CHAPTER FOUR:
MEMORY
Computer Maintenance and
Technical support
Memory
• A collection of storage cells together with the necessary circuits to
transfer information to and from them
• The storage space in computer where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored
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Types of memory in computer system
• Primary memory
• RAM, ROM, Cached memory
• Secondary Memory
• HD, Flash Drive, CD/DVD, Floppy Disk, Magnetic Tape,
• The processor uses temporary storage, called primary storage or
memory, to temporarily hold both data and instructions while it is
processing them
• However, when data and instructions are not being used, they must be
kept in permanent storage, sometimes called secondary storage
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(RAM) Technology
• Primary storage is provided by devices called memory or RAM (random
access memory) located on the motherboard and on some adapter cards
• RAM loses its contents when the computer is switched off (it is volatile)
• RAM chips are embedded on a small board that plugs into the motherboard
• These small RAM boards are called memory modules,
• Common memory modules include SIMM (single) & DIMM (dual) and the
most common type of module used with modern computers is the DIMM
(dual inline memory module) (168-240 pins )
• The Signal Inline Memory Module or SIMM appears with a 30 pin and 72
pin variants.
• SIMMs are considered legacy components and can be found in older
machines
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Cont. …
• The major differences among these modules are the width of the
data path that each type of module accommodates and the way data
moves from the system bus to the module
• Read more on SIMM and DIMM (Reading Assignment)
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Cache Memory
• Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which
can speed up CPU process time
• It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory(RAM).
• It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by CPU
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Primary Memory (Main Memory)
• Divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
• Characteristics of RAM
• These are semiconductor memories
• Usually volatile memory or data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without primary memory.
• ROM
• Non volatile
• Data never loses, never changed
• Used to hold booting instructions (BIOS setup)
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Functions of Primary Memory:
• It holds the OS instructions while the computer is booting (ROM).
• It temporarily holds the input instructions from the input devices
while the data is being input and processed (ROM).
• It stores the results temporarily until it is transferred to the respective
output devices (ROM).
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Types of Primary Memory
1. RAM – Random Access Memory
a. Static RAM (SRAM)
b. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
2. ROM – Read Only Memory
a. PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory
b. EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
c. EEPROM – Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
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DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
• Relatively simple and inexpensive to produce.
• Needs only one transistor and capacitor to hold a bit
• Consumes the least power & Least in performance.
• Must be refreshed every few minutes. This makes it slower.
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SRAM (Static RAM)
• Doesn’t require regular refreshment
• Have speed of much higher than DRAM,
• Uses 6 or more transistors to hold a single bit.
• Costly than DRAM
• High power consumption than DRAM. Cache memory is SRAM.
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Secondary Memory
• This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile.
• They are slower than main memory.
• These are used for storing data/Information permanently.
• CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed
via input-output routines.
• Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory,
and then CPU can access them from the main memory
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ROM and cache memory
• ROM or Read Only Memory is non-volatile and is used to store
programs permanently (the start-up or "boot" instructions),
• The computer cannot store any other thing in this type of memory
• Rom is most commonly used to store system – level programs that we
want to have available to the PC at all times.
• The most common being the BIOS program.
• The two main reasons that read only memory is used are for
performance and security.
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Types of ROM
1)Programmable ROM (PROM) :
• Comes blank
• Can be modified once by a user
• PROM is a way of allowing a user to tailor a microcode program using a
special machine called a PROM programmer
• This machine supplies an electrical current to specific cells in the ROM that
effectively blows a fuse in them.
• The process is known as burning the PROM.
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Cont.…
2)Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM
• Special type of PROM
• Content of it could be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet ray
• There are some EPROMs though, known as one-time programmable
(OTP) EPROMs, that are designed to be non-reprogrammable
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Cont..
3)Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)
• EEPROM is user-modifiable read-only memory that can be erased
and reprogrammed (written to)
• Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs do not need to be removed from
the computer to be modified.
• A special form of EEPROM is flash memory, which uses normal PC
voltages for erasure and reprogramming.
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Cache Memory
• It is a special high-speed storage mechanism.
• It can be either a reserved section of main memory (virtual cache) or an
independent high-speed storage device
• Two types of caching are commonly used in personal computers:
• Memory caching and
• Disk caching
• A memory cache , sometimes called a cache store or RAM cache, is a portion of
memory made of high-speed static RAM (SRAM) instead of the slower and
cheaper dynamic RAM (DRAM) used for main memory. 17
Cont.…
• Memory caching is effective because most programs access the same
data or instructions over and over.
• By keeping as much of this information as possible in SRAM, the
computer avoids accessing the slower DRAM
• Some memory caches are built into the architecture of microprocessors
• The Intel 80486 microprocessor contains an 8K memory cache, and the
Pentium has a 16K cache (internal caches).
• Such internal caches are often called Level 1 (L1) caches 18
Cont.…
• Most modern PCs also come with external cache memory, which
is located on the motherboard, called Level 2 (L2) caches
• These caches sit between the CPU and the DRAM. Like L1 caches,
L2 caches are composed of SRAM but they are much larger
• Disk caching works under the same principle as memory caching,
but instead of using high-speed SRAM, a disk cache uses
conventional main memory
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Advantage and disadvantage of cache
memory
• Advantages
• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.
• Disadvantages
• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.
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Identify Memory Problems and upgrading
• Tips for diagnosing memory problems
1. Look for odd behavior
• The first step in diagnosing memory problems is to look for strange
behavior -- things like lockups and blue screens -- that might indicate a
problem with the machine's memory.
• Keep in mind that strange behavior alone does not necessarily point to a
memory problem.
• The symptoms I have outlined can also sometimes be traced to problems
with a CPU or a system board or even a malware infection. Even so,
paying attention to odd behavior is a good first step in diagnosing a
memory problem.
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Cont.…
2. Listen to the beep codes
• One way to diagnose memory problems without opening the computer's
case or run specialized diagnostic software is to pay attention to the beep
codes when you power up the machine.
• Since beep codes vary from one manufacturer to another, you'll have to
look on the manufacturer's Web site to determine the meanings of any
beeps you hear.
• For example, some machines make one beep at startup to indicate that the
machine is healthy. But some of the computers that use BIOS don't beep at
all.
• If you hear a single beep on such a machine, it doesn't mean that the
machine is healthy. It usually indicates a DRAM refresh failure.
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Cont.…
• So be sure you check the documentation for the machine you're diagnosing.
• In many cases, computers that aren't booting due to memory problems will
beep several times immediately after or during boot-up.
• These beeps can mean different things, but when dealing with memory, the a
memory stick could be bad or failing, or a memory slot can be going bad.
Also, the installed memory could have been loosened and needs to be
inserted tightly. In any of these instance using your PC manual or
motherboard manual will help in determining the meaning of the beep codes.
• Once you have confirmed the beeping is due to a memory related problem,
you can begin testing the RAM for errors.
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Cont.…
3. Use the process of elimination
• Once you're relatively sure that a memory problem exists, you have to
determine which memory module has gone bad.
• Occasionally, you might run into a situation in which more than one
memory module is bad.
• If this happens, you can still use the process of elimination to determine
where the problem lies, but you will have to test each module individually.
• In most cases, however, only a single module goes bad at a time.
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Cont.…
4. Blue screens for "no reason"
• When a computer has constant blue screens, it is always
advisable to recall the last action that was performed on the
computer such as a program installation, Windows update,
recent virus infection; to name a few.
• Once it is confirmed that there are no "logical" reasons for the
blue screen (no virus, no updates, no software was installation,
no hardware installed), you can check the memory for errors.
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Cont.…
5. A computer that boots but hangs
• A computer that boots successfully but "hangs" either immediately after
booting, or between the time that the Windows desktop appears (if it
appears at all)could have a RAM issue.
• Other issues can cause a computer to hang such as motherboard problems,
viruses, failing hard drive (or corrupted partition tables/MBR), power
supply problems and other hardware issues.
• Testing the memory definitely helps to narrow down the culprit and identify
what ISN'T causing the problem.
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6. Inability to install Windows (blue screen during install or other error
messages)
• If you experience problems when trying to install Windows that aren't
related to: a bad or improperly connected or configured hard drive, a
scratched or bad disc, a bad CD or DVD Rom, or a bad copy (counterfeit) of
Windows; bad RAM could be the culprit.
• If you are installing Windows from a flash drive, a CD or DVD won't apply to
you and you can automatically rule out those media types as the culprit, and
start testing the memory. Whenever Windows fails to install and you aren't
sure of the reason, testing the memory is the best thing to do.
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Upgrade Memory
• If your desktop PC has slowed down, then memory (or the need for
more or not enough of it)) may be the culprit. Upgrading memory is
the easiest way to modify your computer's speed.
• The individual memory sticks hold from 128 MB RAM up to 8 GB.
• The first thing you need to figure out is how much memory and
how many empty memory slots you actually have in your system.
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Steps
1. Get a new memory stick, then turn off the computer and
the power supply and unplug your computer.
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2. Open up your computer by removing
the screws in the back. (though some
computers have a latch which is pushed)
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3. Locate the memory cards that are
already in your computer. They are
usually long and thin, and rectangular
in shape.
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4. Touch the metal computer case with
your hand in more than one place to
discharge static electricity from your
body. This static can damage the memory
chips.
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5. Push the two white tabs down to
release the current memory and
pull out the chip.
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6. Line up the a new chip and push it into
place. Make sure it is in the whole way. A
clicking sound can usually be heard when
the memory is secure.
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RAM on the slot
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