Animal Production

Level-II
Based on March 2022, Version-4 Occupational
standard

Module Title: - Carrying out Husbandry Practices of

Ruminants
LG Code: AGR ANP2 M02 LO (1-3) LG (6-8)
TTLM Code: AGR ANP2 TTLM 0822v4

September, 2022
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Table of Contents
Introduction to the Module2………………………………………………………………………2
LO1-Prepare Husbandary Practices for Ruminant ........................................................... 3
Instruction sheet 1 ................................................................................................................. 3
Information Sheet1 ................................................................................................................ 4
Self-check 1 .................................................................................................................. 28
LO2- Undertake Raising Ruminant Work ...................................................................... 29
Instruction sheet 2 ............................................................................................................... 29
Information Sheet2 .............................................................................................................. 30
Self-Check 2 ................................................................................................................. 86
Operation Sheet 2 ................................................................................................................ 87
LAP TEST 2 ................................................................................................................. 96
LO3- Handle and Clean materials and equipments………………………………………….97
Instruction sheet 3 ............................................................................................................... 97
Information Sheet3 .............................................................................................................. 98
Self-Check 3 ............................................................................................................... 112
Operation Sheet 3 .............................................................................................................. 112
LAP TEST 3 ............................................................................................................... 113
Reference Books………..……………………………………………………….……..…114

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Introduction to the module:
This module covers specifies the knowledge, skill and attitude required to carryout husbandry
practice of ruminants that requires prepare husbandry practices for ruminant, undertake raising
ruminant work and handle and clean materials and equipment. Ruminant animals are animals
that chew and regurgitate their food more than once, and digest it multiple times in different
stomachs.
Ruminants have an advantage of the ability to eat and utilize low quality fibrous food that cannot
be eaten by human or non-ruminants. For easy production of ruminant or any farm animal certain
equipment’s have been designed and are used to facilitate management operation.
Animals are categorized into ruminants and non-ruminants based on some anatomical and
physiological differences.
Apart from being a source of meat as other animals, ruminant animals are the main sources of
raw materials such as wool, fur, hides and skin, milk and many others for the production of
clothing materials, leather materials (such as foot wears like shoes, belt, shawl), milk products
like yoghurt, butter, cheese, and many other products. Ruminant animals, especially bull or
camel are also used as draught animals for transportation and traction.

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LG-6 LO-1: Prepare Husbandry Practice of Ruminants

Instruction sheet-1
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics:
 Identifying and checking materials, tools and equipment
 Selecting and checking suitable PPE
 Preparing Housing type and facilities
 Using Manual handling techniques
 Providing work tasks required
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page. Specifically,
upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Identify and check materials, tools and equipment
 Select and check suitable PPE
 Prepare type of Housing and facilities
 Use Manual handling techniques
 Provide work tasks required

Learning Instructions
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Follow the instructions described below and Read the information Sheets
3. Accomplish the Self-checks
4. Perform Operation Sheets
5. Do the “LAP test”

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Information sheet-1

1.1. Identifying and checking materials, tools and equipment

Definition of Common Terminologies:
Animal: is any living thing, other than a human being, that can feel and move.
Production: - the action of manufacturing, growing, extracting etc. of things especially in large
quantities. (Oil, egg, energy)
Animal Production: - literally means the action of growing or producing animals and it’s by -
products in large quantities, ex.: Animals, eggs, Milk, Beef, and soon. In the comprehensive
explanations, the study of livestock farms and farming systems is known as animal production.

Animal husbandry:- a science as well as an art of management including scientific feeding,

breeding, housing, and health care, of common domestic animals aiming for maximizing returns.

Introduction about Ruminant Animals

Animal rearing is an age long activity that man carries out basically for food and the production
of raw materials for agro-industries. Meat or flesh, milk and eggs are primarily obtained directly
from farm animals for consumption by man. Wool, fur, hides and skin are other products from
farm animals for industrial use as raw materials.

Animals are categorized into ruminants and non-ruminants based on some anatomical and
physiological differences. Apart from being a source of meat as other animals, ruminant animals
are the main sources of raw materials such as wool, fur, hides and skin, milk and many others
for the production of clothing materials, leather materials (such as foot wears like shoes, belt,
shawl), milk products like yoghurt, butter, cheese, and many other products. Ruminant animals,
especially bull or camel are also used as draught animals for transportation and traction.
1.1.1. The Differences between Ruminant and Non-ruminant Animals

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Ruminant animals are animals that chew and regurgitate their food more than once, and digest it
multiple times in different stomachs. These animals are quadruped mammals with even toes,
hooves and chew the cud. They are herbivores with a complex stomach called a rumen. Some
examples of ruminant animals are cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo, deer, elk, giraffes and camels.
One of the most significant features of the ruminant digestive system is the presence of a
complex stomach with four compartments. They are rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
The first three compartments, the rumen, reticulum, and omasum break down plant fibers
by fermentation with the help of micro-flora. This fermentation results in volatile fatty acids such
as acetate, butyrate, and propionate. Hence, this process is called the foregut fermentation. The
forth compartment (abomasums) secretes digestive enzymes.

Fig: [Link] Four Compartments of Ruminant Stomach

Also, these animals ruminate or completely digest the food by chewing the cud. The four
processes of rumination are;
1. Regurgitation: Vomiting the cud from the stomach to the mouth
2. Re-mastication : Biting and grinding food inside the mouth
3. Re-salivation : Secretion and mixing of saliva with the food
4. Re-swallow : Taking back the food to the stomach
Non-ruminant animals are omnivores or carnivores with a single stomach compartment within
the digestive system.

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Hence, the digestive system of the non-ruminant animals is called mono-gastric. Some examples
of non-ruminant animals are human, horse, swine, fowl, dog, and rabbit. The components of the
non-ruminant digestive system are mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
and rectum.

Figure 1.2: Non Ruminant Stomach

Non-ruminant animals do not chew the cud. Also, they do not digest the plant materials such as
cellulose through fermentation.

1.1.2. Similarity of ruminant and non-ruminant animals

 Ruminant and non-ruminant animals have a complete digestive system

 The digestive system of both consists of a mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine and a rectum.
 Both eat throughout the day and constantly lose energy

Classes of Ruminant Animals

Ruminant animals are categorized into two main classes based on their body size namely,
 Large ruminant animals: - E.g. Cattle, Buffalo, Camel etc
 Small ruminant animals: - E.g. Sheep and Goat (Shoat)
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1.1.3. Economic Importance of Keeping Ruminant Animals

Ruminant animals and their products as mentioned in the introduction have tremendous
nutritional and economic values to man as stated below:
 Meat and milk of cattle, sheep, goats and other ruminants are good sources of animal
protein to man which are of better quality than plant protein.
 They serve as sources of raw materials used in industries e.g. leather goods respectively.
Goat hair is also used for making carpets, bag and ropes. Wool is a raw material for the
production of clothing for human wear.
 They serve as means of foreign exchange earnings e.g. Hide and skin
 They serve as source of income to subsistence farmers
 These animals are able to survive on fallow lands and others that are not good for arable
crop farming thereby maximizing the use of the available land resource
 They are also used as gifts or bride price which serves as family wealth
 They are sources of gainful employment.
 The manure/dung from these animals can be used as a source of organic fertilizer.
 Ruminant animals are slaughtered during festive seasons all over the world. Blood and
bones obtained from slaughtering of these animals are often recycled and processed into
blood meal, bone meal which are used as components of animal feed
 Cattle, and some other ruminants can also be used as “beast of burden”
Ruminants have an advantage of the ability to eat and utilize low quality fibrous food that cannot
be eaten by human or non-ruminants. For easy production of ruminant or any farm animal certain
equipment’s have been designed and are used to facilitate management operation. In ruminant
animals, this equipment’s appear to be common and work with the same principle. Virtually all
of these equipment’s are imported but could also be fabricated locally.

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During working any ruminant husbandry management activities the suitable materials, tools and
equipment should be identify. These identified materials, tools and equipment should also be
checked the functionality and then use properly. After identifying all the required materials
know the operation and maintenance system or check the present condition of tools improve /
maintain if necessary. Like:-
1. Clippers (Shearer):-
is essential for removing wool from sheep quickly, completely, easily and with minimum
discomfort to sheep and operator. They can be hand and machine shears. Hand shears are
recommended for flocks of 10 or less, hand machine (clippers) for flock of less than 150 and
power machine for flocks above that number.
2. Weighing scale: -
Special platform scales are required for weighing large animals, sheep and goat, these gives an
idea about their condition and wellbeing.
3. Castrator: -
Used for removing or destroying testicles, the glands that produce male germ cell. The process is
known as castration. There is several method of castration.
A. Using knife: -
It is the process of castrating animal by cutting one third of the lower end of the scrotum.
B. Electrically
C. Using Burdizzo: -
It is an instrument used to destroy the cord leading to the testicles. Here the cord is destroyed,
leaving the testicle gradually dry up.
4. Dockers
Used for removing tail from the body of the animal. The process is known as Docking. It is
mainly applied in the case of sheep with long tail such as Awassi breed for the ease of mating
and fattening purpose.

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There is several equipment’s used for docking:-
A. Using knife:-Should be confined to lambs that are not more than a week or 10 days
Old as older lambs can easily bleed to death.
B. Using hot iron:-Is much lower than knife method, but it is much safer as it sterilizes
The wound, sear and prevent bleeding.
C. Rubber band method:-Is known as blood less method of docking. Here there is rubber
Band which will be fitted around the tail with the elastrator, then it will prevent
circulation and finally the tail will dry off.
5. Dip Vat (Tank):-
Is essential to eradicate ecto-parasites (ticks and lice etc) and to remove waste materials and
dung from the fleece prior to shearing. Mainly sheep, to some extent cattle, other livestock are
rarely dipped. They are usually made of concrete, at the ground level or slightly raised. Can be
hand bath method or swim bath.
6. Vaccinating gun/Syringe/:-
Important for injecting the animal with vaccine. The process is known as Vaccination.
Vaccination stimulates the production of antibodies. Vaccine produces immunity or protection
against a given disease. In order to avoid contamination use separate needles /Syringe/for
injecting the animal and for dissolving the vaccine. Follow instructions on the package.

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1.1.4. The following equipment are used in ruminant animal production
Equipment Advantage Sample Picture
Weighing This is used to know or measure the weight of
scale the animals, feed and materials

Tractor Compact tractors are ideal for heavy duty

landscaping and tasks such as digging,
hauling or plowing in large gardens, fields
and pastures. Subcompact tractors have the
power and versatility to perform a wide range
of horticultural tasks, including mowing,
quilting and moving machining gardens.
Strip Cup A strip cup is a very useful tool and a must for
all dairy farmers. Milking the first few strips
into a strip cup will show if there are any
lumps present indicating beginning or
advanced mastitis, which should be controlled
urgently.
Thermomet A thermometer is very useful to check body
er temperature. It is an essential tool for the
serious livestock farmer to help her or him in
judging animal health.
Boling gun It is used for oral administration of solid
drugs.

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Burdizzo This is used to castrate unwanted males on the
Castrator farm. Castration is the act of making a male
animal impotent by open or a surgical
removal of its scrotum.

Elastrator It is a bloodless castrator that use the ring

method

Drenching This is made of a long tube or rubber hose

Gun long enough to enter the mouth of ruminants.
It is used for oral administration of liquid
drug especially during de-worming exercise
Tattoo The needles pierce the skin to make clear and
pliers readable marks. Black tattoo ink is used for
normal use and green tattoo ink for animals
with a black or darkly pigmented skin.

Hooves Used to trim or remove animal hooves.

Trimmer

Dehorning Used to cut the horn of animal

saw
Dehorning Used to cut the horn of animal
wire

Crush Used to restrain animal

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Hammer A hammer is a simple tool designed to
manually drive nails, brads, and other
fasteners into softer materials, such as wood
or drywall. A hammer has a head and a
handle, or shaft.
Ear tags Ear tag is a plastic or metal object used for
identification of domestic livestock and other
animals. Flexible plastic tags are probably
the most widely used for animal
identification, as they are readable from a
distance.
Ear tag Used for fixing ear tag to the ear of the animal
applicator for identification.

Bull The cattle nose lead cow ring holder is a bull

holder/ head fixation device. It can be used to spread
nose lead the attention of cattle by simply clamping it
on both sides of the nasal septum.

Branding A branding iron is used for branding,

iron pressing a heated metal shape against an
object or livestock with the intention of
leaving an identifying mark.

Shovel A shovel is a tool for digging, lifting, and

moving bulk materials, such as soil, coal,
gravel, snow, sand, or ore. Most shovels are
hand tools consisting of a broad blade fixed to
a medium-length handle. Shovel blades are

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 usually made of sheet steel or hard plastics
and are very strong.
Wheel A wheelbarrow is a small hand-propelled
barrow vehicle, usually with just one wheel, designed
to distribute the weight of its load between the
wheel and the operator, so enabling the
convenient carriage of heavier and bulkier
loads than would be possible were the weight
carried entirely by the operator.
Mineral Used to store minerals
boxes

Waterier Is a man-made or natural receptacle intended

to provide drinking water to animals,
livestock on farms or ranches or wild animals
Feeding Is a man-made intended to provide feed for
trough animals

Milking Used as storage or continuer of milk.

pails/can

Fork Used to collect waste

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Nipple For feeding young cattle with milk replacers
Feeders

Spade Used to digging and loosing soil

Automatic Used to provide vaccine drugs for large

Syringes numbers of animas.

1.2. Selecting and checking suitable PPE

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) estimates that, every day, 243
agricultural workers suffer a serious lost-work time injury. Five percent of these injuries result in
permanent impairment. Many farm and ranch injuries could be prevented or their impacts
reduced if farmers and ranchers wore proper personal protective equipment (PPE).

1.2.1. Personal protective equipment (PPE)

Refers to any specialized equipment or clothing worn by farmers and ranchers for protection
against health and safety hazards. PPE does not prevent accidents, but it does prevent or reduce
injury and even fatalities when used. PPE is designed to protect many parts of the body; eyes,
head, face, hands, feet, ears, or torso. Some examples of PPE used in husbandry of ruminant
animal are Overalls, Gown, Gloves, Safety goggles, Plastic boots/shoes, Sunhats/helmets, Nose
protector/respirator etc.

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To provide adequate protection, the protective clothing and equipment must always be:

 appropriate for the particular hazards

 maintained in good condition
 properly stored when not in use, to prevent damage or loss
 Kept clean, fully functional, and sanitary.

1.2.2. Basic Types of PPE

The strict controls will not necessarily eliminate all the risks associated with most job tasks and
this is where the need for PPE must be evaluated. A hazard assessment can help identify which
specialized PPE will be required. However, the following basic types of PPE should be made
available in worksite.

1. Eye and face protection

To provide protection during exposure to hazards like flying particles, metal or sparks, liquid
chemicals, caustic liquids, light radiation, i.e., welding, lasers. Eye protection should always be
worn where there is potential for injury to the eyes or face from small particles, toxic chemicals,
flying particles, large objects, thermal or radiation hazards, and lasers. According to the types
and extent of hazards, different PPE should be worn. These must always remain clean and free of
contaminates. Goggles offer good protection against front and side impact. Unvented or indirect
vented chemical splash goggles provide protection from chemical vapors and liquids.

Figer 1.4: Goggle

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 2. Hearing protection:

To provide protection during exposure to high pitch and loud noise levels. Exposure to high
levels of noise may result in hearing loss. PPE should be worn when the noise level is 85
decibels or greater averaged over an eight-hour period. Most hearing protection devices have a
noise reduction rating (NRR) that indicates the amount of protection provided. In general, look
for NRR of 25 or greater.

3. Head protection
To provide protection to potential hazards such as falling objects, striking against low-hanging
objects, electrical hazards, or chemical application.

Figer 1.5. Helmets

4. Hand protection:

To provide protection during exposure to potential hazards such as sharp objects, abrasive
surfaces, temperature extremes, and chemical contact. Selecting proper gloves is very important
since the hands are used to handle hazardous materials. In addition, traumatic injuries such as
cuts, sprains, and punctures may occur. With the wide range of hazards, there are also a wide
range of gloves that may be used as PPE. Chemical-resistant gloves are always recommended
when working with pesticides and chemicals. Chemical-resistant aprons add protection from
body absorption of hazardous chemicals.

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 Figer 1.6. Gloves

5. Respiratory Protection
Respirators are used to prevent the exposure to air contaminated with Harmful dusts, fumes,
mists, gases, smokes, sprays, or vapors. All respirator usage, including disposable respirators, air
purifying respirators, and air-supplied respirators, require annual fit testing and testing and
training prior to use.

Figer 1.7. Air Purifying

6. Foot protection
To provide protection for situations with the potential of injuries such as falling or rolling
objects, chemical or liquid exposures, piercing objects, and where feet are exposed to electrical
hazards.

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 Figer. 1.8. Boots

7. Body Protection
PPE includes safety vests and suits and should be used for tasks that can cause body injuries from
extreme temperatures, flames and sparks, toxic chemicals, insect bites and radiation. Ensure that they
are clean and free from cuts and burns. Always get a good fit to ensure full body protection.

Figer [Link] all

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1.3. Preparing types of housing and facilities

Housing is an integral part of management; hence it is of great importance in ruminant animal

production. Housing must be well planned with adequate ventilation and sanitation facilities to
enhance production of animals. However the housing type depends on the system of production.
The basic requirement of good animal housing is that it should alter or modify the environment
for the benefit of animals and also protect them from predation and theft.

Animal housing should buffer the animal from climate extremes to reduce stress allowing
optimal animal performance in terms of growth, health and reproduction. The main climatic
factors from which protection is needed are high and low ambient temperatures, environmental
humidity, solar radiation, wind and rain. Additionally, houses are important in protecting feed
and equipment from damage, in saving labor, and in aiding effective management, including
breeding. Sheep and goat housing should meet animal requirements and serve a producer’s needs
at the lowest possible cost.

1.3.1. Housing Requirement for Cattle Production

To start a cattle production venture, adequate consideration must be given to how the animals
will be housed for better management in a better environment and to prevent theft.
The following points must be considered while designing a house for cattle:
 The building must be sited on a well-drained and not undulating floor,
 There must be proper and adequate ventilation and illumination in the building,
 There must be no draught or condensation in the building,
 The building must have well positioned feeders and drinkers
 The building must be easily accessible,
 The surrounding must not be bushy to prevent predators and disease vectors.

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 1.3.2. Housing for Intensive System of Cattle Production
Generally, cattle are housed in a well shaded open-sided structure called barns or cattle shed.
This type of housing is common in the intensive type of production. The size of the barn depends
on the number of cattle expected to be housed. An average of 2 to 3 m2 is allowed per adult
cattle. The house must be well equipped with feeders and water troughs with adequate space for
farm operations to take place.
The floor of the barn is always concrete with rough surface to prevent skidding or falling of the
cattle. The construction of the house is such that it has feeding passage with well fitted mangers
around the standing area. Drains must be constructed for easy washing, cleaning and evacuation
of dung and other waste materials. Individual pens are also used in this system of production
especially for calves, breeding bulls and nursing cows.

Fig. 1.10. Cattle Barn

1.3.3. Housing for Extensive System of Cattle Production

There is no standard for the housing type for this system of production. One of them is cattle
kraal (Fig. 4) which is an enclosure in an open field or land where the animals are tethered (or
tied to pegs already installed). The walls of the kraal could be made of planks or wood, bamboo,
mud blocks or stones. The animals are always housed here after the day’s grazing.

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 Fig.[Link]: Cattle Kraal

1.3.4. Housing and Housing Requirements for Sheep and Goat Production
In your previous study, the housing need for ruminant or any farm animal was established as
one, for better management in a good environment and two, for safe keeping of the animals and
other assets. The same principle of housing applies to sheep and goat production. However in
the tropics, especially in Nigeria and other Sub-Saharan region, housing for sheep and goats is
not given prominence as in the temperate region or as even done for cattle. The main
consideration for housing for sheep and goat in this part of the world is to provide sufficient
protection from unfavorable weather. The essential consideration is that the environment must be
cool, dry and free from draught with access to pasture or outside all the time. Small ruminant
housing need to:
 Be strong enough to last a long time;
 Be large enough for the number of animals to be accommodated comfortably.
 Allow freedom of movement for all animals;
 Be well-drained or have well-maintained dry bedding and easy to clean. Sheep and goats
do not tolerate mud well; therefore, yards and shelters should be built only on well-
drained ground;
 Receive morning sunshine evenly;
 Be well lighted and ventilated. Air circulation, dust levels, temperature, relative air
humidity and gas concentrations should be at levels that will not harm animals;

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 1.3.5. Traditional methods of housing

Traditional sheep and goat housing is made of varying designs and construction materials
depending upon local custom and availability. Some main types of housing include:

 Housing at one corner of the main family house;

 An overhang attached to the roof of a house;
 Open yards with no roof (Figure 1);
 In a basement under the family home such as seen in north Shoa
 Separate houses of thatched roofs (Figure 5).
 Lambs and kids are, in some areas, kept in a dome made of bamboo or other locally
available material (Figure 5).

This prevents the young from straying or mixing with the flock, except during suckling. The
dome is usually kept outdoors during the day if there is no rain.

1.3.6. Intensive/Semi-intensive System of Housing

In this type of housing, the entire house is well roofed with windows to protect the animals
during the winter season in the temperate region. In summer they have access to pasture. This
type of production require a lot of sophistications in the housing construction and very
expensive. It is often associated with high level of production in terms of meat, wool or fleece.
Such housing is not profitable in this part of the world. Some government farms or rich
individuals do construct a good but simple housing for sheep and goat in Nigeria for semi-
intensive production.

Hay racks are provided in some for feeding the animals when they are turned in from the pasture
at the end of the day. The roof of the house should not be too high to prevent been blown off by
wind nor too short to prevent proper illumination and draught. It is often made of asbestos
material or corrugated iron sheet. If the latter is used, the wall must not be too high to allow
illumination and ventilation. It could also be made of wood, mud or blocks depending on
availability of fund.
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The floor must be sloppy for proper drainage and could be made of concrete or rammed. The
slats could be of bamboo or wood. What is used is a function of the availability of fund. The
house could be divided into pens with drinkers and feeders for concentrate feeding.

Fig. 1.11. Goat Shed with Slatted Floor

Space requirement: In any type of housing for sheep and goats, adequate floor space must be
provided. Recommended space requirements vary depending on animal size and the type of
floor used (Table 1). Adjustments may also be made depending on local climate and flock size.
Additionally for animals managed totally indoors, an open yard for exercising is required. Sheep
and goats should not be crowded and must have room to lie down. Overcrowding promotes ill
health.
Table1.3.6.1. Recommended floor space for sheep and goats

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1.4. Using manual handling techniques of materials

Manual handling is any task that requires you to push, pull, lift, carry, move, hold or lower any
object, person or animal. Manual tasks include tasks that have repetitive actions, sustained
postures and may involve exposure to vibration.
Manual handling results in 20% of all workers compensation claims at UNSW. The types of
injuries related to manual handling include:-
 Muscle injuries
 Nerve injuries
 Bone injuries
 Injuries to the ligaments or tendons
 Injuries from falling objects

1.4.1. Manual handling aids

Manual handling aids reduce the physical effort needed to lift and move objects, making it safer.
When providing manual handling aids for the workplace it is important to ensure that:-
 The right equipment is selected for the task
 That all staff are trained in the correct use of the equipment
 The equipment is visually inspected for defects before use
 The wheels are suitable for the floor surface
 The wheels move freely
 The handle grips are comfortable and are in good order
 The handle height is between the waist and shoulder
 If they have brakes do they work?
 The aids are regularly inspected and maintained to ensure it is good working order
 He load secured before moving

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Using correct manual handling techniques during loading and unloading materials helps to
minimize damage of:-

 Workers

 Other persons

 Materials and

 Vehicles

1.5. Providing work tasks required

Occupational health and safety (OHS), also commonly referred to as occupational health,
or workplace health and safety (WHS), is a multidisciplinary field concerned with
the safety, health, and welfare of people at work. The goals of occupational health and safety
programs include to foster a safe and healthy work environment. It may also protect co-workers,
family members, employers, customers, and many others who might be affected by the
workplace environment. In the United States, the term occupational health and safety is referred
to as occupational health and occupational and non-occupational safety and includes safety for
activities outside of work. Agriculture workers are often at risk of work-related injuries, lung
disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin disease, as well as certain cancers related to chemical
use or prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms, injuries frequently involve the use
of agricultural machinery.

The most common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in the United States and other developed
countries is tractor rollovers, which can be prevented by the use of roll over protection
structures which limit the risk of injury in case a tractor rolls over. Pesticides and other
chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to
pesticides may experience illnesses or birth defects.

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 1.5.1. OHS requirements

During performing any agricultural or animal husbandry related works, workers should be
fulfilling the following OHS requirements:

 Using of relevant protective clothing and equipment,

 Use of tooling and equipment,
 Workplace environment and safety handling of material, First aid kit
 Hazard control and hazardous materials and substances.
 Using gowns, rubber boots of appropriate size, goggles, gloves etc,
 Following OHS procedure designated for the task
 Checking and fulfilling required safety devices before starting operation
Apply safe operating procedures regarding to; Electrical safety, Machinery movement and
operation, and Working in proximity to others and site visitors.
Apply emergency procedures on:
 Emergency shutdown and stopping of equipment,
 First aid application and site evacuation. Electrical safety,
 Machinery movement and operation,
 Working in proximity to others and site visitors.

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Self-check-1

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below.
1. Why you use different materials, tools and equipment in animal production? (2pts)
2. If you are ordered to perform animal identification write the materials that you use?
(3pts)
3. What do you do before using materials, tools and equipments? (2pts)
4. What is the advantage of house for the animal?
5. Discus the ideal site for housing?
6. What is manual handling? (2pts)
7. Write the types of injuries related to manual handling (3pts)
8. Why agricultural works have more injury? (2pts)
9. Write the advantages of PPE? (2pts)
10. Discus about the type of PPE with examples? (3pts)
11. What is OHS? (2pts)
12. Discus about OHS requirements in work place? (2pts)
13. What will happen if the worker doesn’t follow OHS requirements and supervisor
instructions? (3pts)

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LG-7
LO-2: Undertake Raising Ruminant Work

Instruction sheet-2
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following content coverage and topics:
 Providing instructions and directions
 Undertaking husbandry practices
 Observing enterprise policies and procedures
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Provide instructions and directions
 Undertake husbandry practices
 Observe enterprise policies and procedures

Learning Instructions 2
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Follow the instructions described below.
3. Read the information written in the information Sheets
4. Accomplish the Self-checks
5. Perform Operation Sheets
6. Do the “LAP test”

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Information sheet-2

2.1. Providing instructions and directions

Any employee who works in industry which raises ruminant or any farmer who raise his own
stock must follow the following instruction and direction:-
 Enterprise policies and procedures
 Manufacturer instructions
 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
 OHS standards and procedures
 Specifications for tools, equipment and materials
 Standard Operating Procedures (SOP)
 Verbal directions from manager or supervisor
 Work instructions and standards
 Work notes.
While, instructions are defined as:

 The act or practice of instructing or teaching; education.

 Knowledge or information imparted.
 An item of such knowledge or information.
 Usually, instructions, orders or directions: The instructions are on the back of the box.
 The act of furnishing with authoritative directions.
 Computers. A command given to a computer to carry out a particular operation.
Both, directions and instruction act as guidelines. They often appear as a series of steps or stages
one must complete one after the other. However, they do differ in some manners. The main
difference between the two is the fact that instructions are mainly associated with instruction or
teaching. Hence, instructions are given to teach somebody something.

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For example: instructions for milking, instructions for honey harvesting , instructions for
castration, instructions for completing a project, instructions for writing a report, etc. Directions,
on the other hand, are in the form of guidelines. They are mainly utilized while guiding
somebody into a particular direction. Directions are mainly associated with driving directions,
which aim to get somebody from point A to point B. However, they can be associated with
anything that may lead somebody somewhere, especially in a particular direction. For example:
Directions for setting up a federal program at a state level, directions for a successful career, a
director directs players on stage, the managing director directs the company onto a good position
in the market, the company is headed in a good direction, a musician directs the orchestra, etc.

2.2. Undertaking husbandry practices for ruminants

2.2.1. Applying ruminants Restraining techniques

In order to successfully manage animals, especially when that management requires direct
contact, it is necessary to understand the responses of animals to frightening or disturbing
situations. Animals will often have difficulties in coping with contact from humans and their
responses will frequently be similar to a dangerous predator. Previous experience of a situation
therefore plays an extremely important role in determining what the effect of human contact on
an animal will be, and, as already demonstrated on laboratory, companion and farm animals, an
animal will be substantially easier to restrain if it has previously been treated well and handled
carefully.

2.2.2. Restraining:

Is the restriction of an animal’s activity by verbal, physical and chemical means so that the
animal is prevented from injuring itself or others. Animals are restrained and handled by humans
for many reasons, including for medicinal administrations and treatments, examinations, health
checks, grooming, castration, hove trimming, docking, bathing etc.

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The main objective of restraint is to handle an animal in such a way that a procedure can be done
without injuring the animal and without causing any injury to the humans involved in the
procedure. Some animals are aggressive while some others are docile or calm when trying to be
handled them. Proper follow up of procedures in approaching and handling animals would
enable one to avoid unnecessary danger.
When approaching the animal, follow the instructions below.
 Approach it as gently as possible.
 Try to not have a stick in hand as it causes fear and excitement
 You may use a stick with extremely nervous animals.
 Approach it from the rear side at an angle of approximately 450.
 Approaching should be accompanied by a gentle pat on the back of the cattle while at the
same time talking to the animal.
 Be confident while at the same time firm and careful with the animal
After approaching the animal, you have to restrain it strongly to perform any thing /operation on
its body correctly and safely.
Importance/ purpose/of restraining
Restraining is performed for:
 The safety of the animal
 The safety of the operator
 For fast and accurate performing of certain painful operations and other minor operations.
 Labor saving

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 2.2.3. There are three types of restraining:-

1. Moral /Psychological / verbal restraining: -

Is the least restrictive type of restraint and would be used in combination with other types of
restraint. It is the simplest type of restraining and involves talking to the animal. Sometimes it
might need to talk to the animals to perform certain activities. In fact, it requires some training of
the animal.

2. Chemical restraining-
Chemical restraint can be extremely useful as an aid to diagnostic or minor surgical procedures
or in the control of animals which have a potentially dangerous temperament. Selection of
appropriate combinations and doses of drugs to provide ideal restraint for the spectrum of
patients and procedures encountered in clinical practice requires experience of a wide range of
agents and their effects in different circumstances. A suitable combination for a particular
individual may be completely ineffective in another animal of similar breed and size, but
different temperament, undergoing the same procedure. The administration of chemical restraint
is therefore a much more difficult skill to acquire than that of general anaesthesia. By the same
token it can be one of the more satisfying areas of veterinary anaesthesia.

3. Physical restraining:
Is the primary method of restraining an animal and involves using the handler’s hands or body
along with muzzles, ropes, crush, chute or other equipment. It is commonly used type of
restraining for some daily routine activities.
The type of restraining to be used on the animal varies according to:
 Species of animals such as sheep, goat, horse, cattle etc.
 Age of the animal. E.g. Cow and calf
 Sex of the animal. E.g. Cow and Ox /Bull
 Breed - e.g. Holstein cows are docile while zebus are wild
 Individual character of the animal
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Physical Restraining Operation can be classified into two:
1. Mass operations:
Vaccination, separating animals, spraying and others activities could be performed by mass.
Such operation can be carried with the help of crush. If individually done, it would be time
consuming and very difficult.
2. Individual operations:
Diagnosis and treatment of sick animals, P.D test, hoof trimming, castration, dehorning, branding
and others are carried with the help of chute by restraining the individual animal. Where chute is
not available different techniques of restraining can be applied. Some of the techniques would
be mentioned below.
Haltering: is the first and most important physical restraining method. Haltering animals is of
practical importance in handling and guiding an animal to the place where we want to take it.
Method to make halter: Follow the procedures listed below to make temporary halters.
 Take 2m length rope
 Make a small loop at one end
 Make another loop at a distance of 15-20 cm
 Pass the standing part of the rope through the first loop.
 Again pass the standing part through the second loop.
 Place the noseband on the bridge of the nose and pass the headstall over the poll and
place behind the ears.
 Then tighten the loops and halter.
Note. When haltering an animal, the proper position is that the headstall should be behind the
ears with the lead shank pulling the nose lead tightened from under the jaw.

Restraint That Divert Attention:-

A- Ear twitch:

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This method can be applied by hand or with the aid of a rope. The squeezing of the ear causes
pain and the animal diverts its attention to its ear only. Therefore, other operation can be carried
on other parts of the animal body.
B- Nose lead .
The animal can be restrained by grasping its nasal septum with the use of material called Nose
lead. As a result it causes pain around its nose. This also can be done by using our fingers.
Therefore, other operation can be carried on other parts of the animal body.
C- Tail restraint:
This method is accomplished by grasping the tail at its base with one or both hand and bending
the tail to the back to cause pain. Then the animal will be forced to divert it attention around its
tail. Therefore, other operation can be carried on other parts of the animal body.
Calf Restraining:
For every young calves the following methods can-be applied.
A- Put the calf between your knees
B- Put the thumb inside the mouth in the open space b/n the incisor and the premolar. Be very
careful not to put your fingers between the teeth of the animal.
2.2.4. Casting ; It means placing the animal on the ground.
Time of Casting:
All animals that are to be casted should be fasted at least for 12 hours. If the animal is not fasted,
there is a possibility that the intestine would burst when the animal hits or dash the ground
hardly. It is advisable not to cast a lactating cow unless it is extremely necessary. When it is
necessary, lactating cows should be casted after milking not before milking. Casting the cow
before milking would excite the animal and causes decrease in milk production. In casting an
animal it is usually good to do it in the morning.
A. Reuff Method: -
When casting the animal using this method. The loop on the neck should be tied with a bowline
or the non-slip knot. The rope is then passed around the heart girth, passed back and looped
around the animal just anterior to the hipbones. A steady pull of the free end will cause the
animal to collapse slowly.
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 Fig2.1.A. Reuff method of casting

B. Cris-cross method of casting:

In this method, the middle of the rope is placed over the neck and the ends passed between the
front legs. They cross under the brisket and are then passed upward and crossed over the back
and then down wards past the flank and between the hind legs. Traction on the free ends will
cause the animal to collapse. The ropes must cross under the briskest (Not on the throat) or the
animal will not go down.

Fig2.2. B. Cris-Cross method of casting

Casting Calves
Calves can also be cast using a rope but this is a rather slow and inefficient method for handling
small- animal since they can be easily cast by hand without rope.
To Cast a calf:
 Stand close by the side of the calf with your face to the side of the calf and try to reach
the inner two legs of the calf i.e. the front leg and hind leg close to you.
 Bend over the back of the calf and try to reach the legs mentioned and hold firmly.
 Pull the leg out ward while at the same time supporting the calf with your knee.
 Place the calf on the ground.

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  Place one of your knee on the shoulder and the other knee on the hindquarter and press
firmly so that the calf will not arise. Never get loose.
 If tie is required, take 2 meters long rope; fold the rope into two equal parts. A loop is
formed at the center of the rope.
 Place the center of the rope between the hind legs. The two ends of the rope are brought
on the outside of the two legs and passed through loop. One on the outside of each leg,
the end is again passed through the front leg and tied around the neck of the calf.

2.2.5. Restrain using cattle crush

A cattle crush or squeeze chute is a strongly built stall for holding cattle safely. It is used to
enable easy access for examination of different size animals. Crushes are used to minimize the
risk of injury. There are different types of cattle crushes with different features. Typical features
of the cattle crush include: push – pull lever, dual locking system, side gates (with slam gate
latches), needle gates, inspection gates, bottom gate, and walk through vet compartment.

To restrain cattle in a cattle crush, you have to:

1. Direct cattle into the open crush. Use the principles of the flight zone. Two people might
be needed, one who makes the cow move and one who is ready to close the crush. But
don't have too many people around the crush, as it might make the cow nervous.
2. Close the dual head gate on the cow’s neck in front of the shoulders. This is done by
moving the lever on the side of the crush down.
3. Close the rear sliding gate for optimal animal control. By using your foot to manoeuvre
the gate you avoid being in reach of the cattle, should it kick in defense.
4. Operate the side squeeze in order to position the cattle squeezing the animal in the crush
actually calms it down and does not hurt it.
5. A head holder can be applied for better control.

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 Fig2.3. Cattle restrained in the crush. The head will be outside the gate.

2.2.6. Providing feed and water

In order to get the most out of livestock you must always give animals enough good feed and
clean water. Good feed is high in nutrients and provides everything that the body needs in order
for the animal to grow and reproduce.
Ruminants have the ability to consume and digest coarse, fibrous feedstuffs that form the major
feed base in Ethiopia. The digestive tract of ruminants is unique in structure and function,
allowing them to digest the fibrous feeds they consume.

The following are some of the unique features of the ruminant digestive tract compared to
monogastric animals (animals with a simple stomach such as swine, dogs, cats, human, etc.):

 Ability to digest carbohydrate sources not digested by monogastric.

 Ability to use sources of non-protein nitrogen (NPN) to satisfy part of their protein needs.
 Large stomach volume to accommodate and utilize bulky feeds.
 Mouth and teeth well adapted for prehension and grinding of fibrous feeds.
 Well-developed salivary glands for production of large volumes of saliva.

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What an animal needs in its feed?
 All animals and humans need the nutrients called carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and
minerals in their feed in order to stay healthy, have energy, grow and reproduce.
 Carbohydrates such as sugar and starch are burned in the body to give energy. Fats are
broken down in the body to give carbohydrates and water. Animals and humans store
carbohydrates as fat in the body.
 Protein forms the building blocks of the body. It is needed to produce the muscles.
 Minerals such as copper and calcium are needed to form the bones, brain, nerves and blood.
Plants take in minerals from the soil (A silo is a structure or container used to store silage).
 Vitamins are essential for a healthy body and all plants contain several vitamins. Lack of
essential vitamins can cause problems such as blindness and swollen joints.
 If animals do not get enough of any nutrient they will become less productive and may die
from a condition called a deficiency disease.
 If an animal does not get enough fat, protein or carbohydrate in its feed it cannot grow
properly, loses weight, milk production drops and production of young is affected.
 Lack of minerals results in such problems as failing to come into heat, poor bone growth and
loss of hair or wool.

[Link]. Types of feed

A good, rich feed contains more energy than a poor feed and a cow gets as much energy from 1
kg of sorghum, barley or corn as it does from 6 kg of grass. Some feeds are very poor and of
little use to the animal. For example, old straw contains little energy, most of it cannot be
digested and passes out of the animal as dung.

 Roughage is bulky and low in energy-giving carbohydrates. Examples of such feeds are
grasses, maize stalks and sweet potato tops.
 Concentrates are feeds which are rich in proteins and carbohydrates, e.g. grain crops.
The large stomach of the ruminant with its four compartments means that it can live

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 mainly on roughage. Animals with single stomachs need more concentrates than
ruminants.
 Rations ; A daily ration is the amount of feed an animal needs every day. A good ration
will contain all of the nutrients. Some nutrients are found in large amounts in some
plants:

Nutrient Plants

Carbohydrate maize, sorghum, wheat, oats, rice, grass

Protein Lucerne (alfalfa), clovers, beans, grass

Fats cotton seed, sunflower seeds, grass, groundnuts

An example of a good ration which can be given to animals not on pasture is 3 parts of maize,
part sunflowers and 1 part unshelled groundnuts. The ration is fed at the rate of 2 - 3% of body
weight each day. Green growing grass contains all the nutrients but in the dry season grass
contains little protein and vitamins. It is necessary to give additional feeds at this time in order
to prevent weight loss, maintain high milk production, growth and reproduction. It may also
become necessary to give minerals to the animal.
[Link]. Feed for the dry season
In the dry season grass becomes scarce and is low in nutrients. When grass is plentiful in the wet
growing season you can cut grass, and store it until it is needed in the dry season. The grass can
be kept as hay or silage.
 Hay is dried grasses. The best hay is prepared from young grasses. Cut the grass and
leave it to dry in the sun for several days turning it over to make sure it is completely dry
when it can be stored until needed. Do not try to make hay in the rainy season.
 Silage is grass or other plants which are cut while green and stored without air.
 Fodder trees
In some communities’ people traditionally cut tree branches to feed their animals. We now know
that some trees are better than others for feed.

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The best trees are leguminous trees (Leucaena).The leaves and branches of the trees can be cut
through the year and used as animal feed.

Using these trees for feed is beneficial because:

 The leaves of the trees provide good feed for animals all through the year.
 The rotting leaves provide mineral rich mulch (natural fertilizer) for other crops.
 The trees provide fuel wood, timber and shelter from the wind.
 The trees stop soil erosion and improve the fertility of the soil. To know more, ask your
agriculture officer or veterinarian about using fodder trees.

 Supplementary feeds

Supplementary feeds are given when the grass is poor and dry or when an animal is pregnant,
giving milk or is a working animal. The best supplementary feed is cake. The cheapest of which
is the waste material from the processing of coconuts, groundnuts, cottonseed and palm oil. You
can use whatever is available locally.

 Water

Animals need plenty of fresh clean water every day. Always give water before feeding animals
and allow them to drink at least three times a day. Ruminants on pastures can be watered every 2
- 3 days. Do not allow animals to stand in the water at the drinking place. This can cause disease
to spread. Water needs will vary according to the feed they eat and the weather. A pinch of salt
can be added to the drinking water to provide minerals.
 Points to remember
Take care not to spread disease through feed and water. Keep water and feed troughs clean and
do not allow animals to eat old or musty feed. Change feeds slowly. Take special care when
introducing fresh green feed so that bloat is avoided.

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Several methods of feeding animals have been developed such as the following:
 Feeding urea-treated straw: Straw is a low nutrient feed for ruminants but if it is wetted
with urea and covered for a week it becomes more nutritious.
 Molasses-urea-mineral blocks: Blocks made of molasses, mineral salts and urea are a good
supplement for ruminants which lick the block and take in the nutrients.

2.2.7. Preventing and treating of bloating problems

Bloat is a form of indigestion marked by excessive accumulation of gas in the rumen.

Immediately after cattle consume a meal, the digestive process creates gases in the rumen. Most
of the gases are eliminated by eructation (belching). Any interruption of this normal gas
elimination results in gas accumulation or bloat.
Bloat can be caused by:
 A condition secondary to acidosis indigestion
 Certain proteins in forage
 The amount, rate of intake, and coarseness of the roughage
 Rate of digestion of grains as a result of processing (grinding too fine)
 Host-parasite reaction following grub treatment choking
 Enlargement of the lymph nodes between the lungs, which can compress the esophagus
or interfere with the function of the vagus nerve

Signs of Bloat

 Animal stops grazing and is reluctant to walk

 The left side of abdomen is distended
 The animal strains to urinate and defecate
 Rapid breathing — mouth may be open with tongue protruding
 Staggering

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 Fig.2.4: Staggering; a sign of bloat in a cow Figure 6. Bloated calf, viewing the calf
from the rear, left side distended indicating bloat

2.2.8. Prevention of Bloat

 Pasture management:

Legumes should be introduced into the diet gradually over several days. Avoid cows gorging on
new pastures by feeding them on other feeds before letting them out to graze. Silage, hay or
more mature pasture can be used to reduce the cow's appetite. Initially, cows should only be
allowed access to the pasture for short periods (one hour or so) and monitored closely during
grazing and immediately after removal. Cutting and wilting the pasture for 2 - 3 hours prior to
feeding reduces the risk of bloat.

 Preventative medication:
 Detergents and anti-foaming agents can be drenched prior to grazing.
 Treatment:

A sharp knife can be used to puncture the rumen on the left side of the animal (at the farm level
as an emergency). Puncturing the rumen with the standard trocar and cannula is a quickest way
to release the gas which cannot be expelled with a stomach tube. The trocar is used to puncture
while the cannula is left in place to release the gas.

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 Fig2.5. Insertion point for needle or trocar fitted with a cannula.

Dotted triangle is the left paralumbar fossa where “hollow “of the flank is found

Fig2.6. Trocar (bottom) and cannula

2.2.9. Mating animals

 Heat detection
Estrus or “heat” is a period during the reproductive cycle when female animals become sexually
receptive, signaling they are ready for mating. In most cases, this can also be referred to as
“standing heat” because the female will stand to be mated by the male.

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Heat detection is an extremely important exercise as a missed heat translates into a wasted 21
days while efficient heat detection makes it possible to serve the animal at the right time. The
average heat interval is 21 days with a range of 18 to 24 days. Duration of heat is 24 to 36 hours
in exotic and crossbred cows.

 Signs of heat in ruminants

Heat or oestrus is the period when the female will accept the male and mate. There are signs
which mark oestrus in all ruminants. Recognizing when the female is on heat means you will
know when to put her with the male or use artificial insemination. The best time to look for signs
that the female is in heat is early morning or in the evening. Take care not to disturb the animals
but just watch the animals for the signs. Ruminants can be kept on pasture or they may be stabled
or tied up for most of the time. It is therefore necessary to consider this when looking for signs of
heat:

 Signs of Heat in Free Animals (At Pasture):

 Most females in heat will allow other animals to mount them.

 Cows in heat will mount one another, from the rear or from the front. However, the cow on
top may not be on heat.
 The vulva becomes swollen and the area around the tail becomes wet and dirty.
 If cows sniff each other’s' vulva and urine they may both come into heat.
 Cows can be coming into heat if they stand resting the chin on the back of another or are seen
to lick or gently butt each other.
 Restlessness and calling loudly can also mean the female is coming into heat. Goats in
particular become very noisy.

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  Signs of Heat in the stabled or tied animal:
The animals should be allowed out twice a day when they can be watched for signs of heat. If the
female is not allowed out then the following will show that she is in heat:

 Swollen vulva.
 The animal is active, there is a loss of appetite and she calls loudly.
 In milking animals the amount of milk produced suddenly drops.
 A jelly-like mucous can be found on the floor with the dung.
 You will need to be able to recognize the differences between signs of heat and signs of
ill health in the animal which is tied up.
Several methods are used to detect heat. The most commonly used by farmers are behavioral
signs and physical changes.

Fig.2.7. behavioral signs of heat in cows

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When do animals come into heat for the first time?
 Animals come into heat when they reach puberty. This occurs at different ages in the
different ruminants:
 Well-fed cows and buffalo come into first heat at 10 - 20 months of age.
 Sheep and goats come into first heat between 6 - 12 months of age.
How long does heat last?
 The duration of heat is very short.
 In cows and buffalo, it lasts for less than a day.
 In goats heat lasts for 1 - 3 days.
 In sheep heat lasts for 1 - 2 days.
A healthy animal which was not mounted by a male or given artificial insemination will come
back into heat.
Cattle and buffalo cows will come into heat after 3 weeks (give or take a day or two), and female
goats and sheep will come back into heat after 17 days (give or take a day or two).

 Reasons for female not showing signs of heat

The female may not show signs of heat because she is too old, or she may have been mated
without the owner knowing. Sometimes animals come into heat without showing any signs. This
is called a "silent heat" and is common in buffalo cows.
If the feed is not sufficient or there is a lack of protein, salts or water, the animal can fail to come
into heat. You will need to improve the female's feed to bring it into heat.

 Anoestrus & sub-estrus clinical signs

 Animals not showing regular signs of heat, repeat breeding and early embryonic mortality.
 At times heat signs, not visible properly.
 Reason - Nutritional deficiencies, management disorders, hormonal deficiency and uterine
disorders.

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 2.2.10. Mating system

Once heat has been detected, cows should be mated. Mating of good quality animals to produce
highly productive and suitable animals for enhancement of overall performance in the
subsequent generations and to augment production and profitability is termed animal breeding.
There are two types of mating of animals for production of the progenies. These are
A. Natural mating: Mating of animals by natural means.
This is where the cow is taken to a bull and left for some time for the bull to serve.

The advantages of this method are:

a) The cow has an opportunity to be served more than once; this increase the chance of
conception.
b) The semen is fresh and of good quality since there is no handling.
c) Where the farmer does not own a bull, cost of service is lower compared to A.I.

Natural service has the following disadvantages:

 Rearing a bull is not economical especially to a small holder farmer
 There is risk of spreading breeding diseases.
 There is risk of inbreeding if the bull is not changed frequently
 There is no opportunity to select the type of bull the farmer wants.

Increasing the chances of conception through natural service:

 Take the cow to the bull as soon as it is detected to be in heat and leave it for at least
twelve hours.
 Young inexperienced heifers should be mated with old experienced bulls.
 Young inexperienced bulls should be given to old experienced cows.
 The bull should be kept fit and in good health particularly the legs and feet.

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Natural mating can be done in two ways:
1. Free/pasture mating –
This method of mating is practiced by farmers who own bulls which run full time with the cows.
One bull can serve 20-25 cows. It has the advantage no heat detection required and disadvantage
of lack of accurate records and possibility of transmission of reproductive diseases e.g.
brucellosis.
 Hand mating-
The bull is enclosed in its pen and the cows are brought in when they show signs of heat. Most
small-scale farmers will practice this method since bulls are owned by few farmers and others
bring their cows for service at an agreed fee. The advantage is keeping accurate records while the
disadvantage is the farmer has to detect heat.
B. Artificial insemination (AI):
Mating is done through artificial means by collecting semen from male and the inseminating the
females. This method helps in use of outstanding males for mating of a large number of females
thereby production of large number of highly productive and performing progenies.
The process of artificial insemination starts with a healthy bull, that is disease free and producing
ample quantities of high quality semen.
The fertility of the cow is also important, the competency of the inseminator and a clean
environment. Farmers are encouraged to use semen from proven bulls which is obtained from AI
centers and registered service providers.

Benefits of Artificial Insemination

 Prevention of venereal diseases
 Indefinite preservation of genetic materials of low cost enabling wide testing and
selection of bulls
 enhances genetic progress as best bulls are used widely nationally and internationally
 Small scale farmers through AI can access good bulls cheaply
 One is able to select the bull of interest.
 When handled properly, there is no chance of spread of breeding diseases.
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  It is easy to control inbreeding.
 A.I. is the best method of improving the genetic make-up of local breeds because it
enables semen from the very best bulls to be widely available.
 It is cost effective since the farmer does not have to rear a bull.
Disadvantages of AI
 It requires very accurate heat detection and proper timing of insemination for greater
chances of conception.
 The inseminator must be trained on the technique.
 It requires high investment in equipment.

2.2.11. Selection of Breeding Stock

Selection is used as a tool for livestock improvement. A breeding stock is a group of males and
females which act as parents of future generations. Culling is the removal of animals which do
not perform to the desired level, from the herd. The animals retained have certain desirable
characteristics which make them produce more. Selected animals make up the breeding stock.
Selection process repeated for many generations increases chances of formation of desirable
qualities in an animal. Selection helps improve characteristics which are highly heritable.
Heritability means the likelihood of a particular trait to be transmitted to the offspring and they
are strongly inherited. A character like milk yield is lowly heritable, i.e. it is weakly inherited
and a bigger percentage of the character is affected by the environment.

 The degree to which selection affects a character depends on the following factors;
The heritability of the character,
 The intensity with which the selection is done and the interval between generations
and kind of selection being practiced.

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Factors to be consider when selecting Breeding Stock.

 Age
 Level of performance
 Physical Fitness
 Health
 Body Conformation
 Temperament or Behavior
 Quality of products
 Mothering Ability
 Adaptability
 Prolificac

Age
 Young animals,
 Those that have not parturated for more than 3-times should be selected.
 They have a longer productive life.
 Old animals are poor breeders and low producers.
 Production and breeding efficiency decline with age.
Level of performance
 Animals with highest production level selected.
 Performance best indicated by records
Good performance of animal indicated by;
 High milk, wool and egg production,
 Good mothering ability
 High prepotency which is the ability of a parent to pass good qualities to their offspring’s.
 The animals with poor performance should be culled.
 Good records kept and used by the farmer for this purpose.

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Physical Fitness
Animals selected should be free from any physical defect e.g.
 mono-eyed,
 limping,
 irregular number of teats,
 scrotal hernia,
 defective and weak backline

Health
 Sick animals do not breed well and are expensive to keep.
 Animals that are resistant to diseases pass these characteristics to their offspring
Body Conformation
 Animals for breeding to be selected according to proper body conformation.
 A dairy cow should be wedge-shaped with a large udder, thin legs, long neck.
Temperament or Behavior
 Animals with bad behaviors should be culled. e.g. Cannibalism, egg eating,
aggressiveness, kicking
Quality of products
 Select animals that give products of high quality such as meat, wool, eggs, milk.
Mothering Ability
 Animals selected should have a good mothering ability,
 That is animals with good natural instinct towards their young ones.
 This will enable them to rear the young ones up to weaning.
Adaptability
 Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing climatic condition in the area
e.g. Arid and semi arid areas.

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Prolificacy

 Animals selected should be highly prolific.

 That is, animals with the ability to give birth to many offspring’s at a time(larger litter).
 This is a quality that should be considered when selecting pigs and rabbits.
 The ancestry records assist to choose the prolific breeds for mating

2.2.12. Assisting animal in normal parturition

 Parturition or Calving in Cattle
Parturition is giving birth to the young calf. Two months before the expected calving date (the
parturition), so 7 months after service, the cow should get plenty of rest, because the growth of
the calf takes up a lot of the cow’s energy. This means that 2 months before the expected calving
date, a milking cow should be dried off (i.e. you should stop milking her) and a cow you keep for
traction should stop working. At about the 272 days of pregnancy, an in-cow is ready to calve.
It must be taken to the calving or maternity pen some few days to end of pregnancy which can be
calculated from the records kept by the stockman. If calving must be done on pasture, a clean,
quite secluded place must be prepared for it while the stockman watches, in case assistance is
required. Towards calving, the udder becomes bigger, the vulva also swells and the ligaments
around the tail head drops. Hormones such as oxytocin are released which helps in the
contraction of the uterus.

 Parturition can be divided into three stages:

 The water bags come through the birth canal. This may take 2 to 6 hours.
 In the second stage the actual delivery of the calf occurs.
First the front legs come out, then the head, and after that the whole body comes out. Once the
front legs are out the calf must be out within an hour. Otherwise the calf might suffocate. The
normal birth position (presentation) is with the front legs first and with the nose between the
front legs. If the calf presents differently the parturition is much more difficult. In that case you
will see the cow really working to deliver the calf, but nothing comes out.

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If it takes more than 8 hours, get veterinary help. If you help the cow with the delivery of the
calf, you should pull at the two legs. Always pull to the side of the legs and udder of the cow and
never towards the tail side. If you pull, then only do so with a maximum of 2 people and pull
only at moments when the cow is pushing herself.

Figure 2.8: Normal presentation of the calf.

The third stage consists of the parturition of the placenta (afterbirth), which normally follows the
calf almost immediately. If, however, the placenta has not come out within 12 hours, you should
contact a veterinarian. If two calves are born from one cow at the same time, you have to be
aware of possible infertility. If these calves are both male or both female there is no problem. If
the calves have different sexes, the female calf may be a barren cow. This means that the young
calf is infertile; she cannot be used for reproduction or milk production. Soon after birth, calves
must be identified by tagging, tattooing, branding or ear notching.

 Lambing or Kidding

The gestation period of ewe is 140 to 150 days (21 to 22 weeks) which is similar to that of a doe.
On the average the gestation period in sheep and goat is about 5 months. With this, it is possible
for ewe or doe to give birth at least once a year or three in two years. The act of giving birth in
sheep is called “lambing” while it is “kidding” in goats.

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Ewes and does demonstrate essentially the same characteristics when giving birth. Towards the
end of pregnancy, the udder of the animal swells and becomes larger. The ewe or doe becomes
restless, bleats and there is a hollow appearance on the flank region of the loin. Some watery
discharge that is opaque and yellowish is observed from the vulva and the animals choose a
secluded place to give birth. Parturition process is completed within two hours. The animal
could be assisted if in distress or invite a veterinarian especially if the foetus position is
abnormal. The normal position is when the lamb or kid comes out with head rested on the fore
leg coming out first from the vagina. The dam cleans up the lamb or kid by licking the mucus
from the body and stimulates the lungs to respire in some cases. The young animal after some
time begin to show signs of hunger and thereafter sucks the dam.

Fig2.9. The sequential process of kidding

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 2.2.13Rearing new born animals
 Rearing of Calf after Parturition

The calf rearing period, which is the period from birth until 6 months after weaning (weaning is
changing of the young’s feed from milk to solid feedstuff), is a period with many risks. The
highest mortality rates occur in this period. The newly born calf is very weak and susceptible to
diseases. During this period it needs extra care, with particular attention to good feeding, health,
hygiene and housing.

 Feeding of the calf

The primary concern in rearing the newborn calf is to ensure it remains healthy. Feeding
management should also be directed at addressing nutrient requirements and encouraging rumen
development. A calf needs its mother’s milk in order to start a healthy and productive life. Milk
contains all the necessary nutrients. It is full of energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. It is very
important for the calf to drink a sufficient quantity of the first milk, called colostrum, during the
first 48 hours.

This milk contains antibodies, which give the calf resistance to the prevalent diseases. The calf
needs 10 % of its live weight in milk each day in order to grow 1 p% in live weight per day. So a
calf that weighs 30 kg needs 3 kg milk daily. Too little milk will weaken the calf, make it more
susceptible to disease or the calf might die because of malnutrition.

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 Phases of Calf Feeding

Table2.1. Four phases of the calf feeding program

The aim should be to switch young calves to cheaper feeds as early as possible so that more milk
can be available for sale. However, the diet must be able to promote health and growth.

2.2.13. Calf Feeding Methods

After the first week during which the calf is left with the dam, several methods can be used for
feeding depending on ease and convenience.

A. Single suckling

Fig.2.10: A calf suckling

The calf is separated with the mother but during milking it is brought to suckle. The amount of
milk the calf consumes is difficult to quantify. Some farmers will allow the calf to suckle one

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quarter. This method is rarely used in commercial dairies. The disadvantage is that if the calf is
not present, then the cow may not let down all the milk. This method is the best in terms of
hygiene as the calf gets clean milk at body temperature.

B. Foster mother or multiple suckling

In farms where several cows give birth at the same time, one cow can be assigned to a number of
calves depending on milk production. The calves suckle in turns ensuring that each calf only
suckles the designated quarter. This method is not practical in small scale farms.

C. Nipple suckling: -

A plastic nipple is attached to a clean bottle filled with milk and the calf is trained on how to
suckle. An alternative is to attach a nipple on a short plastic hose pipe and insert the same into a
bucket. The calf is then trained on how to suckle.

Fig.2.10. . Calf being Fed in Bucket with a Nipple

D. Bottle feeding: -

The milk is placed in a clean bottle and the calf is fed directly from the bottle. This method is
tedious and slow if many calves are to be fed. There is a high likelihood of milk going to the
lungs via trachea.

E. Bucket feeding:

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 Fig2.11. calf bucket feeding

This is the most commonly used method and milk is placed into a bucket and the calf is trained
to drink (place finger in the milk and as calf suckles your finger it takes in milk). Stainless steel
buckets, where available, should be used for hygienic reasons as plastic buckets are difficult to
clean. Whatever method is used, clean equipment should be used at all times. Sick calves should
always be fed last to minimize cross contamination. Attempts should be made to feed milk at
body temperature especially during the cold season.

2.2.14. Calf Housing

Housing of calves is an important aspect of calf management. Claves are housed for several
reasons, the most important being protection from adverse weather conditions and predators,
avoid internal and external parasites and control feeding and management.
A calf pen should be constructed where possible from locally available materials. It should be
constructed to:

 Allow approximately 2 m2 (1.2 X 1.5m) space per calf

 Be well drained or bedded
 Be well lighted (artificial or natural)
 Be well ventilated
 Strong to stand predator invasion
Calves can be housed permanently indoor until weaning time when they are turned to pasture or
semi-indoor where they housed only at night. The calf house can be permanent or temporary and
movable.

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Permanent houses should be constructed such that they are easy to clean when a new calf is
introduced. Temporary houses are moved from one location to another when new calf moves in.

Fig.2.12: A movable calf pen.

Fig. 2.13: Feeding the calf

2.2.15. Management of Lamb/ Kid

The dam should be allowed to suckle kid/lamb immediately after birth. This is because at this
time the dam’s milk contains colostrums. Colostrum contains antibodies which help to confer
initial immunity to the kid/lamb; it also stimulates the alimentary system. Colostrum production
ceases around the third or fourth day after parturition.

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It is important to check the test of the female to ensure that milk is available for the kid/lamb. If
the dam’s milk supply is low, the kid may have to be fed with alternative milker replaces or
placed with a foster mother. Weaning can be done between 4 weeks to 3months depending on
age breed and purpose. However, weaning below the age of 3 month is not advisable for tropical
sheep and goats. Weaning can be encouraged by the provision of creep feed. The young animal
normally begins to nibble at solid food such as leaves. Grasses should be starting to eat at 2-3
weeks of age. Where a dam dies immediately after parturition artificial colostrums should be
provided.

Artificial Colostrum is made up of:

 0.61 litter of cow’s milk

 1 teaspoon of castor oil
 1 teaspoon cod liver oil
 125mg of broad spectrum antibiotics.
Normally a quarter (1/4) to 1litre of artificial colostrums is given per day for four [Link] the
extensive management, the dam (i.e. the female parent) and the baby (lamb or kid) are allowed to
run together and penned together. The lamb or kid depend on the dam’s milk for the early part of
its life and begin to nib on grasses or forage as from about 3 weeks of age which help stimulate
the rumen. The lamb or kids are weaned at about 6 to 8 weeks after birth. Weaning at about 6
weeks is called early weaning. At this stage, the animals are separated. Those for breeding are
separated from those for fattening or and maintained as growers.

 Undertaking Castration
Castration is the act of removing the testicles of a male animal to render them ineffective. This
operation is carried out on all unwanted males in ruminant production. This management
operation prevents unwanted breeding and improves the carcass quality of the animal. In
addition, castrated males are easier to handle. It can be carried out by surgically operation or
bloodlessly by the use of a burdizzo or rubber ring elastrator after the animal must have been
haltered. Surgical operation is done within the first week of the animal’s life while the bloodless

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one could be done within the first two weeks of life. Castration can be done by using an
elastrator ring, burdizzo or open castration using a knife.

 Knife castration:

Is the only completely safe method to sterilize male animals and can be done at any age by a
qualified veterinarian. With this method of castration there is always a danger that the wound can
become infected and the necessary precautions must be taken.

 Elastrator rings:

The rubber ring is applied around the neck of the scrotal sack using the special instrument
designed for this purpose. The testicles must be in the scrotal sack distal (away from the body of
the calf) to the elastrator ring. To minimize pain when using the rubber ring method of castration,
they must be applied within three days of birth.

Fig. 2.14: Elastrator method of castration

Fig.2.15. Proper placement of the rings

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  The burdizzo:

A burdizzo is a pair of pincers used to squeeze and crush the spermatic cords. After application,
the testicles degenerate and are absorbed but the external surface of the scrotum is not damaged.
Castration with this method can be done at any time; but when done at a later age, it may bring
about a shock in growth. The best time to apply the burdizzo is three to four weeks after birth
when the spermatic cords can be felt. The burdizzo is applied to each spermatic cord separately
(Figure) in such a way that the blood supply to the testicles is damaged, while circulation to the
scrotal sack remains intact.

Gangrene can set in where blood circulation to the scrotum is lost. To achieve these objectives,
the burdizzo is applied to the individual spermatic cords at opposite sides of the scrotum, leaving
a central area free for blood to circulate or applying the burdizzo at different levels on opposite
sides of the scrotum.

Fig. 2.16: Burdizzo method of castration

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The equipment is used to clamp and crush the top of the testicles.
 Castrating is important for the following purposes since have good Carcass
composition and weight development
 Castrated animals are good for fattening purpose
 Prevent breeding of related individuals (inbreeding) that can result in genetic defects,
poor growth rate, and other problems
 Avoid unwanted pregnancies and the mating of young females before they are of
adequate size and age for pregnancy and parturition.
 Enhance on-farm safety for animals, producers and employees. Castrated animals are
usually less aggressive and easier to manage.

 Undertaking Dehorning

Dehorning or disbudding is the process of removing horn of the animal and it mainly applied for
cattle, sheep and goat. The age to dehorn calves depends on the condition and the method used.
The sooner it can be done the less inconvenience is suffered by the calf. Generally the calves that
are 3 to 10 days old can be dehorned more easily, because the horn button does not become
attached to the skull until the calf pass 10 days of age.

 Debudding

Is the act of removing the horn at its budding stage in cattle, sheep and goats. Most breeds of
these animals carry horn which when fully grown may become source of injury to the other
animals in the flock/herd. This operation is carried out at about age 3 to 4 weeks of age on any
of the animals. Dehorning can be done by several methods.

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 A. Hot iron:
Electric, gas or fire-heated iron is the most common in calves (4 to 6 weeks). The young
ruminant is haltered (i.e. using a rope to restrain it) to a pole, held down by the stockman and the
base of the horn is felt with bare hand of the operator. The hair around it is shaved and local
anesthesia is injected at the base of the eyelid or forehead to minimize pain. A hot iron cuter is
then plugged into electricity. The hotness of the iron is determined by its ability to burn a piece
of dry wood. The hot iron is then applied to the horn bud and carefully twisted to remove the
bud. A scar is then left over the tissue at this point. This operation is commonly done in
ruminant production especially in the temperate region and most local experimental stations. Hot
iron dehorning can be done with ease up to the age 3 months (while the dehorning iron still fits
over the bud comfortably), thereafter horn growth is fairly rapid, making surgical removal
necessary.

Fig. 2.19: Hot iron dehorning

B. Surgical method:
Use of saw or cutting wire: In older animals, surgical procedures must be used, especially if
horns have grown to a length of 2 cm or more. The removal of larger horns causes a great deal
of pain and anaesthetics should be used with dehorning and steps taken to prevent bleeding.
Blood attracts flies and blow-fly strike causes serious problems in open wounds. Once horns
have grown very large, removal of the horns exposes the hollows in the skull and these must be
closed to prevent infection.

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 C. Chemical method of dehorning
The horn button may be prevented from growing by burning with chemicals. This method is
most successful if done before the calf is10 days old. The chemical that are most commonly are
caustic potash or caustic soda. Dehorning should be done during the cool weather of spring and
autumn. It is the best method.

D. Clippers and saws

This method is mainly used when old ruminant animals are to be dehorned.

Advantages of dehorning include:

 Dehorned cattle are quiet & less aggressive and thus easy to handle
 Need lees space at feeding troughs and yards.
 Improves the animal looks (sight)
 Reduce injury of people working with them
 Reduce damage to hides & skin

 Undertaking hoof trimming

This carried out by the use of hoof trimming knife. Overgrown hooves are trimmed to ensure it
does nor harbor germs or disease and allow the animal to walk well. The debris in the hoof must
be removed before carefully cutting the hoof in slices to ensure the tissue is not cut.
 Hooves trimming: -
Is the process of cutting abnormally grown hooves of the animal. Most of the time abnormally
grown hooves are difficult for walking and also they are carrier of disease causing organism. In
management systems where sheep and goats are mostly confined and do not walk daily on hard
groundcover or climb rocks, abrasion of the hoof is not balanced with hoof growth. This will
affect mobility and could lead to reduced intake from grazing. It may additionally lead to
diseases such as foot rot.

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To avoid these problems, hooves need to be examined regularly and trimmed as needed. A sharp
knife or hoof shears can be used for hoof trimming.

Fig2.20. Hoof trimmer

Some benefits of hoof trimming:

 Reduces toe injuries.

 Reduces lameness.
 Helps prevent diseases like laminitis and foot rot.
 Increases lifespan.
 Increases milk production.
 Makes it easier to stand, eat and drink.
 Higher breed back.

 Operating Shearing activities

Sheep shearing;

Is the process by which the woolen fleece of a sheep is cut off. The person who removes the
sheep's wool is called a shearer. Typically each adult sheep is shorn once each year (a sheep may
be said to have been "shorn" or "sheared", depending upon dialect). They can be hand and
machine shears. Hand shears are recommended for flocks of 10 or less, hand machine (clippers)
for flock of less than 150 and power machine for flocks above that number.

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Wool shearing practices vary in different regions. However, shearing is mostly practiced twice a
year in spring and autumn seasons. Sheep are washed at least two days before shearing in order
to remove dirt, suint and grease which hinder shearing. Machine shearing is more efficient than
manual shearing with scissors as it saves time, avoids injury to the sheep and “second-cuts” of
staples. Some producers prefer to shear pregnant ewes before lambing. If ewes cannot be
completely shorn before lambing, they should be “crotched out” by shearing the wool from the
udder and dock area and from the head and eyes of those breeds with wool on the face. This will
make lambing and nursing easier. Shearing before breeding in summer season tends to increase
the heat loss from the body and cools the ewe and ram, thus inducing estrus in the ewe and
stimulating spermatogenesis in the ram.

 Shearing can be done with a knife, scissors, wool shears or electrically-powered clippers.
 Common mistakes are cutting the skin and to cut some distance away from the skin.
Sheep should be shorn when the fleece is dry.
 Newly-shorn sheep should not be exposed to a wet season nor a very hot season;
 In highland areas, sheep should have a long fleece to keep warm in the cold
season;
 Where grass seeds are a problem, sheep should be shorn before the seeds are ripe;
 Finally, ewes should not be shorn in late pregnancy.

 Applying Identifications
Identification is necessary for efficient production of animals.

Animal identification is divided into two:-

A. Temporary identification
 Lasts for short period of time
 Not stay throughout animal life. E.g.
 cutting brush of animal tail
 Color Marks like pain
 mud and charcoal
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 B. Permanent identification:
 Stays throughout animal life.
Example:-
 Ear notching
 Ear tagging
 Tattooing
 branding
 Branding Hot iron - brand for a short time on the legs so as not to spoil skin. This is
permanent but not common in dairy cattle.

 Ear marking

A. Ear notching - cutting the ears in a particular shape and coding the shape. It involves the use
of razor or scissors to cut a “V” shape on the tip of the pina. The position of the cut indicates
numbers. If it is at the top of the pina it denotes 1, if at the tip, 5 and if under, it is 3. The right
ear represent tens while the left represent units. The two is added to give the animal an
identification number in the herd.

B. Ear tattooing - difficult to read and does not work in dark animals.
C. Ear tagging - use an applicator, easy to read but expensive. The animal is haltered and the
tag is placed in the applicator then clamped to the pina of the ear. Caution must be taken not to
damage the blood vessels on the pina of ear.

Fig.2.21. calf identification

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 3.1. Handling and transporting ruminant animals

The need to transport food animals occurs essentially in commercial agriculture and to a lesser
extent in the rural or subsistence sector. These animals need to be moved for a number of reasons
including marketing, slaughter, re-stocking, from drought areas to better grazing and change of
ownership. Typically, methods used to move animals are on hoof, by road motor vehicle, by rail,
on ship and by [Link] the majority of livestock in developing countries are moved by
trekking on the hoof, by road and rail. Historically, livestock has been moved on foot, but with
increasing urbanization of the population and commercialization of animal production, livestock
transport by road and rail vehicles has surpassed this. Transport of livestock is undoubtedly the
most stressful and injurious stage in the chain of operations between farm and slaughterhouse
and contributes significantly to poor animal welfare and loss of production.

3.1.1. Effects of transport

Poor transportation can have serious deleterious effects on the welfare of livestock and can lead
to significant loss of quality and production.
Effects of transport and movement include:
-Stress -Bruising -Trampling -Suffocation -Injuries
-Heart failure -Heat stroke -Sun burn -Bloat -Fighting
-Poisoning -Predation -Dehydration -Exhaustion

 Methods of transport

A. Cattle
The most appropriate methods of moving cattle are on hoof, by road motor vehicle or by rail
wagon. Moving cattle on the hoof (trekking) (Fig. 23) is suitable only where road and rail
infrastructure does not exist, or when distances from farm to destination are short.
This method is slow and fraught with risks to the welfare and value of the animals. Rail transport
is useful for short-haul journeys where loading ramps are available at railheads and

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communication is direct to destination. Road motor transport is by far the most versatile, the
method of first choice and the most users friendly.

The most satisfactory method of transporting cattle is by road motor vehicle. Moving by rail
truck requires more careful management and trekking is satisfactory for well-planned distances.

Fig. 2.21: Moving cattle on the hoof Fig. 2.22: Road motor for transporting cattle

B. Sheep/goats

Of the food animals these are the easiest to transport and generally travel well on hoof, rail or
road. Double-deck trucks are also suitable (Fig. 25).

Fig. 2.23: Double-deck truck for transporting sheep/goats

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  Types of vehicles
Any vehicle used for the transport of slaughter livestock should have adequate ventilation, have a
non-slip floor with proper drainage and provide protection from the sun and rain, particularly for
pigs. The surfaces of the sides should be smooth and there should be no protrusions or sharp
edges. No vehicle should be totally enclosed.

Floor space- Livestock require sufficient floor space so that they can stand comfortably without
being overcrowded. Overloading results in injuries or even death of livestock.

Fig. 2.25: Overloading truck with goats

Table2. Approximate floor space for transporting different classes of animals

Classes of stock Floor area/animal (m2)

Mature cattle 1.0 - 1.4*

Small calves 0.3

Sheep/goats 0.4

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  Pre-loading precautions
There are a number of simple procedures that can be implemented prior to the loading of
Livestock, which will considerably reduce the risk of injury and stress.
 Pre-mixing of cattle or pigs leads to greater familiarity and these animals travel better
than animals that are strangers.
 Cattle should be mixed in a pen 24 hours before loading. Victimized or wild animals can
be weeded out during this period. Fighting amongst pigs that are strangers is common,
resulting in skin damage, wounds and stress.
 Mix pigs from different pens together before loading, smearing pigs with litter or excreta
from the same pen so that they smell similar.
 Most animals can be fed and watered before transporting. This has a settling effect.
However pigs should not be fed before transport as the feed ferments and the gas causes
pressure on the heart in the thoracic cavity, leading to heart failure and death.
 Do not mix horned and hornless animals in the vehicles as this cause bruising and injury.
Different species should also not be mixed - sheep, goats and calves less than 6 months
can be mixed and individual animals can be transported in a loose sack tied at the
animal’s neck.
 Feet should not be tied, and animals should be turned every 30 minutes or so. Pigs should
not travel with other species unless separated by a partition. Bulls should not be carried
together with other stock unless separated by a strong partition.
 Animals that are diseased, injured, emaciated or heavily pregnant should not be
transported, and unfit, heavy, pen fed animals should not travel far as they cannot stand
up to the rigours of transport.
 Vehicles should be fitted with a portable ramp to facilitate emergency offloading in case
of prolonged breakdowns.

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  Transport operations
A number of factors must be taken into account during the journey in order that the animals do
not suffer, become injured or die.
A. Trekking- Only cattle, sheep and goats can be successfully moved on hoof, and here
certain risks are involved. The journey should be planned, paying attention to the distance
to be travelled, opportunities for grazing, watering and overnight rest. Animals should be
walked during the cooler times of the day and, if moving some distance to a railhead,
they should arrive with sufficient time to be rested and watered before loading. The
maximum distances that these animals should be trekked depend on various factors such
as weather, body condition, age etc., but the distance given in Table 3 should not be
exceeded when trekked.

One day More than one day

Species
journey First day Subsequent days

Cattle 30 km 24 km 22 km

Sheep/goats 24 km 24 km 16 km

Table3. Maximum distances for trekking

B. Time of the day-

High environment temperatures will increase the risk of heat stress and mortality during
transportation. It is important to transport animals in vehicles during the cooler mornings and
evenings or even at night. This is particularly important for pigs. Wetting pigs with water will
help keep them cool.

C. Duration of journey-

Where possible, journeys should be short and direct, without any stoppages. If the vehicle stops,
pigs will tend to fight. Cattle and sheep/goats should not travel for more than 36 hours and
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should be offloaded after 24h for feed and water, if the journey is to take longer than that. Pigs
should have access to frequent drinks of water during long journeys, particularly in hot and
humid conditions.

4. Driving- Vehicles should be driven smoothly, without jerks or sudden stops. Corners should
be taken slowly and gently. The second person should be in attendance to spot downer animals
so that the vehicle can be stopped and the animal lifted. Train drivers should avoid “fly shunting”
of trucks with livestock.

5. Wind chill- Wind blowing on wet animals being transported in cold weather causes a wind
chill factor, where the body temperature is considerably reduced, resulting in severe stress or
deaths.

Key things to remember during transportation:

 The size and design of the transport vehicle should be compatible with the number of stock
being transported.

 The transport vehicle should be in good repair to ensure cattle arrive at their destination with
least injury and in the shortest possible time.

 The stock crate should be well designed so as to minimize bruising. A well designed stock
crate will have a large smooth contact surface without projections on which animals can
bruise.

 Pens should be approximately 3 meters’ in length (pens should not be longer than 4 meters’)
to provide more support to animals during travel and thus reduce stress and allow them to
adapt to transport more readily.

It is recommended that the following classes be transported or penned separately:

 polled & dehorned cattle;
 young calves;

 a cow with a suckling calf;

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  adult bulls;

 cattle greatly different in size;

 females in advanced stages of pregnancy

Special requirements for transporting bobby calves:

 A livestock transport trailer/truck is the preferred method.

 Front of trailer should be solid to protect calves from the wind.

 All bobby calves should be fed on the farm within 6 hours of transportation for sale.

 Where possible bobby calves should be transported by the shortest route.

 Transport operators should check calves en route at least once every three hours.

 Bobby calves should be loaded at a density so as to allow all calves to lie down while
being transported.

 Bobby calves shall be transported in separate compartments from other classes of stock.

Do Not:

 Transport calves in a car boot, sealed container or anything that restricts airflow.

 Tie the legs of the calves in order to restrain them.

 Overload the transport vehicle – you may need to make two trips or find a bigger
transport vehicle.

 Speak to your stock agent if transport is required for your new purchase.

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Handling facilities

It is important to make sure you have adequate facilities to unload the cattle when you get them
back to your property. A set of yards or a small paddock to confine the cattle for the first couple
of days is essential. Holding the cattle in a small paddock or set of yards for the first couple of
days will help to settle and calm them. It may also help prevent the spread of weeds and disease
to your property. This initial step is important for the bio-security of your property.

Feed and water requirements on arrival

The holding paddock or yard must have a supply of water that is accessible to all animals. It
would also be a good place to introduce your cattle to some hay, in order to settle them after the
transport. When you finally introduce your cattle to the larger paddock, it is best to continue
giving hay for at least the first 2 days, so that their rumen (stomach) has time to adjust gradually
to the pasture feed. These values will vary with weather conditions, and it is not unusual for a
pregnant cow with calf at foot to drink over 150 liters of water per day. As summer progresses,
dams start to shrink and evaporation can account for up to a meter of water loss from a dam each
day.

 Age estimation of cattle

The age of ruminant animal is determined chiefly by examination of the teeth, and less perfectly
by the horn rings or the length of the tail brush; however due to bang-tailing, which is the act of
cutting the long hairs at the tip of the tail short to identify the animal after management practices,
the latter is least reliable

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 1. Dental (teeth) method

Cattle are placed in a cattle crush in order to restrain them prior inspecting the mouth and amount
of teeth that each animal has. The temporary teeth are in part erupted at birth, and all
the incisors are erupted in twenty days; the first, second and third pairs of temporary molars are
erupted in thirty days; the teeth have grown large enough to touch each other by the sixth month.
Temporary incisors or "milk" teeth are smaller than the permanent incisors.

Cattle have thirty-two teeth, including six incisors or biting teeth and two canines in the front on
the bottom jaw. The canine teeth are not pointed but look like incisors. The incisor teeth meet
with the thick hard dental pad of the upper jaw. Cattle have six premolars and six molars on both
top and bottom jaws for a total of twenty-four molars. The teeth of cattle are designed primarily
for grinding, and they use their rough tongues to grasp grass and then nip it off between their
incisors and the dental pad.

There is controversy on the reliability of attempting to tell the age of cattle by their teeth, as rate
of wear can be affected by the forage that is grazed. Drought or grazing on sandy country will
also affect rate of wear.

The following is a guide:

 Under two years old (No permanent teeth)

 Two years three months (2 permanent teeth)
 Three years old (4 permanent teeth)
 Three years six months (6 permanent teeth)
 Four years (8 permanent teeth)
 Old animal, over four years old

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 How to hold cattle and buffalo to check their teeth

Fig27. Teeth of cattle

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 A. Horn method

The rings on the horns are less useful as guides. At ten or twelve months the first ring appears; at
twenty months to two years the second; at thirty to thirty-two months the third ring, at forty to
forty-six months the fourth ring, at fifty four to sixty months the fifth ring, and so on. But, at the
fifth year, the three first rings are indistinguishable, and at the eighth year all the rings.

B. Tail brush method

The brush of the tail is only useful as a guide when assessing small, stunted or young cattle. A
brush that is about fetlock length or longer is an indication that the beast is twelve months old or
older. This method cannot be used on cattle which have been bang-tailed. Bang tailing is the act
of cutting the long hairs at the tip of the tail short to act as a simple identifier of animals and is
commonly used after a procedure has been performed on an individual animal that belongs to a
large mob e.g. the mob is run through a race and each animal is vaccinated - immediately after
being vaccinated the animal is bang-tailed so they are identified as vaccinated and will not be
given a second dose of vaccine. This is useful when large numbers of animals are being
processed by a group of individuals.

C. Other methods

Cattle age in a carcass is determined checking the physiological skeletal maturity (ossification)
(red) of the tips or “buttons” of the thoracic vertebrae. The size and shape of the rib bones are
important considerations as well as the colour and texture of the flesh. The use of number (year)
branding, tattoos or ear tags with numbers or different colors are good methods of identifying the
age of cattle, if they are used according to standards.

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2.3.4. Age Determination of Sheep and Goats by Dentition

Why is it important?
Indirect ways of determining approximate age of sheep and goats are vital in systems where
production records are unavailable. For instance, if the flock structure has to be determined, age
of animals needs to be estimated. Application of drugs also requires knowledge of age and/or
weight of the animal. A few days after birth, lambs/kids will have milk teeth, also known as
temporary incisors, arranged in four pairs in the lower jaw. These are replaced by larger
permanent teeth as the age of the animal increases. There is a range of ages at which particular
teeth appear because the speed of teeth growth will vary according to health and nutrition of
sheep and goats.

The central pair of temporary incisor teeth is shed and replaced by the permanent teeth at
approximately 14 months of age. At approximately 20 months, the second pair of milk teeth is
replaced by a pair of permanent incisors. At 3 and 4 years, the third and fourth pairs of
permanent teeth appear. At 4 years of age the sheep has a "full mouth." When a ewe/doe loses
some of her incisor teeth, she is called a "broken mouth."

Figure28. Teeth of goats of different age

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Note that the doe ling Figure 28b has her milk teeth fully grown and spread out. The doe in
Figure 28b has had three pairs of teeth replaced.

Older sheep and goats that have worn teeth have difficulty in eating and will lose condition,
become more prone to diseases and breed less than younger animals. Inspecting the teeth can be
a very useful way of deciding when to cull.

Age of goats and sheep

 Animal under one year old (no permanent teeth)
 One year old (2 permanent teeth)
 Two years old (4 permanent teeth)
 Three years old (6 permanent teeth)
 Four years old (8 permanent teeth)
 Old animal, more than four years old

How to hold sheep and goat to check their teeth

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 Fig.29. teeth of shoat

3.2. Observing enterprise policies and procedures

Enterprise policies and procedures in relation to workplace practices in the handling and disposal
of materials should be observed. During handling and disposing of materials the worker should
be observe work place policies and procedures.

Before handling a carcass and waste materials, consider the diseases that can be passed to
humans (anthrax, brucellosis, rabies, ringworm and mange are the most common ones). If the
animal died unexpectedly, a post-mortem will reveal the cause of death and guide the means of
disposal. Post-mortems should be performed by qualified veterinarian. If anthrax is suspected
the carcass should be burned and no post-mortem should be carried out.
How to burn a carcass and waste material
 Dig two trenches (2 m long, 40 cm wide and 40 cm deep) in the form of a cross. The
trenches will provide oxygen to the fire.
 Place two iron bars so they lie across one of the trenches.
 Place strong wooden posts across the bars.
 Place the carcass and a heap of fuel (wood and straw soaked in waste oil) on the wooden
posts.
 Light the fire and burn the carcass.

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Disposal by burying
 Dig a hole 2 m long by 1.5 m wide and 2 m deep.
 Put the carcass in the hole and cover with soil and logs or large stones to stop wild
animals or dogs digging it up again.

Self-check-2

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided next to the
question:
1. What do you think on the consequence that if the worker don’t follow the instruction of
supervisor during working? (3pts)
2. What is the difference between instruction and direction? (3pts)
3. Define animal retraining? (2pts)
4. Mention methods of animal identification? (2pts)
5. What is the importance of performing heat detection? (2pts)
6. Write the importance of hoof trimming? (2pts)
7. What is the advantage of knowing the age of animal? (2pts)
8. Mention methods of age estimation? (2pts)
9. Discus the advantage and disadvantage of dental age estimation? (3pts)
10. Discus the advantage of following enterprise policy and procedures during disposing of
waste materials? (3pts)
11. How do you handle and dispose carcass and waste material? (3pts)

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Operation sheet-2

[Link] for assisting dairy cows in delivery(by using simulstion)

A. Prepare materials and equipment
 Glaves-------------
 disinfectant
 Record book
 Simulator(optional)
 Calf puller
B. Procedure/techniques:-
Step1- Assist only when absolutely necessary. Many times, birthing a cow requires no human
intervention. If the mother or calf appears distressed, obtain professional help if you can. If you
cannot find help in a dire situation, you must give calving assistance yourself.
Step2- Wash your hands and the cow's backside with soap and water. Put on a new pair of
rubber gloves if you can. You must keep the area as sanitary as possible to prevent infection. If
the cow is still standing, try to lead her to a manure-free area, or freshly cleaned stall.
Step 3- Wait until the mother has entered the second stage of labor before assisting further. In
this stage, she delivers the water bag and begins straining abdominal muscles. Do not break the
water bag, as this often slows down the birth of a calf.
Step 4- Lubricate your hands and arms if possible. Very gently reach inside and lightly pinch the
calf. This process is easier if the cow is still standing. Feel for movement to indicate that the calf
is alive.
Step 5- Determine which way the calf is facing. Gently find a leg. You can feel two joints
between elbow and hoof on forelegs, one joint between hock and hoof on back legs. Birthing a
cow in a posterior (rear facing) position is more dangerous for both mother and calf.

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Step 6- Make small, mild adjustments to the calf's position if necessary once the cow is
constantly straining. Ensure the legs (and head if front facing) are in the birth canal, and not hung
up on the pubic bone. Do not attempt to move a rear-facing calf into a forward-facing position.
The attempt is likely to harm both animals.
Step 7- Help the cow dilate further by placing freshly washed hands and arms on either side of
the calf's head and working them in and out of the birth canal for about five minutes.
Step 8- Watch for signs of distress. As soon as the forelegs and nose appear, lightly pinch the
calf's tongue. If the tongue retracts, the calf is likely doing fine. If there is no response, and the
tongue appears dark between contractions (a dark tongue during contractions is normal) the calf
is in distress. Another sign of a problem is a calf with a yellowish appearance. If no distress signs
are apparent, let the cow finish her work. If the calf is in distress, you must try to speed delivery.
Try again to dilate the mother. Reach around the calf and pull during contractions in a steady
motion. You can pull hard, but do not "yank" on the calf. If at all possible, avoid pulling on the
calf's head. Continue to assist until the calf is born.
2.2. Perform Burdizo castration of ruminant animal

A. Equipments /Materials

 Burdizo
 Rope
 Antiseptic like alcohol and iodine solution
 PPE
B- Techniques for Burdizo castration

Step1. Wear appropriate PPE

[Link] animal should be properly restrained by the assistant. The operator grasps the scrotum
in one hand and manipulates the testes down into the scrotum. He then locates the two spermatic
cords between the fingers and pushes one cord over to one side of the scrotum. This is the first
cord to be crushed.

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Step3. Place the jaws of the burdizzo onto the upper scrotum, leaving the rudimentary teats
above the crushing point. Do not crush the septum or tissue between the testicles. Rather, do one
side of the scrotum at a time.
Step4. Press together the burdizzo over the cord on the side of the scrotum you are doing first.
You can generally hear a clicking sound as the cord is crushed.
Leave the instrument closed for 20 to 25 seconds. The spermatic cord is very elusive when you
try to crush it. Be sure that you feel it within the jaws of the burdizzo before and after the jaws
are closed.
Step5. Release the Burdizzo, move it lower to a new site about 1 cm closer to the testicles and
close it again to be doubly sure that the cord is crushed. A site below the first crush is chosen to
minimize acute pain from a second crush.
Step6. Locate the cord on the other side of the scrotum and position the burdizzo over it. Close
the burdizzo and repeat what you did with the first cord.
Step7. When you are done, you may see a mark on each side of the scrotum and release the
animal.
The animal may be sore and move slowly for about a day. Be sure to encourage it to move
around. At first the scrotum will swell up a little, but the testicles will gradually shrink over the
next few weeks leaving a small scrotal sac.
If the skin is broken, apply an antiseptic like alcohol. Also give an injection of tetanus antitoxin
if available.

[Link] Dehorning
A. Materials
B. Procedure of Trimming horns (Dehorning)

1. Restrain the calf

2. Clip the hair around the base of the horn button as close as possible with a scissors are
electric clippers

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 3. Clip off the end of the horn button with a sharp pocket knife so that the dehorning
chemical can penetrate the horn and destroy the modified skin tissues that produce the
horn.
4. Apply the ring of petroleum jelly or Vaseline around the base of the horn bottom.
5. Apply the dehorning chemical. The caustic stick must be applied exactly according to
label direction.
6. Apply the caustic stick in a circular motion on top of the horn button and the area
immediately around the horn. Care should be taken to minimize skin contact. If paste is
used, apply it to the horn until it is approximately the thickness of a dime over the top of
the horn button
7. Release the animal
2.4. Hoof trimming of shoat
Equipment, Tools and Materials:

 Hoof cutter,
 Sharp knife
 Automatic squeeze table
 Hoof scatter
 Disinfect ant
 Trimming tools
Conditions:

 Trim hoof immediately after rain or heavy dew, because the hoof wall will be much
softer and easier to trim.
 Animals can be allowed to stand in a wet area for 2 to 3 hours before trimming.

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Procedure for hoof trimming:

1. Properly restrain the animal.

Sheep: For small number of sheep, it is usually enough to tip the animal, and sit it on its rump, a
position normally used for shearing

Step1 step2 step3 step4

Goats: Goats can be trimmed while in a standing position. Hoof trimming is best done in a
squeeze chute or by positioning or tying the animal next to a wall or fence and trim the hooves.

Opetion.1 opetion.2 opetion.3

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Options for restraining a goat in a position to trim front (1 and 2) and back hooves (3)

2. Observe the color and check the smell of the hoof. A rotten smell is usually indicative of foot
rot and appropriate treatment should be given.

3. The next thing to do is to clean any mud, manure, small stones, etc., from between the walls of
the hoof.
4. The ends of the dewclaws can be the starting place for trimming. The tips of the dewclaws
should be removed. It is important to remove small bits at frequent intervals to avoid bleeding as
a result of cutting too short.

5. It is always advisable to begin by removing very small pieces of hoof wall and toe. The toe
and outside hoof wall are trimmed down to where fresh sole can be seen (stop when the sole
looks pink) and the bottom of the foot is parallel to the line where the hair stops known as the
coronary band.

6: The inside wall of the foot should normally be trimmed a little bit lower than the outside. This
allows most of the animal’s weight to be on the outside hoof wall where it should be placed
naturally.

2.5. Performing Identification of ruminant animal

A. materials

Procedure of Identification of ruminant animal

1. Ear notching
Procedures for Identification by ear notching

Step1. Prepare appropriate PPE

Step2. Restrain the animal properly
Step3. Have ear notching equipment
Step4. Apply safely and humanely
Step5. Apply antiseptic
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Step6. Release the animal
2. Ear tagging
Equipment’s

 Ears tag applicator

 Plastic materials
 Crush
 PPE
Procedures to follows
 Wear PPE
 Restrain the animal
 Prepare ear tagging equipment
 Apply ear tag quickly and humanely
 Release the animal
3. Tattooing
B. important equipment
 Pliers
 ink ( color)
 crush
 PPE
C. Procedures for tattooing
 Put on PPE
 Restrain the animal
 Apply pliers(needle)on recommended area
 Apply(rub) ink on pierced area
 Complete and release the animal

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 4. Branding
1. Hot branding
Important equipments

 iron
 Crush
 PPE
Procedures for hot branding

 Put on PPE
 Restrain the animal
 Prepare hot iron
 Select appropriate place for branding considering the quality hide
 Put hot iron on skin for 3 sec
 Apply antiseptic
 Release the animals
2. Freeze branding
 Using freeze iron for animal identification
 Procedures of freeze branding
 Put on PPE
 prepare liquid coolant with -106oc or -157
 Immerse copper iron in liquid coolant for 20min
 Restrain the animal
 Clip hair from branding area
 Soak clipped area with the same solvent of liquid coolant
 Re-soak and apply branding iron firmly for 30-35sec( based on animal age)
 release the animal

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2.6. Determine age of cattle by teeth

A. materials

B. Procedure/Techniques of cattle age determination by teeth

1. Wear appropriate PPE before starting the operation

2. Properly restrain the animal
3. Properly hold the animal
4. observe number of permanent teeth
5. Release the anima
6. Estimate the age of cattle

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LAP test-2

Instructions: Given necessary templates, tools and materials you are required to perform the
following tasks within -5- hour.

Task1. Identify, cheek and maintain materials tools and equipment

Task2. Follow instructions and directions during ruminant animal husbandry
Task3. Apply ruminants restraining techniques
Task4. Provide feed and water
Task5. Prevent and treat of bloating problems
Task6. Undertake natural Mating of animals
Task7. Assist animal in normal parturition
Task8. Undertake Castration of small ruminant
Task9. Undertake Dehorning of bull
Task10. Undertake hoof trimming
Task11. Operate Shearing activities
Task12. Apply Identifications
Task13. Carry out dental age estimation of ruminants

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 LO-3: Handle and Clean Materials and Equipment’s
LG-8

Instruction sheet-3
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following content coverage and topics:
 Handling waste materials
 Handling and transporting materials, tools and equipment
 Cleaning ,maintaining and storing materials, tools and equipment
 Reporting problems or difficulties
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Handle waste materials
 Handle and transport materials, tools and equipment
 Clean ,maintain and store materials, tools and equipment
 Reporte problems or difficulties

Learning Instructions 3
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Follow the instructions described below.
3. Read the information written in the information Sheets
4. Accomplish the Self-checks
5. Perform Operation Sheets
6. Do the “LAP test”

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Information sheet-3

2.3. Handling waste materials

Definitions of terms

Waste is described as “any gas, liquid, solid or energy, or a combination of them that is not
considered a resource and is surplus to, or unwanted from, any industrial, commercial, domestic
or other activity, whether or not of value.”
Animal Wastes refers to waste of a biological nature, which has the potential to cause harm by
acting as an infectious agent, while undergoing decomposition. To prevent this occurring,
Animal wastes are treated (i.e. by rendering or using incineration).
Animal carcasses refers to the carcasses of domestic and laboratory animals including parts
thereof that are not classified as Clinical and Related (Path) waste or Cytotoxic Drugs, waste
containing radiation material and Related waste.
Carcass Limbs Any limb which has been removed from the carcass.
Animal litter and foodstuffs refers to left over or contaminated foodstuffs, sawdust from cages
and all animal litter.
Faeces any faeces accumulated or faecal specimens used for testing.
Clinical Waste refers to any samples (e.g. Tissue, venom, blood, serum and swabs) that have
been in contact with or used in experiments with a pathological substance and includes
pathological waste.
Infectious Agent Means an organism, including a micro-organism or worm that causes disease
or another adverse health impact in humans.

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Waste materials May include, but not limited to:
 Broken rearing and farm items
 Plant debris
 Plastic, metal and paper-based materials
 Returned to manufacturer
 Dung and urine
 Spoiled milk

Objectives of handling waste

 Ensure that the Animal Wastes generated are disposed of in an environmentally sound
manner
 Protect human health and the environment from the effects of potentially harmful wastes;
and
 Comply with legal requirements for treatment and disposal of Animal Waste.

Collection of waste for disposal

 Where possible, Animal waste shall be placed in a green receptacle/bin with a light green
lid with no splits or cracks and a fixed lid;
 The receptacle/bins will be marked as Animal waste;
 The receptacle/bins will not exceed 40kg in weight; and Please place in Clinical and
Related Waste or other appropriate waste bins.
N.B. Please exclude the following non-compatible wastes from the Animal Waste bins:

 Sharps
 Disposable gloves
 Any types of plastic (e.g. plastic bags, plastic containers)
 Paper toweling
 Paper that is contaminated (e.g. blood and serum).

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Storage of waste

Animal carcasses and parts thereof must be kept refrigerated (e.g. dedicated area within a cold
room) as required until the time of removal from site. Animal litter, foodstuffs and faeces must
be stored in a cool environment.
The waste shall be stored:
 in a weather protected, well-ventilated area;
 in a secured area and not readily accessible by the general public; and
 In such a manner as to present no threat to health, safety and the environment.
 If possible and safe, stored until the School or Centre has a bin full.
 If not able to comply with the above requirements, disposed of as quickly as possible.
Transporters of Animal Waste
 Animal Waste will be collected and transported by:
 A licensed contractor for the handling of this type of waste; or
 A person or company who can demonstrate suitable knowledge and equipment to handle
such waste.
 Transportation shall be in accordance with the Transport Operations
Disposal and Treatment
 Only suitably licensed or approved facilities shall be used to treat this waste for disposal
including rendering and composting.
 These facilities are licensed to only accept wastes that are non infected or
uncontaminated.
Spills

 Every generator, transporter or handler of Animal Wastes shall hold equipment, and have
staff who are trained to carry out clean up of spills of this waste. This will include all
measures for containing, removing and disinfecting a spill area.
 Any material generated by responding to a spill should be handled as animal waste unless
it is excluded, by its nature, by any part of this procedure.

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2.4. Handling and transporting materials, tools and equipment

Transporting equipment is used to move material from one location to another (e.g., between
workplaces, between a loading dock and a storage area, etc.) within a facility or at a site.

The major subcategories of transport equipment are:

A. Conveyors. Equipment used to move materials over a fixed path between specific points.
B. Cranes. Equipment used to move materials over variable paths within a restricted area.
C. Industrial Trucks. Equipment used to move materials over variable paths, with no
restrictions on the area covered by the movement (i.e., unrestricted area).
D. No Equipment. Material can also be transported manually using no equipment.
“Materials handling include all movements of materials in a manufacturing situation. It is an art
and science involving the moving, packing and storing of substances in any form.” — American
Society of Mechanical Engineers
“Material handling involves the movements of materials, manually or mechanically, in batches
or one item at a time within the plant. The movement may be horizontal, vertical or the
combination of horizontal and vertical”.

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The overall objectives of materials handling is to reduce production cost. This general objective
can be sub-divided into more specific goals, such as:

 To lowers unit materials handling cost

 To reduce manufacturing cycle time
 To provide better control of the flow of materials
 To provide better working conditions
 To provide contribution for better quality by avoiding damages to products
 To increase storage capacity through better utilization of storage areas
 To provide higher productivity at lower manufacturing costs
 To improve customer service

2.5. Cleaning ,maintaining and storing materials, tools and

equipment
2.5.11. Cleaning of materials, tools and equipment’s

Cleaning is the process of removing unwanted substances, such as dirt, infectious agents, and
other impurities, from an object or environment. Cleaning occurs in many different contexts, and
uses many different methods. Several occupations are devoted to cleaning.

2.5.12. Methods of cleaning materials, tools and equipments

Cleaning is broadly achieved through mechanical action and/or solvent action; many methods
rely on both processes.

1. Washing, usually done with water and often some kind of soap or detergent
 Pressure washing, using a high-pressure stream of water
2. Abrasive blasting, typically used to remove bulk material from a surface, may be used to
remove contaminants as well

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3. Acoustic cleaning, the use of sound waves to shake particulates loose from surfaces
 Ultrasonic cleaning, using ultrasound, usually from 20–400 kHz
 Megasonic cleaning, a gentler mechanism than ultrasonic cleaning, used
in wafer, medical implant, and industrial part cleaning
4. Carbon dioxide cleaning, a family of methods for parts cleaning and sterilization
using carbon dioxide in its various phases
5. Dry cleaning of clothing and textiles, using a chemical solvent other than water
6. Flame cleaning of structural steel with an oxyacetylene flame
7. Green cleaning, using environmentally friendly methods and products
8. Plasma cleaning, using energetic plasma or dielectric barrier discharge plasma created from
various gases
9. Sputter cleaning, performed in a vacuum by using physical sputtering of the surface
10. Steam cleaning, in both domestic and industrial contexts
11. Thermal cleaning, in industrial settings, involving pyrolysis and oxidation
12. Wet cleaning, methods of professional laundering that avoid the use of chemical solvents

Fig1. Cleaning methods

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Cleaning agents are substances (usually liquids, powders, sprays, or granules) used to
remove dirt, including dust, stains, bad smells, and clutter on surfaces. Purposes of cleaning
agents include health, beauty, removing offensive odor, and avoiding the spread of dirt and
contaminants to oneself and others. Some cleaning agents can kill bacteria (e.g. door handle
bacteria, as well as bacteria on worktops and other metallic surfaces) and clean at the same time.
Others, called degreasers, contain organic solvents to help dissolve oils and fats.

Different cleaning agents are used depending on the item to be cleaned, the cleaning method and
the type of soiling found on the item. There are four main types of cleaning agents used in
commercial kitchens:

1. Detergents
Detergents are the most common type of cleaning agent and are used in home and commercial
kitchens. They work by breaking up dirt or soil, making it easy to wash it away. The detergents
used in commercial kitchens are usually synthetic detergents made from petroleum products and
may be in the form of powder, liquid, gel or crystals.
2. Degreasers
Degreasers are sometimes known as solvent cleaners and are used to remove grease from
surfaces such as oven tops, counters and grill backsplashes. Methylated spirits or white spirit
were commonly used as degreasers in the past. Most food businesses now try to use non-toxic,
non-fuming degreasers in their operations to prevent chemical contamination.
3. Abrasives
Abrasives are substances or chemicals that depend on rubbing or scrubbing action to clean dirt
from hard surfaces. In commercial kitchens, abrasives are usually used to clean floors, pots and
pans. Abrasives should be used with care as they may scratch certain types of materials used for
kitchen equipment such as plastic or stainless steel.
4. Acids
Acid cleaners are the most powerful type of cleaning agent and should be used with care. If they
are not diluted correctly acid cleaners can be very poisonous and corrosive.

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Acid cleaners are generally used to remove mineral deposits and are useful for descaling
dishwashers or removing rust from restroom facilities. Always follow cleaning with sanitizing:
Cleaning is only the first step to a germ-free kitchen. Cleaning is done using detergent, but it
doesn’t kill bacteria or other microorganisms that can cause food poisoning. To kill bacteria and
ensure a clean workplace, you must follow cleaning with sanitizing.
Effective cleaning and sanitizing also helps to:

 prevent pests from entering your business

 prevent cross-contamination

 prevent allergic reactions caused by cross-contamination

2.5.13. Maintaining materials, tools and equipment’s

The technical meaning of maintenance involves functional checks, servicing, repairing or

replacing of necessary devices, equipment, machinery, building infrastructure, and supporting
utilities in industrial, business, governmental, and residential installations. Over time, this has
come to include multiple wordings that describe various cost-effective practices to keep
equipment operational; these activities take place either before or after a failure.

 Any activity—such as tests, measurements, replacements, adjustments, and repairs—

intended to retain or restore a functional unit in or to a specified state in which the unit
can perform its required functions.
 All action taken to retain material in a serviceable condition or to restore it to
serviceability. It includes inspections, testing, servicing, classification as to
serviceability, repair, rebuilding and reclamation.
 All supply and repair action taken to keep a force in condition to carry out its mission.
 The routine recurring work required to keep a facility (plant, building,
structure, ground facility, utility system, or other real property) in such condition that it
may be continuously used, at its original or designed capacity and efficiency for its
intended purpose.

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Maintenance is strictly connected to the utilization stage of the product or technical system, in
which the concept of maintainability must be included. In this scenario, maintainability is
considered as the ability of an item, under stated conditions of use, to be retained in or restored to
a state in which it can perform its required functions, using prescribed procedures and resources.

Types of maintenance

2. Preventive maintenance

Preventive maintenance (PM) is "a routine for periodically inspecting" with the goal of
"noticing small problems and fixing them before major ones develop." Ideally, "nothing breaks
down."

The main goal behind PM is for the equipment to make it from one planned service to the next
planned service without any failures caused by fatigue, neglect, or normal wear (preventable
items), which Planned Maintenance and Condition Based Maintenance help to achieve by
replacing worn components before they actually fail. Maintenance activities include partial or
complete overhauls at specified periods, oil changes, lubrication, minor adjustments, and so on.
In addition, workers can record equipment deterioration so they know to replace or repair worn
parts before they cause system failure.

Main objective of PM are:

1. Enhance capital equipment productive life.

2. Reduce critical equipment breakdown.
3. Minimize production loss due to equipment failures.
Other terms and abbreviations related to PM are:
 scheduled maintenance
 planned maintenance, which may include scheduled downtime for equipment replacement
 planned preventive maintenance (PPM) is another name for PM
 Breakdown maintenance: fixing things only when they break. This is also known as "a
reactive maintenance strategy “and may involve "consequential damage."

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 3. Planned maintenance

Planned preventive maintenance (PPM), more commonly referred to as simply planned

maintenance (PM) or scheduled maintenance, is any variety of scheduled maintenance to an
object or item of equipment. Specifically, planned maintenance is a scheduled service visit
carried out by a competent and suitable agent, to ensure that an item of equipment is operating
correctly and to therefore avoid any unscheduled breakdown and downtime.

The key factor as to when and why this work is being done is timing, and involve a service,
resource or facility being unavailable. Planned maintenance is preplanned, and can be date-
based, based on equipment running hours, or on distance travelled.

4. Predictive replacement

Predictive replacement is the replacement of an item that is still functioning properly. Usually
it's a tax-benefit based replacement policy whereby expensive equipment or batches of
individually inexpensive supply items are removed and donated on a predicted/fixed shelf
life schedule. These items are given to tax-exempt institutions.

5. Condition-based maintenance

Condition-based maintenance (CBM), shortly described, is maintenance when need arises. CBM
maintenance is performed after one or more indicators show that equipment is going to fail or
that equipment performance is deteriorating.

Advantages and disadvantages of CBM

CBM has some advantages over planned maintenance:

 Improved system reliability

 Decreased maintenance costs
 Decreased number of maintenance operations causes a reduction of human
error influences

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Its disadvantages are:

 High installation costs, for minor equipment items often more than the value of the
equipment
 Unpredictable maintenance periods cause costs to be divided unequally
 Increased number of parts (the CBM installation itself) that need maintenance and
checking
6. Corrective maintenance

Corrective maintenance is a type of maintenance used for equipment after equipment break down
or malfunction is often most expensive – not only can worn equipment damage other parts and
cause multiple damage, but consequential repair and replacement costs and loss of revenues due
to down time during overhaul can be significant. Rebuilding and resurfacing of equipment and
infrastructure damaged by erosion and corrosion as part of corrective or preventive maintenance
program involves conventional processes such as welding and metal flame spraying.

7. Predictive maintenance

This maintenance strategy uses sensors to monitor key parameters within a machine or system,
and uses this data in conjunction with analyzed historical trends to continuously evaluate the
system health and predict a breakdown before it happens. This strategy allows maintenance to be
performed more efficiently, since more up-to-date data is obtained about how close the product
is to failure.

2.5.14. Storing materials, tools and equipment’s

Safe storage of materials and equipment is essential for many businesses, such as construction
job sites, laboratories, and other locations that handle chemicals, flammable gases and other
hazardous materials. Storage methods and procedures are regulated for many such items;
when in doubt it is always best to be cautious to prevent accidents. Locking storage cabinets
and restricting access to storage areas will prevent unauthorized handling of stored items and
minimize the possibility of theft.

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General Plan

Create a plan for storing all equipment and materials at your site. Assign a specific location to
each item or type of item and label the space accordingly. Make certain that work areas and
walkways are kept clear of all stored items. Use tape or paint to identify such areas on the floor
of a large area, such as a manufacturing facility. In an office, laboratory or similar smaller
setting, use cabinets with doors that close securely. Always leave at least 1.5 feet between the
top of stored items and fire sprinklers, if present. Make sure that all stacks are solid and secure
them whenever possible.

Flammable Materials

Materials that are highly flammable require special handling. Gases such as propane and
butane must be kept in pressure-safe containers with appropriate labels. Flammable gases are
to be kept in a separate, well-ventilated area. According to the Occupational Safety and Health
Association, flammable liquids such as gasoline and kerosene must be stored in approved
containers located away from other flammable materials. These can be stored only in a
specially constructed room that is able to contain a fire for one to two hours. Keep flammable
materials 50 feet away from sources of heat or flame.

Chemicals and Other Hazardous Materials

All chemicals, including cleaning materials, should be kept in their original containers or in
properly labeled containers of an appropriate type. Every workplace that uses chemicals of any
type should have a book containing all material data safety sheets, and the book must be kept
where it is easily accessible. Chemicals must be stored where there is no public access and
where tipping or breaking can’t happen, such as secure shelves inside a locked cupboard. The
cupboard must be labeled with the type of materials it contains.

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Machinery and Equipment

Machinery such as forklifts such must be kept in a safe location where it is protected from
unauthorized access, weather and accidental damage. It must be kept away from driveways,
walkways and other areas where access is required. All equipment should be turned off when
not in use. If there is a chance of oil, hydraulic fluid or other liquids leaking from the vehicle
while it is stored, use a drip pan underneath it to catch any spills. Check the area frequently for
such leaks and clean them up immediately if any are found, as these represent significant fall
hazards for employees.

Remember: always after work was accomplish clean, maintain and store on their original place
of materials tools and equipment.

2.6. Reporting problems or difficulties

A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience
and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are
almost always in the form of written documents. In modern business scenario, reports play a
major role in the progress of business. Reports are the backbone to the thinking process of the
establishment and they are responsible, to a great extent, in evolving an efficient or inefficient
work environment.

The significance of the reports includes:

 Reports present adequate information on various aspects of the business.
 All the skills and the knowledge of the professionals are communicated through reports.
 Reports help the top line in decision making.
 A rule and balanced report also helps in problem solving.
 Reports communicate the planning, policies and other matters regarding an organization to
the masses. News reports play the role of ombudsman and levy checks and balances on the
establishment.

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What is reporting?
Reporting is providing information about serious wrongdoing that you have become aware of at
your workplace/ place of study. Reporting is about notifying concerning what you believe to be
the discovery of breaches of laws and regulations, breaches of ethical norms or serious
conditions which might harm individuals, the university, cooperative partners, or society as a
whole. Employees have the right and, in some cases, duty to report wrongdoing at the institution,
such as when there is a danger posed to life and health.
Examples of situations where employees need to speak out:
 Defects or shortcomings which could lead to a danger posed to life or health

 Breaches of professional and research-oriented ethical guidelines

 When fellow students or colleagues are bullied, harassed (including sexual harassment)
or discriminated against in connection with their work at workplace

 Drug use or other forms of problematic addiction

 Environmental crime

 Activities which could damage property or infrastructure

Reporting regarding conditions which are only of internal or personal interest, for example
internal personal conflicts in which the employee can be considered to be a part of the conflict,
shall be dealt with in accordance with workplace guidelines for managing conflict.
Any difficulties or problems should be report for the concerned body or supervisor with format
given by the organization. Report can be regular or scheduled (like annual report, have year
report, quarter year report, monthly report, weakly and daily report) and emergency report
(report where emergency or uncertainty occur).

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Self-check-3

Name…………………………………………… ID………………………… Date…….

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below.
1. Define waste? (2pts)
2. What is the objective of waste handling? (2pts)
3. What will occur if waste is not properly handled? (3pts)
4. What is material handling?
5. Discus the objective of material handling?
6. Elaborate damages causing by poor transporting and handling techniques and give
your solution
7. What is report? (2pts)
8. Mention the significance of the reports? (2pts)
9. What is cleaning? (2pts)
10. Discus about methods of cleaning? (2pts)
11. Discus about methods of material maintenance? (3pts)

Add choise…………………………………………….

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Operation sheet-3
3.1. Procedures for disposal of waste materials

A. Prepare Materials and tools,………………………….

B. Procedures/Techniques
Step1. Put on appropriate PPE
Step2. Prepare waste disposal materials tools and equipment
Step3. Identify disposable materials with returning material
Step4. Collect waste materials properly
Step5. Dispose waste on designated waste disposal area.
3.2. Procedures for Cleaning materials, tools and equipment’s

A. Prepare Materials and tools,………………………….

B. Procedures/Techniques

Step1. Put on appropriate PPE

Step2. Prepare cleaning materials
Step3. Wash the equipments by water
Step4. Apply suitable detergents for the type of waste present on the equipments
Step5. Rinse the equipments
Step6. Dry the cleaned equipments by towel or heat
Step7. Return or store the equipments on their original place.

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3.3. Procedures of Preparing Report
A. Prepare Materials and tools,………………………….
B. Procedures/Techniques
Step1. Prepare recording format
Step 2. Record all the data and steps in work
Step 3. Arrange the data
Step 4. Select the relevant data to the work
Step 5. Interpret according to your work
Step 6. Compile the data properly
Step 7. Report the total outcomes of the work to the concerned body

LAP test-3
Instructions: Given necessary templates, tools and materials you are required to perform the
following tasks within -1:20- hour.
Task1. Dispose waste material properly
Task2. Clean materials, tools and equipment’s
Task3. Prepare report for your work

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Reference Materials:
Books:

1. National open university of Nigeria. Ruminant animal production. Printed 2018.

2. Sheep and Goat Production Handbook for Ethiopia. Edited by Alemu Yami and Merkel R.
C . Ethiopia Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program, 2008.
3. University of Wyoming Extension. Personal Protective Equipment for Agriculture
4. Course guide on ruminant animal production. National open university of Nigeria, 2018.
5. Dairy Farmers Training Manual, Ministry of Livestock Development, Nairobi, Kenya
2012.
6. Sheep and Goat Production Handbook for Ethiopia, Ethiopia Sheep and Goat Productivity
Improvement Program (ESGPIP) 2008
a. Dairy Farmers Training Manual, Ministry of Livestock Development, Nairobi, Kenya
2012.
Web addresses:
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
_buying_better_bulls.pdf
3. [Link]
and-water-for-ruminants
4. [Link]
and-water-for-ruminants
5. [Link]
6. [Link]
7. [Link]

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Page 112 of 116 Ministry of Labor and Animal Production Version -1
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 The experts who developed the learning guide
No Name Qualification Educational Institution Phone number E-mail
background
1 Abenet Getahun MSc. Animal Gewane ATVET 0940236673 abenetgetahun@[Link]
Production College
2 Biru Kefenie MSc. Animal W/Soddo 0913334612 ukefene@[Link]
Production ATVET
College
3 Gashaw Assefie MSc. Animal Agarfa ATVET 0914068274 lakomelzajournalist@[Link]
Production College
4 Genanew Abera MSc. Animal genetics Alage ATVET 0926672970 genanewabera@[Link]
and breeding College
5 Sead Taha MSc. Animal Agarfa ATVET 0916112492 tahasead@[Link]
Production College
6 Solomon Fertewal MSc. Animal Alage ATVET 0952648413 Tosolomon@[Link]
Production College
7 Temesgen Roro MSc. Animal Holeta PTC 0917657496 temesgenroro@[Link]
Production
8 Terefe Tolcha MSc. Animal Alage ATVET 0911067132 terefetc@[Link]
Production College
9 Yirmedie Bayou MSc. Animal genetics Mizan ATVET 0915851079 Yirmedie123@[Link]
and breeding College

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