecraft
Table 1. The Space Environmental Effects surfaces in a plasma environment is a concern when
building a spacecraft.
The Space Environmental Effects________
• Sunlight & Earthshine A spacecraft can be impacted and damaged by
Heating, Thermal Cycling, Material Damage, the micrometeorites and man-made orbital debris
Sensor Noise, Drag, Torque, Photoemission environment These impact can cause serious structure
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• Gravity damage and catastrophic failure of the spacecraft.

Acceleration, Torque Although the hazard from the natural debris
• B & E Fields environment has been considered as acceptable, the
Torque, Drag, Surface Changes, Potentials dangers posed by man-made orbital debris is a real
• Neutral Atmosphere concern. The impact by orbital debris environment can
Drag, Torque, Material Degradation, Vacuum, also produce a dense localized plasma or enhance
Contamination, HV Breakdown spacecraft surface erosion.
• Plasma
Charging, Arcing, Parasitic Currents, System The neutral environment consists of natural
Potentials, Sputtering, Enhanced Contamination, species and contamination generated by the spacecraft
ES & EM Waves (Noise), Plasma Waves & and released in the immediate environment. Typical
Turbulence, Change of EM Refractive Index attributes associated with the neutral environment
include atomic oxygen (AO), glow, sputtering, and
• Fast Charged Particles atmospheric drag. AO at LEO degrades spacecraft
Radiation Damage, Internal Charging, Single surfaces by a chemical reaction with materials that
Event Upsets, Arcing, Noise
changes the surface properties. For a LEO spacecraft,
• Meteoroid & Debris the neutral atoms cause significant surface heating and
Mechanical Damage, Enhanced Chemical & orbital decay. To compensate the orbital decay, orbital
Plasma Interactions, Local Plasma Production, adjustments are necessary to maintain a spacecraft in its
Induced Arcing proper orbit
• System Generated
System Dependent: Neutrals, Plasma, Fields, CONTAMINATION SOURCES
Forces & Torque, Particles, Radiation______
Spacecraft contamination is defined as a
foreign substance on or near a spacecraft surface that
The ionizing radiation includes the presence in adversely affects the performance of space systems.
space of ultraviolet (UV), radiation belts, cosmic, solar, The contaminant, either molecular or paniculate, is
and galactic radiation. Near the Van Alien belt, the generated by the spacecraft under the influence of the
relatively strong Earth magnetic field traps the space environment. As shown in Table 2, the majority
energetic protons. High-energy particles degrade of the contamination sources are self-generated by the
detector performance by the accumulative material spacecraft systems. The returned SMRM hardware
microstructural damage. Although any spacecraft may revealed spacecraft generated molecular contaminants
be susceptible to surface charging, the highest on fine Sun sensor, louver frames, and instrument
occurrence seems to be with GEO spacecraft. In venting areas. Study of the MIR solar arrays as part of
general, radiation may cause single events upset (SEU) the International Space Station (ISS) Risk Mitigation
and degrade solar arrays, dielectric materials, electronic Program discovered significant thruster burn residue[2].
components, and sensors. It can also deposit charge In addition, particles and fibers were identified from the
inside dielectric materials and on surfaces internal to returned MIR solar arrays. Through examination it was
the spacecraft with a result in dielectric breakdown and concluded that MIR solar arrays are sources of particle
EMI electrical upsets. and glass fiber generation and shedding[3].

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Table 2. Contamination Sources the use of a highly volatile lubricant may present a
contamination threat that is detrimental to sensitive
Contamination Sources spacecraft surfaces.
Molecular
• Material outgassing (water, hydrocarbons, Spacecraft plume products are another
silicones) contamination contributors. Rocket engines arc used for
• Spacecraft and Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) launch vehicles, apoapsis and periapsis motors, spacecraft
attitude control, and station keeping. The release of large
venting
amounts of expelled propellants into the surroundings
Fluid leak, dump, and lubricant loss alters the space environment and interferes with the
Plume products spacecraft operations. Products of combustion can also
Extravehicular activity deposit on surfaces in the vicinity of the thrusters by
Particulate direct impingement
Surface particles
Plume products Extravehicular activity (EVA) and operations of
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Ice formation spacecraft mechanisms generate both molecular and

Mechanism generated particles particulate contamination. The space suits and Space
Micrometeorites & debris Shuttle storage compartments are potential
Extravehicular activity____ contamination sources. During an EVA, the ambient
and the surface particles are disturbed with the
possibility of being redistributed onto other critical
Long-term outgassing originated from surfaces.
spacecraft materials poses a great concern. Spacecraft
outgassing materials are released when the CONTAMINATION IMPACTS ON
environmental pressure is reduced and the temperature SPACECRAFT SYSTEMS
is raised. Low molecular weight constituents, light
reaction products, and absorbed gases such as water, Contamination may be originated from many
hydrocarbons, and silicones are the most significant sources during spacecraft operations. After being
outgassing constituents. Typical outgassing releasing generated, contaminants may attach to spacecraft
mechanisms consist of desorption of physically or surfaces or remain in the vicinity of the spacecraft.
chemically adsorbed gases from the surface, Deposited or line-of-sight contaminant influences a
evaporation or sublimation of the material itself, or normal spacecraft operation. This contamination effect
evaporation and decomposition of gases in the bulk is further altered or enhanced by the space environment.
material. Among all space environmental attributes discussed
before, vacuum, temperature (solar heating), AO, and
Spacecraft venting is another major radiation create obvious contamination problems. Each
contamination source. Many spacecraft and instruments single environment contributes separately in producing
require venting of gases from thermal blankets and a contamination related effect. However, a synergistic
spacecraft interior to balance the internal pressure. effect may be produced with the interaction of multiple
Additionally, venting may be used to dispose of waste space environment conditions. Relatively speaking a
gases, to produce low-pressure drag makeup, or simply synergism may aggravate the contamination effect more
to provide low-level propulsion for attitude control. than a single space environment. A summary of the
The vented gases modify the local environment and contamination related impacts, with the interactions
disturb spacecraft activities. When condensed on with space environment, on spacecraft systems is
surfaces, the vented gases degrade the thermo-optical shown in Table 3.
properties of the surfaces.
SPACE ENVIRONMENT ENHANCED
Leakage of operational fluids and gases from CONTAMINATION EFFECTS
manned modules and the Space Shuttle produces
molecular contamination. These fluids and gases leak The space environment provides unique
from storage tanks, supply lines, or pressurized cabins conditions for orbiting spacecraft. The vacuum of
during a normal vehicle operatioa Inhabited space space magnifies many environmental parameters
systems generally have overboard dumping of disposals (speed, temperature, voltage, etc.) more than the Earth's
such as gases, liquids, and particles. Besides dumping atmosphere. Without the interference of the
waste products from the crew cabin, the Space Shuttle atmosphere, the temperatures produced in vacuum by
frequently discharges the fluid into space. In addition, sunlight are extreme. Therefore, a spacecraft will be

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TableS. The Contamination Impacts On Space contamination effects, material outgassing, AO erosion,
Systems thermal surface degradation, and particle deposition are
frequently studied. Detailed space environment
_______Contamination Impacts_______ enhanced contamination effects are discussed below.
Thermal Control
• Contamination buildup Atmospheric Drag
• Radiation effect
• Degradation of thermal control system Operational spacecraft encounter a significant
Optics number of atmospheric particles during each orbit
Neutral gas molecules are atmospheric particles that
• Degradation of optical system influence a spacecraft by transferring energy and
• Reduced transmittance through lenses, mirrors, momentum to a spacecraft as a drag force.
windows, and detectors Atmospheric drag in LEO is a key parameter in
• Increased light scattering along the optical path predicting spacecraft fuel requirements. The
Power atmospheric density and its long-term fluctuations
• Reduced solar cell efficiency
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dominate the reboot requirements for a spacecraft. To

• Obscured solar array surfaces and reduced solar compensate the drag, additional fuel is consumed for
cell efficiency orbital adjustments, which inevitably produces more
Propulsion contaminants around the spacecraft.
• Restricted propulsion operations
Structure Mechanisms capable of heating the Earth's
• Surface degradation atmosphere produce ambient density changes. The
• Particle penetration process of heating induced drag may be resulted from
Sensors geomagnetic storms and changes in solar extreme UV
• Performance of Sun, Earth, and star sensors emission. An excellent atmospheric drag example can
• Scatters ambient light onto sensor optics be found on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
leading to false response (TRMM) that operates in 2002's 23rd solar maximum
Operations cycle. A solar maximum with roughly an 11-year
• Disturbance to spacecraft period is the time of largest average sunspot number.
• Increased molecular column density can affect As the sun activity level increases, the atmosphere is
instrument operation heated and the gas is expanded. This in turn affects the
• Electrical discharge or arcing in high voltage plasma density at the LEO environment and increases
equipment due to high outgassing atmospheric drag on a spacecraft. As a result of
operating during a solar maximum, TRMM will
• Noise on slip rings and electrical contacts
consume more propellants; thus more contaminants will
• Failure of precision mechanisms due to be generated. Generally, it is a valid assumption that
particulate most LEO spacecraft encounter elevated contamination
• Electrical discharge or arcing in high voltage levels generated by the additional fuel consumed to
equipment due to contamination_________ compensate for atmospheric drag.
Outgassing
exposed to an extreme solar heating and cooling
conditions in space. Consequently, spacecraft materials According to the phase equilibrium, a reduced
and components will demonstrate more damage pressure of space will promote polymeric materials to
because of the impact of the extreme conditions. outgas. With a low ambient pressure, molecules are
Additionally severe sunlight effects include surface easily released from spacecraft surfaces. Coupling with
discoloration, material damage, and coating failure. the solar radiation and long-term exposure, this
Similar to the sunlight, the presence of other space outgassing effect is even more significant Contrary to
environment conditions creates contamination this inverse pressure effect, outgassing rates of
problems. Evidence of contamination problems polymeric materials increase as temperature goes up.
associated with space environment exposure has been Thus, materials tend to outgas more in GEO than LEO
observed since the beginning of the space era. based on both pressure and temperature factors. Besides
Knowledge base has grown from the examination of space environment, a spacecraft's mission life also
many returned flight hardware, real-time in-flight determines the degree of a spacecraft's outgassing.
surface surveys, observed anomalies via telemetry, Normally a spacecraft may take several weeks before its
ground tests, and predictions. Among these high outgassing rate reduces to a moderate degree.

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Sometimes a spacecraft may even be several years in orbit to absorb water in a humid environment, causing
before the outgassing to cease. Therefore for a spacecraft, expansion. Once in orbit composites release water
initial on orbit checkout period provides a good causing the structure to contract. The released water
opportunity for rapid outgassing to occur before on-board can reach contamination sensitive surfaces inducing
instruments begin to operate. additional damages. To minimize water in composites,
humidity control during the manufacturing on the
For a spacecraft with single instrument, the ground and during on orbit operations is essential.
molecular outgassing is primarily a self-contamination
problem. However, cross-contamination becomes an Due to its high vapor pressure, surface water
issue when multiple instruments of different may be departed from surfaces in vacuum. However,
contamination sensitivities are closely located on the trapped water forms ice on sensitive surfaces and
same spacecraft. To avoid cross-contamination, diligent reduces its mobility. Ciyodeposits of ice on detectors is
effort has been done to provide an optimal spacecraft a common water problem for many IR instruments
layout for all systems and instruments. operating at cryogenic temperatures. The ice
contaminant changes the reflectance and causes a
Molecular contamination degrades the transmittance loss problem. Without a proper venting
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performance of systems by altering their surface for water contaminant, a repetitive ice formation effect
properties. For thermal control system, molecular is highly possible when operating condition cycles. The
contamination increases solar absorptance (a) and Filter Wedge Spectrometer (FWS) experiment on
changes emittance (e) of Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) Nimbus IV spacecraft failed shortly after its launch
and radiator surfaces. Changes of these surface April 8,1970. It was determined that the failure was
properties require a larger beginning-of-life (BOL) due to the accretion of water.
design margin for the thermal control surfaces. When
outgassing contaminant is deposited on optical elements, Water cloud around the spacecraft is an issue
it reduces the transmittance through lenses, mirrors, too. Once in space, water released from surfaces may
windows, and detectors. The contaminant also stay with the spacecraft for several orbits before its
degrades optical functions by increasing the light dissipation. For a Space Shuttle mission, most of the
scattering along the optical path. contamination in the bay is water with pressure
measured as high as 10"4 torr. By comparison, the
Material outgassing is the most common ambient pressure is approximately 10~7 torr. Water
spacecraft contamination problem. Results from many cloud around the spacecraft or high water pressure in a
ground tests have demonstrated its various effect on bay obscures on orbit observations.
thermal and optical properties. Due to their wide
application on spacecraft components, hydrocarbon and Molecular Transport
silicone contaminants have been identified on almost all
short and long duration missions. Water will outgas like In space molecular contamination can move
most hydrocarbons and pose similar contamination from one surface to another by direct flux or
threat to spacecraft systems. Due to its physical backscattering. The surrounding vacuum and
characteristics and the repetitive problems on infrared temperature conditions strongly influence these
(IR) instruments, water contamination is worthwhile to transport mechanisms. Molecular transport by direct
be discussed separately. flux is a line-of-sight mechanism with a Lambertian
distribution for molecules originated from the
Water contamination source. To avoid direct line-of-sight
impingement, sensitive surfaces on a spacecraft are
Unlike more strongly bonded hydrocarbons designed to point away from the contamination sources.
and silicones, water is weakly adsorbed on surfaces and Under certain circumstances, protective devices may be
releases readily under reduced pressure. Most installed for shielding purpose. Due to its direct
spacecraft structure and MLI surfaces contain water. impact, undoubtedly molecular transport by direct flux
Even with its high vapor pressure, water may still pose can become a problem. On a returned SMRM
a potential problem because of its abundance on hardware, a single impact has penetrated three layers of
spacecraft surfaces. Due to its weight/strength MLI. Chemical analysis indicated that contaminants
advantage, composites are increasingly utilized in were consistent with urine residue from the Space
spacecraft. Composites are continuous polymeric Shuttle waste management system. In addition,
materials containing a fibrous or participate filler. molecular contamination can reach non line-of-sight
Therefore, composites outgas similarly to polymers in locations by multiple reflections resulting from repeated
the space environment. Furthermore, composites tend deposition and reemission. For a closed system such as

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the interior of an instrument, molecular transport by low altitude the deBye lengths are measured in
multiple reflections may become more important than millimeters so that the ionized molecules have less
by direct flux. opportunity to be reattracted to the spacecraft by the
resultant electrostatic field around the spacecraft. At
Backscattering or return flux is a mechanism high altitudes the ionosphere is much less dense with
that molecules emit from and return back to the the deBye lengths in meters. Therefore, contaminants
spacecraft surfaces by self or ambient scattering. Self have a lower probability of escaping the electrostatic
scattering occurs when molecules departed from the attraction before being ionized.
spacecraft collide with each other and return to the
spacecraft. On the other hand, ambient scattering refers This space environment induced
to the collisions between spacecraft released molecules backscattering molecular transport effect[4] is
and ambient molecules. Molecular transport by sometimes called Electrostatic Return (BSD). The
backscattering depends heavily on the surface released charging environment and its associated ESD effect in
molecules and the molecular density around the GEO can be more severe than in LEO because the
spacecraft. Therefore, backscattering is especially plasma is very energetic. The Spacecraft Charging at
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important when the spacecraft operates in a high High Altitudes (SCATHA), a GEO spacecraft, had
ambient density environment that increases the reported that nearly 31 % of the deposited
probability of molecular collisions. In addition, the contamination was associated with the spacecraft
backscattering effect is enhanced as a Ram effect when charging.
the outgassing occurs in the leading-edge of the
spacecraft, i.e. in the velocity vector. Field-of-Vicw Obscuration
Thruster operations also contribute to an Molecular contaminants released from the
increase in density in the backflow region. To prevent spacecraft remain within the orbit of the spacecraft.
the thruster plume contamination, spacecraft surfaces Material outgasasing, venting, leakage, and plume
are designed to avoid direct plume impingement or products are major contamination contributors.
protected by a plume shield if necessary. Because of Depending on conditions, these contaminants may
the high velocity of the plume, the effluent tends to be remain in a spacecraft's orbit for extended period.
confined to a narrow region around the thruster exit. While travelling with the spacecraft, molecular
Regardless of relatively small quantity, the possibility contaminants form a cloud around the spacecraft and
of scattering into the backflow region by the thruster greatly increase the local ambient density. A
plume is still a concern for sensitive surfaces. For contamination cloud above the instrument surface
example, a monitoring package on NOAA-7 spacecraft increases number column density (NCD) along any
has shown that effluent from an apogee kick motor intended line-of-sight and affects any instrument's field-
(AKM) flowed into the area of sensitive spacecraft of-view observation. This will drastically reduce the
components and could have degraded their measured signal and diminish the effectiveness of the
performance. instrument An example of the operation of a star tracker
interfered by particle clouds was visually observed on
Electrostatic Return Skylab. The persistence of a long-term cloud was also
indicated on NOAA-7 spacecraft.
Molecular contamination is often considered
as transport by direct flux or backscattering only. The AO Erosion
reattraction of molecular contaminants onto spacecraft
under the influence of spacecraft charging is an unusual AO is abundant in LEO environment at
phenomenon. The transport by reattraction requires altitude from 200 to 650 km. Energetic AO reacts with
both spacecraft surfaces and molecules to be charged. spacecraft surface materials by either erosion or fixing.
Spacecraft charging is a variation of electrostatic Residual atmosphere of AO erodes hydrocarbons on
potential on the spacecraft surface. Spacecraft surfaces spacecraft surfaces and develop a characteristic surface
may be ionized by solar UV to create electrostatic fields morphology. A surface morphology such as AO
within a few deBye lengths of the spacecraft. undercutting was observed in samples on early Space
Shuttle missions.
If outgassed become ionized in the region
close to the spacecraft, then the ionized contaminants The space environment is particularly harsh on
can be pulled by spacecraft surface charging the solar arrays and MLI due to their large size, the
distributions. Reattraction of the ionized contaminants constant exposure, and the nature of the materials. By
depends on the plasmas shielding of the spacecraft. At attacking the polymers used in construction, AO causes

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deleterious effects on solar arrays and MLI. Kapton, a of 350 km for 3.5 years. The AO fluence for TRMM in
polyimide film, used for construction is one of the the velocity vector has been calculated to be 8.9 x 1022
polymers highly susceptible to chain scission by AO AO atoms/cm2. This fluence is about 10 times higher
with an AO erosion rate, or reaction efficiency, of than the AO impingement on LDEF's leading-edge. In
3.0xl(r24cm3/atom. this environment, unprotected thermal blanket surfaces
of Kapton will virtually disintegrate. In order to endure
In addition to the solar arrays and MLI, AO under this severe AO environment, a protective
environment in LEO attacks the composite materials. composite coating was developed for the TRMM
Carbon/epoxy and Kapton/epoxy samples flown on spacecraft.
Space Shuttle missions showed extensive erosion of
both the matrix and filler. Graphite and Kapton fibers AO Fixing
originally covered by epoxy were eroded into a
corduroy pattern. The fibers themselves appeared as The AO reacts with spacecraft surface
porous ridges with little apparent residual strength or materials in two distinct ways. Depending on the
stiffness. Since composites will be used extensively in reaction efficiency and the AO fluence, hydrocarbon
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the future, the long-term effects of AO must be materials can be eroded by AO to a varying degrees.
examined in order to prevent surface degradation and Contrarily silicone materials used by a spacecraft are
structural failure. The most feasible method of permanently fixed by the oxidation with AO. AO
protection available is coating the exposed composite fixing produces a protective coaling on the spacecraft
surface with resistant materials. Selected metal foils, surfaces.
like aluminum for example, are an obvious choice due
to their impermeable oxide coatings. Room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) silicone
adhesives and sealants are designed for a wide range of
AO may cause dimensional changes in either sealing, bonding, and protection of spacecraft
the surface or the bulk of some materials. A significant applications. Methyl silicones, methyl phenyl silicones,
oxidation with silver with the formation of an oxide can and fluorinated silicones are most frequently used. In
expand and does not remain adherent with the space these silicone materials outgas in response to
unreacted silver. The reaction with silicones to form vacuum and temperature conditions similar to
silicone oxides causes contraction and cracking. These hydrocarbon materials. AO attacks outgassed silicones
AO effects were observed on SMRM returned that transport to spacecraft surfaces.
hardware.
The reaction between the silicones and AO
AO erosion of a material is proportional to its generates silicone oxide (SiOx). The strong surface
exposure to a total AO fluence. AO fluence is defined adhesion of SiOx results from strong covalent
as a product of AO density and exposure time. bondings. Heaters, commonly applied for on orbit
Therefore AO erosion is notable for a spacecraft with a decontamination, can not easily remove these fixed
long contact with AO environment or a spacecraft silicones. As a result, AO fixed contaminants have
exposed to a high AO density. When studying AO detrimental effects on both optics and the thermal
erosion, ISS is a primary example with a 15-year design control system by totally altering their optical and
lifetime in LEO orbit The combination equates to a thermal properties. In many spacecraft applications, the
total fluence of 5.5 x 1022 AO atoms/cm2 for ISS. usage of silicone materials has been restricted.

The 69-month LDEF mission resulted in a Surface Damage by Environment

long space exposure of material surfaces. During the
mission, the leading-edge materials were exposed to Spacecraft surface damage by the space
approximately 8.8 x 10 AO atoms/cm2, a level at environment can be found by examining almost all of
which erosion of over 10 mils was expected for many the hardware exposed in space. Most space exposed
polymers [5l The trailing-edge exposure was only Kapton was drastically different from the original
about 104 AO atoms/cm, making AO effects Kapton. The space exposed Kapton was dull, rather
insignificant compared to solar UV and charged than shiny or glossy. Surface damages by space
particles. A 1 mil of erosion observed on LDEF was environment are discovered on returned HST, Spartan,
reported due to the combined effects of vacuum and SMRM hardware. Returned hardware from the
ultraviolet (VUV) and AO environment [6l LDEF showed brownish discoloration near uncontrolled
venting areas. In general the discoloration on thermal
The AO environment was found to be even control and other spacecraft surfaces are the most
more severe for the TRMM, which requires an altitude common surface damage by space environment.

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Surface discoloration caused primarily by UV causing various reactions. The reaction, either by
radiation, increases solar absorptance of thermal control crosslinking or chain scission, will degrade the
surfaces. Under some severe space environments, polymers. The UV radiation causes the same chemical
Kapton on MLI surface can turn almost black after changes as its higher energy counterparts. Instead of
several years in orbit. S13 G white paints are affected ionizing the atoms through electron removal, the
most severely by UV radiation and charged particles electrons are excited into higher energy state by U V.
(protons and electrons). Its solar absorptance degraded The unstable, excited atoms undergo subsequent
from 0.20 to 0.70 in just a few years in geosynchrous reactions to form free radicals. Further reaction with
orbit. High absorptance black paints generally do not the presence of free radicals can cause polymerization
degrade. A slight reduction in solar absorptance of to occur.
black paints over time has been observed as a result of
UV bleaching. The thermal control surfaces is prone to
photopolymerization due to its exposure to space
Solar cells converts sunlight into electricity. The environment. The thermal control surfaces are affected
solar cell's glass cover provides environmental and in orbit by the charged particles, UV radiation, high
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radiation protection for the solar array. Once the vacuum, and the contaminant films that deposit on
molecular contamination is deposited on the cover glass, almost all spacecraft surfaces. By forming a darkened
it is darkened by UV radiation. The darkened molecular film on radiator surfaces, phtopolymerization will
film reduces power output by reducing transmittance in increase the solar absorptance significantly and affect
the power generating wavelength range and by increasing the radiator's performance. Other photopolymerization
solar cell temperatures. A spacecraft in GEO for a 7- example is the degradation of aluminized or silvered
year mission has been reported with its solar cell Teflon films caused by both charged-particle damage and
performance degraded by as much as 25%. To contamination depositioa
minimize UV damage, a UV filter coating may be applied
to the underside of the cell to deflect the UV radiation. The direct UV radiation causes
photopolymerization. However, indirect UV radiation
Besides the thermal control and the power may also have a similar effect on contaminants. From a
systems, the UV radiation causes damage on optics. returned HST hardware, 500 A of polymerized
The UV energized particles discolor optical thin film contamination was found on the pickoff mirror. The
and the bulk transmission materials and thus modify the reflectance of the pickoff mirror was decreased from
broadband transmittance. The UV radiation also 0.7 to 0.05 at 1216 A wavelength as measured by an
interacts with some optical materials to cause reduction EUV scatterometer. In orbit this pickoff mirror was not
in reflectance and transmittance. In 1975, two exposed to direct UV radiation, but rather to an indirect
instruments aboard the Orbiting Solar Observatory radiation source. After a material study, albedo was
(OSO) failed due to the complete loss of sensitivity in concluded to be the reason for such a
the 1216 A Lyman-Alpha wavelength caused by the photopolymerization. The Earth albedo, a fraction of
UV degradation of optics from electronics box solar flux incident on the Earth surface, is reflected to
outgassing. the pickoff mirror surface and reacts with contaminants.
The molecular contamination can have a devastating
Photopolvmerization. effect on the reflectance of UV optics, since most
molecular contaminants are very absorptive in the UV
Radiation damage caused by the high energy range.
particles or UV has damaging effects on spacecraft
polymeric materials. The UV and the charged particles Micrometeorites and Debris Impact
can act independently or simultaneously, causing the
contaminants to form a polymerized film. The degree Orbital debris in the LEO presents a potential
of polymerization depends on the UV and the charged hazard to both the spacecraft and its payloads. The orbital
particles exposure, the type of the condensed debris consists of either natural meteorites or man-made
contaminants, and the conditions of the surfaces. debris from such sources as propulsion stage explosions
in space or spent stages. The debris impacts on high-
Through an ionization process, the high- pressure fluid tanks and thermal control fluid lines can
energy gamma rays, X-rays, electrons, and the protons penetrate and cause a leaking contamination source.
can break molecular bonds to from free radicals. A free Collisions with large space debris can be characterized as
radical is a chemical radical or molecular fragment highly energetic events, which will likely generate
containing an unpaired electron. It is longer lived than millions of particles posing even greater hazards to
ions and can migrate throughout a polymer structure operational spacecraft. Besides affecting operations,

8
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particles generated by the impact create an obstructive a surface and cause an increase in the level of stray
particle cloud in the field-of-view of observation. light scattering. Light scattered into the regions of
image plane can seriously affect the performance of
The micrometeorites and debris impact on some detector systems. High velocity particulate,
operational spacecraft is apparent and substantial. A which impact surfaces directly, can diminish both their
NASA Shuttle window with substrate fracturing was throughput and their ability to image. Indirect impacts
discovered in 1983 to have been caused by a of high velocity micrometeorites or particles may also
submillimeter particle. From returned SMRM hardware create a problem by causing small pieces of spacecraft
in 1984, a survey of approximately one-half square material to break loose from the surface. These
meter of MLI has revealed over 1,500 impacts. A particles may then either adhere to a critical surface or
number of particles completely penetrated all of the drift through the sensor's field-of-view.
MLI layers. Participate impacts were also observed on
the LDEF returned hardware surfaces. LDEF used a Particles in space brings in a new problem. A
specifically designed aluminum plate to measure the wide released particle can take on an orbit with a trajectory
spectrum of impacts. During the recent Midcourse returning to the vicinity of the spacecraft. The particles
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Space Experiment (MSX) mission, two discrete particle can also become charged and be drawn back to a
releases caused by micrometeorites or debris impacts charged spacecraft by the ESD effect. In addition,
were observed [7l Orbital debris is a growing concern, particle clouds, similar to molecular clouds, in the field-
which may necessitate changes in overall system of-view of observation can greatly impair the
decisions involving larger safety factors, protective performance of sensors.
surfaces, and different orientations for the solar arrays.
Synergy
Particulate Contamination Sources
A synergy is a simultaneous action of separate
There are two major paniculate contamination forces to achieve an effect of which each is individually
sources for an operational spacecraft. One is particles incapable. The synergistic contamination effect created
accumulated on spacecraft surfaces during ground by the space environment is twofold. A synergy can be
operations. The other is particles induced by the space produced by an individual space environment element
environment when in orbit. Prior to launch, surface influencing each step of the contamination generation,
particles are controlled to meet acceptable levels for a transport, deposition, and degradation. As a result, a
normal spacecraft. PerMIL-STD-1246, the cleanliness specific contamination effect is induced by a single
requirements could range from levels 100-400 for space environment element On the other hand, a
sensitive surfaces and levels 300-1,000 for less synergy can also be generated by multiple space
sensitive surfaces. These deposited particles may be environment elements act together to create an
redistributed by external forces imposed on them during enhanced contamination effect.
orbital operations. In addition, solar heating, thermal
cycling, AO erosion, and radiation damage can generate One obvious example of synergy is material
new particles. Regardless of the particle sources, outgassing in space. Outgassing is strongly affected by
particles released in orbit may interfere with operations the spacecraft's ambient conditions. Therefore, the
of space systems. combination of vacuum, temperatures, and the duration
of space environment exposure determines actual
Particle build-up during ground operations is outgassing rates.
very common. For the Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellite (GOES), particles were The discoloration of the thermal control
accumulated on the radiant cooler surfaces prior to surfaces is the result of the combined effect of vacuum,
launch. The particle accretion will scatter the light and UV, charged particles, and contamination. A darkened
allow solar radiation to reach the instrument cooler. surface with an increase in solar absorptance affects the
Ultimately this contamination effect will degrade the performance of a thermal control system. Other
performance of the cooler [8l A consequential cleaning combined effect of radiation and thermal cycling
was performed before the launch using CO2 cleaning induces thermal stresses on the structure and the MLI
technique in 1995. Despite all controls and cleanings, surfaces. After long-term space environment exposure,
some particles still cling on the launched spacecraft. the damages on these surfaces further generate
particulate contamination. In general a spacecraft
Particle contamination degrades the continues to generate particles on orbit due to the
performance of space systems by a number of effects of material degradation by UV, radiation, AO,
mechanisms. Low velocity particles can accumulate on thermal cycling, and the impact from micrometeorites

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautic

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or debris. Substantial material degradation on HST both particulate and molecular contaminatioa Light
thermal control surfaces was observed during the in- scattering, obscuration, and throughput change caused
flight surface survey. These damaged surfaces were by contamination buildups are major reasons for the
repaired during the HST service missions. degradation of optics. In addition, many other
spacecraft systems are affected by the space
AO reacts with all polymeric materials causing environment to a certain degree.
various degrees of surface erosion. Other contributing
factors such as damage caused by radiation and orbital The materials that significantly degraded
debris increase the erosion rate. Additional provided the opportunity to study the space
impingement effect due to spacecraft orientation is also environment and material interaction. One single space
possible. With these synergistic factors, a hole on an environment element causes various degree of effect on
oxide coating can expose a non-oxide substrate to AO spacecraft systems. The synergistic effect is an
attacks. The present theory is that materials erode at a enhancement of multiple space environment elements,
faster rate by AO when simultaneously exposed to which may aggravate the contamination effect. Post
ultraviolet and electron or proton radiation. One flight materials investigations performed on SMRM,
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example indicated that the simultaneous exposure to LDEF, Space Shuttles, MIR, and HST are of great
AO and electrons[9] increased the rate of erosion of interest. Study results help spacecraft engineers in
polysulfone. One additional synergy is the low Teflon gaining the knowledge of the contamination effects
(pure fluorocarbon) reactivity with the presence of AO. enhanced by the space environment interactions.
The C-F and C-C bonds in Teflon appear inert to AO.
However, it has been found that exposure to the Most of the contaminants are self-generated by
combination of AO and UV will cause a more severe the spacecraft and its systems. By eliminating or
Teflon reaction than AO alone. reducing sources, problems can generally be
minimized. Careful selection of materials, especially
Photopolymerization is a chemical reaction of low outgassing materials, and proper system designs are
molecular contaminants in the presence of energy critical while building a spacecraft. Specific spacecraft
sources. Either the UV, high energy particles, or the requirements including mission lifetime, charging
Earth albedo creates free radicals for the reaction to restrictions, thermal conditions, optics throughput,
occur. The synergy of these energy sources enhances instrument sensitivity, and cleanliness levels must be
the photopolymerization process. Thermal control and considered. Long-term space environment conditions
optics systems are impacted most by the should be taken into account in light of systems' end-
photopolymerization result. Once polymerization is of-life (EOL) performance. After the deployment of
formed on the surfaces, the removal of the the spacecraft, additional applicable contamination
contaminants to restore systems' original performance mitigation methods[10] can be taken. Among them, de-
is difficult. contamination and operational control are most
effective in mitigating contamination effects involving
In GEO, the charge buildup on the spacecraft spacecraft operations.
attracts charged contaminants to sensitive surfaces by
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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautic
 (c)2001 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautic