18.2.

2 Uses of Sheet Piles

Sheet piles are used in the following activities:
() Toform watertight enclosures for the construction of foundations.
(i) To retain the sides of trenches during excavation.
(ii) To Prevent escape of subsoil.
(iv) To prevent seepage below dams and other hydraulic structure.

18.3 Coffer Dams

Cofferdams are required during the construction of docks, bridge piers and some times
buildings.
Theessential requirements of a cofferdam are:
(1) It should keep the construction site reasonably dry.
(2) It should be easy to dismantle.
(3) Its material should be reusable.

(4) It should be economical.

The following are commonly used types of coffer dams:

(1) Sandbag Dike
(2) Earthfill
 (3) Rockfill

(4) Rockfillcrib

(5) Single walled

(6) Double walled

(7) Cellular

18.3.1 Sandbag coffer dams

filled with a mixture of sand
This type of coffer dams are built using cement bags partially
This is quite cheap methoa
and clay and symmetrically laid around the construction area.
but suitable only if the depth of water is small.

18.3.2 Earth fll coffer dams

Rip rap -1mH

Water level
Small stones
1.30m

2:1 Drain
Earth fill
-

Steel sheet piles

Impervious layer

Fig .18.4 Earth fill coffer

dam
Figure 18.4 shows a typical earth fill
coffer dam. In this method a
embankment is provided around the construction site and a
suitable earu
Sometimes sheet piles are also provided to make the drain is provided on the Su
of coffer dam is
preferred where cofferdams more watertight. Tns )
1. Depth of water is less
2. Velocity of flow is low
3. There is no danger of
overflow
4. Good clay is available near the
site.
 18.3.3 Rockfil Cofferdams
Figure 18.5 shows a typical rock fill coffer dam. In this the embankment is built with
boulders of rocks. On the waterside, the rockfill face is provided with
earth. On the other side a drain is provided. This type of coffer dam is
impervious layer of
of water is upto 3m. This can withstand swift water flow.
suitable when depth

Impervious layer of earth

Water level

Drain

Fig.18.5 Rockfill coffer dam

18.3.4 Rockfill cribscoffer clams

If the depth of water and its flow are high rockfill cribs coffer dams are to be used. Figure
18.6 shows a typical coffer dam of this type. It consists ofa framework of wooden cribs
laid in open at bottom and top and isfilled with stones, gravel or earth. On the water face
the frame work is provided with sheet piles.
Water level

Rock filling

Sheet pile

000000000
River bed

Fig.18.6 Rockfillcrib copper dam

l8.3.5 Single uwall coffer dam

this type of cofferdam is preferred. In this
If the area to be enclosed by coffer dam is small, piles may be of wood, [Link]
of piles are provided all sides. The sheet
Ypea single row used upto 25m depth of water. Figure 18.7
prestressed concrete. The coffer dam may be
Shows a typical single walled cofferdam.
190 Construction Techniques, Equipment and Practice

Wales
6m

Guide
Struts piles

Sheet
piles

B
A

Fig.18.7 Single wall coffer dam

18.3.6 Double walled cofferdam

coffer dams are used. Figure 18.8 shows a
If the area to be enclosed is large double walled
walls is filled with granular
typical double walled coffer dam. The space between the two
material.

Outer wall

Inner wall
Granular fill

Fig.18.8 Double wallcoffer dam

18.3.7 Cellular coffer dams

These coffer dams are suitable for enclosing very large areas freed from water for u
construction activity. Such areas are required while building long span bridge piers acros
wide rivers or in backwater areas.
The two types of cellular coffer dams commonly used are shown in Figure lo.
Diaphragm cellular coffer dams have straight cross walls connected by a series of arcs.
The arcs are usually semicircles. Incase of circular type cellular coffer dams, full cirCue
diagram are connected by arcs. The cells are filled with materials like brickbats, pebbles,
soil ete. The cells are to be des1gned tor tension in the film, sliding and
overturning.
 Arc

Cell Cell

(a) Diaphragm type (b) Circular type

Fig.18.9 Diaphragm and circular cellular coffer dams

 sheet Piles, Coffer Dams and Caissons

18.1 Introduction
Sheet piles are thin piles. They are driven in the ground for stopping seepage of water
in the construction site or and to prevent escape of loose soil from the site. ACoffer
dom is a temporary structure built around a construction site to exclude water and make
the construction area reasonably dry. Caisson is awatertight chamber in which underwater
construction can be carried out. Inthis chapter the purpose, type and construction method
of the above three substructure activities are presented.

18.2 Sheet Piles

Sheet piles are not expected to carry any external vertical loads. They are driven into the
ground using suitable pile driving equipment and if necessary their height is increased by
adding additional sheets. Sheet piles are used mainly to prevent seepage of water in the
construction area and toprevent escape of loose soil.

18.2.1 Types of sheet piles

Sheet piles maybe classified on the basis of materials used as :

(a) Timber Sheet Piles

(b) Concrete Sheet Piles

(c) Steel Sheet Piles

(a) Timber Sheet Piles

50mm ormore thick timber sheets of width 230to 300mm are used for temporary
works. Their feet are bevelled or provided with iron sheet. whenever their extension
is required it is made by making V-joint or but joint as shown in Figure 18.1.
 Iron strap

Chamfered bottom with iron shoe

(a) V- Joint (b) Built - up (c) Dovetall

tongue and joint
troove joint

Fig.18.1 Typical joints for timber sheet piles

(b) Concrete Sheet Piles Reinforced concrete sheets of 20-60 mm thickness and width
500 -600 mm are used as sheet piles. Figure 18.2 shows a typical concrete sheet
piles, with suitable joining arrangement for the extension of its length. For important
Works, many times, prestressed concrete sheets are used.

(a) Tongued and (b) V - Joint

grooved joint
Fig .18.2 Typical concrete sheet
pile
(c) Steel Sheet Piles
Steel piles are commonly used as sheet piles since, they are durable. After the work
iscompleted these piles are removed and taken out for reuse. Each sheet may be 200
 300 mmn wide and 4to
Sm long. Suitable locking arrangement is made with
dheet. Typical locking arrangement with adjoning sheet are shovwn in Fieteadjoining

Fig .18.3 Typical locking arrangements for steel sheet pips

18.2.2 Uses of Sheet Piles

Sheet piles are used in the following activities:

i) Toform watertight enclosures for the construction of foundations.

(ii) Toretain the sides of trenches during excavation.
(11) To Prevent escape of subsoil.
(iV) To prevent seepage below dams and other hydraulic structure.
23.6 Offshore Platforms

building offshore platform is growing ever since it is found that

Need for
oil and natural gas below sea bed. Offshore platforms required is a
large th
strere
uctuis \s g
re with
facilities to drillwells, to extract and process or to store temporarily the
the
sent to shore. The platform should contain facilities to house the wor product
P
untl itis
may float or
The platform may be supported on the ocean floor or may be
flexibly to the seabed. conneted
() Fixed Platforms: These platforms are built
built on concrete or steel
directly to the seabed For building concrete legs, caissons are used: legs anchored
They are de.
signed for very long tern use.

Fig.23.14
(ii) Floating Platforms: It consists of ship facilitits
shaped platform with processing
(Figure 23.15). These platforms are moored periodand
are used for exploration. Some location for a longequipmens
to the location
Such
times they do not possess
possessany processing
platforms are used for storage of men and
(iii) Flexible materials. pontoonsofsufficie
Platfornms: These Platforms have columns and plact
buoyancy to cause the structure to float. placeto
They are They can be moved from polyester ro
generally anchored by
combination
(Figure 23.16). They can be built even if the of chain, wire rop
or
depth of water is 60-30Om.
 De watering of Foundation Trenches

21.1 Introduction
In many construction works foundations are to be built in water logged
water table level. In these areas or below the
situationsdewatering is necessary.
The following are various methods of
dewatering:
" Drains and sumps
" Wellpoint system
Multi-stage wellpoint system
" Deep well system
" Vacuum method

"Cement grouting
" Chemical grouting
Freezing process
" Electro-0smosis process.

21.2 Drainsand Sumps

This system of dewatering is suitable for shallow foundations on coarse-grained soils.
Figure 21.1 shows the typical arrangements
nthis system the side drains are made along the bottom of the foundations trenches. The
drains lead to the sumps made at 30-50m distances. Centrifugal pumps located at ground
levelor lift pumps located at trench level are used to lift and drain out the water collected in
Sumps.
 Original water level

Lift pumps

Fig .21.1 Drains and sumps

21.3
Wellpoint system
A well point is a perforated pipe of about
lm length. Its diameter may be 40-80mm They
are made of brass or stainless steel or
even by PVC. They are covered with a
Wire gauge or nylon mesh screen to prevent cylindrical
gravels entering the pipe. The well points are
installed into the ground by jetting. A series of well points are
to 1.5m depending upon the nature of soil. The instaled at a spacing of 0.75
well points are connected to a pipe called
header through riser and swinging arm. The header is placed at
level and is connected to a pump. Figure 21.2 shows a about the original water
system.
typical arrangement of well point

table
water
Natural
Headerpipe
-

Topump

Well points

Fig.21.2 Well point system

Well point systems are used in providing foundations on water logged areas and
works.
tunne

The advantages of well point system are as listed belowe

" It isnot interfering in regular construction work.
" The installation of this system is speedy.
 " As the materials
involved are light, less cost in transporting and
It stabilizes the handling
soil in the work area.
" The possibility of
damaging adjoining structure is minimum.
Its limitation is it can not be installed if the
ground is
Another limitation is, if the depth is more ( 6m and consisting
of large gravel and bOuiders.
above) efficiency of pump goes down
due to leakage of air in the system.

21.4 Multi-Stage Well point System

If the depth of excavation is more than 6m below the water table. The
multistage well
system of dewatering is a useful technique. This system can be adopted up to 16m depth.
Figure 21.3shows a typical arrangement of a multistage dewatering system. The first stage
well points are at the level of the natural water table Additional stage well points are about
5m below that of earlier stage.

Natural water table

First stage
well point
Lowered
water table Second stage
well point
Final stage
wellpoint

Fig.21.3 Multi-stage well point system

21.5 Deep Well System

Figure 21.4 shows a typical deep well system. In this system,a bore of larger diameter (150
600mm) is drilled and is provided with a casing. Borehole pumps are lowered to the desired
depth and the water is pumped. The trickling water is pumped by installing a row of well
points at the top of the side slopes of deep excavations.
This system is ideally suited if the soil is pervious with depth. The spacing of deep wells
vary from 10-100mn depending upon the field condition.

21.6 Vacuum Dewaterring Method

This method is useful for dewatering in he sily and very ine sandy soil. In
this method
both well point: and deep well point systems may be adopted. For this
driven by water jet to form ahole of about 200mm diameter. Sand of system well points are
medium to coarse size
 Original water table

Lowered water table

Deep well
point
Well
point

Fig.21.4 Deep well system

Vacuum pump

Seal

Sand
filter

Fig.21.5 Vacumm method

ssealed
is rapidly forced to form filter media of [Link] deep. The uppermost portionis
with bentonite or soil cement. Figure 21.5shows a vacuunm dewatering systems.
vacuum
The header pipe is connected to a vacuum pump as well as water pumps. Theresultsin
pump is run continuously. The pressure around the well point is reducedandthis The soil
vacuum inside sand surrounding the well point. This increases flow towards well.
becomes stiff enough for carrying out safe excavation.
21.7 Cement Grouting
Grouting 1s the process of injecting stabilizers intothe surface soil for controlling seepa
of water. Ir the seepage of water in the trenchesis through cracksand seams of rocKS, 1
made watertight by grouting cement. The cement slurry is prepared by using cement-water
in the proportion 1:1 to l:2 such that the mix is workable. With pressure pump the slurry is
injected in fissures and cracks.
Ihe grouting may be used in the soft soil also. In this case the foundation trench is
thoroughly explored and tested to determine the extent of grouting required. The size, deptn
and spacing of injection holes are planned and then grouted. Once the grouting is started
in a particular hole, it should not be stopped till the hole is filled completely with grout.
Generally the cement grouting contains two rows of primary injection holes at 2.5 to Sm
Figure
centres in both direction and secondaryinjection holes between them as shown in
21.6.

O- Primary injection holes

- Secondary injection holes

Fig .21.6 Holes for cement grant

21.8 ChemicalGrouting
cracks that are as small as [Link]. Inorganic chemicals like sodium
Chemical grouts can fill
lingo sulphate or organic chemicals like epoxy resin and other resin are or are
silicate and
liquid form.
generally used. These chemicals are in
Grouting may be in one shot
The chemical grout is forced through while driving pipes, injected after mixing. In
chemicals are
or two shot system. In one shot system all required it is followed by injection of second
two shot system one chemical 1s injected first and then
withdrawn.
chemical. After pipe reaches the desired depth, it is
used ata fewdam
The chemical grouting systems is expensive. In India, it has been
sites to prevent leakage.
21.9 Freezing Process
In this process freezing of pore water in soil is made usingarefrigeration plant. ItIt consists of
driving pipes of 100- 150mm diameter at 1-1.5m spacing. The The pipes
pipes are having closed
at the bottom. In these pipes, smaller pipes are inserted. The smaller pipes have perfor
at the bottom end. Cold air at -20°C to -30°C is circulated through smaller pipes, It lend
tofreezing of water in the pores. As the formation of ice starts the soil is compressed and
the water is expelled from the strata. Then the excavation can be started.
The area tobe covered in this process should be small and the work should be of shor
duration. This is an expensive process and hence recommended only under exceptional
cases.

21.10 Electro-Osmosis Process

This process is useful for dewatering in fine-grained soils like clayey silt and fine clayey
silt sands. In this process positive and negative electrodes are driven in
the saturated so.
When electriccurrent is passed, the positive electrode repels water and
negative
attracts the water. The water flowing towards negative electrode is collected elecuandis
in a well
pumped out.
CONSTRUCTION OF OFFSHORE CONCRETE STRUCTURES AT DIFFERENT
LOCATIONS
It is possible to construct both bottom founded and floating offshore structures partially or
completely at the following locations:

 Offshore structure construction in dry docks or graving docks

 Offshore structure construction on submersible barges
 Construction of offshore concrete structures on skid ways
 Built offshore structures in precast facilities onshore
Offshore Structure Construction in Dry Docks or Graving Docks
In this method of construction, the base of the concrete platform is constructed in a dry
dock or graving docks, after the base of the offshore concrete structure stiffens adequately and
possess enough buoyancy, the dock will be flooded and the base will be permitted to float. Then,
the base is moved to a deeper water area and will be moored until the construction of the
structure is completed. It is reported that this technique is applied for the construction of most
offshore concrete structures in the North Sea. Sequences for the construction of concrete offshore
structures in dry docks or grave docks are shown in following figure.

Fig.1: Excavation of Construction Area

Fig.2: Base Slab Construction of the Platform

Fig.3: Concrete Platform Construction to Adequate Height for Tow Out

 Fig.4: Flooding of Dry Dock or Graving Dock

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Fig.5: Tow Out Platform to Deeper Water Construction Site

Fig.6: Continuation of Floating Base Construction from Floating Work Barges

Fig.7: Continue Construction Until the Base is Completed

The location of platform construction might near or far away from onshore based on the
availability of deep water. Offices and concrete production facilities would be on land, and
construction staff and necessary construction material could be transferred directly from land
using conventional means such as fixed or floating bridges provided that the construction site is
close to shore otherwise. Extra barges are required for supporting offices, concrete batching
plant, material lay down areas, and other principal equipments.
 Finally, the most uneconomical part of offshore construction is building a dry dock
provided that there is no one existed or modification of an existing dry dock to make it suitable
for the construction. The cost of dry dock development might be dry dock
site excavation, cofferdam construction, dewatering systems; dredging of channels for tow out;
supporting quays construction, docks, and wharves, in addition to complete infrastructure
enhancement to support the project for example roads, bridges, water supply, power supply,
sewage treatment. The overall cost of dry dock development probably reaches about eighty
percent of total project cost in distant areas.
Offshore Structure Construction on Submersible Barges
The construction of parts of the entire offshore structure on a submersible barge is
considered to be realistic answer to cut most of the dry dock construction cost. This technique
increases construction-site location options because it removes the dry dock requirement. Any
location for construction-site is considered to be suitable provided that adequate depth of water is
available for barges and ship-supplier activities and priority should be given to those locations
which are protected and not subjected to relentless seas. Not only does the required number of
barges based on the size of the project but also depend on the barge capacity. Moreover, it is
possible to use either specifically built large barges or number of welded smaller size barges to
achieve the same construction goal. The former is assumed to a solution but the latter could be
cost effective and the construction on its working platform progress as it would on land.
Furthermore, the construction might be started with mooring barges near the land until all
required construction equipments are loaded directly from shore.
However, when the platform is large, it is partially constructed on the barges. Then, the
completed part of the offshore structure is floated off the barges, moored temporarily and the
remaining portion is built during which the portion is in floating condition.
Construction of Offshore Concrete Structures On Skid ways
Skid way is structural slab which has slight slope and stretched from construction area
into the water. Structures constructed on skid ways could be either self floating or skidding onto
barges. Small structures are often constructed by applying this method. However, weight of
completed large structures is huge so the skid needs to be upgraded in this case which costly.
Therefore, the base of most of structure can be built on skid ways after that that portion is floated
and moved to deeper water to complete the construction of the platform.
Construction of Offshore Structures in Precast Facilities Onshore
Precast facilities are not only used for precast concrete decks and piles but also to
prefabricate a great number of structural elements. After that, the prefabricated members are
transferred to the site and then [Link], the actual method is determined is based on
economic of the project and existing site facility where construction is planned.
SHORING FOR DEEP CUTTING

Shoring for deep cutting, also known as excavation shoring, is a crucial technique used in
civil engineering and construction to support the walls of deep excavations. It involves installing
temporary structures or systems to prevent the collapse of soil or adjacent structures during
excavation work. Here's a detailed explanation of shoring for deep cutting:

Purpose:
The primary purpose of shoring for deep cutting is to provide temporary support and
stability to excavation walls, ensuring the safety of workers and protecting adjacent structures,
utilities, and roads from potential collapse or damage.
Deep excavations are often necessary for constructing underground structures such as
basements, tunnels, underground parking garages, or utility trenches.

Types of Shoring:
Shoring systems for deep cutting can be categorized into several types based on their
design, method of installation, and materials used. Common types include:
Timber Shoring: Wooden planks or piles are installed vertically against excavation walls to
support the soil.
Steel Sheet Piling: Interlocking steel sheets are driven into the ground to create a continuous
barrier against soil movement.
Soldier Pile and Lagging: Steel H-section piles (soldier piles) are installed along the excavation
perimeter, and horizontal lagging is placed between the piles to support the soil.
Trench Boxes: Prefabricated steel boxes or shields are placed inside the excavation to protect
workers and prevent soil collapse.
Hydraulic Shoring: Hydraulic jacks or struts are used to support trench walls with adjustable
pressure.

Design Considerations:
 Designing an effective shoring system requires careful consideration of various factors,
including soil conditions, groundwater levels, excavation depth, adjacent structures, and
project duration.
 Engineers analyze soil properties such as cohesion, angle of internal friction, and
groundwater pressure to determine the appropriate shoring method and configuration.
 Structural calculations are performed to ensure that the shoring system can withstand the
lateral earth pressure exerted by the surrounding soil and any surcharge loads from nearby
structures or traffic.
Installation Process:
 The installation process for shoring systems typically begins with excavation of the initial
trench or pit to the desired depth.
 Shoring elements, such as timber planks, steel sheet piles, or soldier piles, are then installed
along the perimeter of the excavation using specialized equipment such as excavators, cranes,
or vibratory hammers.
 Additional bracing, struts, or tiebacks may be installed to provide lateral support and stability
to the shoring system.
 The excavation process proceeds in stages, with the shoring system progressively installed or
adjusted to accommodate the changing depth and soil conditions.

Monitoring and Maintenance:

 Throughout the excavation process, engineers and construction crews continuously monitor
the stability of the shoring system and the surrounding soil.
 Any signs of movement, settlement, or excessive pressure are promptly addressed through
adjustments to the shoring elements or additional reinforcement.
 Regular inspections and maintenance are conducted to ensure the integrity and safety of the
shoring system until the excavation work is completed and permanent structural elements are
installed.
 Overall, shoring for deep cutting is a critical aspect of construction projects involving deep
excavations. Proper design, installation, and maintenance of shoring systems are essential for
ensuring the safety of workers and the successful completion of the project.

LARGE RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTION

The construction of a large reservoir is a complex and multi-stage process that involves
careful planning, engineering, and execution. Here's a detailed overview of the typical steps
involved in constructing a large reservoir:
Feasibility Study and Site Selection:
 The process begins with a comprehensive feasibility study to assess the technical, economic,
environmental, and social viability of constructing a reservoir at a particular site.
 Engineers evaluate factors such as water availability, topography, geology, environmental
impact, land acquisition, and potential benefits to stakeholders.
 Site selection involves identifying suitable locations with adequate water resources, favorable
geological conditions, and minimal environmental and social risks.
Design and Permitting:
 Once the site is selected, engineers develop detailed designs and engineering plans for the
reservoir and associated structures, such as dams, spillways, intake towers, and outlet works.
 The design process takes into account factors such as the desired storage capacity, flood
control requirements, water quality, sedimentation management, and safety considerations.
 The project must obtain necessary permits and approvals from regulatory agencies and
stakeholders, which may involve environmental impact assessments, public hearings, and
compliance with local regulations and laws.
Land Acquisition and Clearing:
 Land acquisition is initiated to acquire the necessary rights-of-way and property for the
reservoir and associated infrastructure.
 Vegetation, trees, and any existing structures within the project footprint are cleared to
prepare the site for construction activities. Careful consideration is given to minimize
environmental impacts and protect sensitive habitats.
Earthworks and Excavation:
 Earthmoving equipment such as excavators, bulldozers, and scrapers is used to excavate the
reservoir basin and construct embankments, dams, and other earthworks.
 Cut-and-fill operations may be necessary to shape the terrain and create the desired contours
for the reservoir. Excavated material may be used to build embankments or disposed of off-
site as needed.
Dam Construction:
 If the reservoir requires a dam, construction of the dam is a major component of the project.
Various types of dams, such as earthfill, concrete, or rockfill dams, may be constructed
depending on site conditions and design requirements.
 Dam construction involves placing and compacting materials such as soil, rock, or concrete
in successive layers to form a structurally stable barrier that can withstand the hydrostatic
pressure of the stored water.
Installation of Infrastructure:
 Infrastructure such as spillways, intake structures, outlet works, control gates, and monitoring
equipment is installed to regulate water flow, manage sedimentation, and ensure the safety
and functionality of the reservoir.
 Electrical, mechanical, and hydraulic systems are installed to control water levels, monitor
reservoir operations, and manage flood events.
Filling and Commissioning:
 Once construction is complete, the reservoir is filled with water, typically by diverting flow
from rivers or streams or through pumping from other sources.
 Commissioning involves testing and calibrating equipment, conducting safety inspections,
and verifying that the reservoir and associated infrastructure are operating as designed.
 Regular monitoring and maintenance programs are established to ensure the long-term
performance and safety of the reservoir.
 Throughout the construction process, environmental protection measures, safety protocols,
and quality control procedures are implemented to minimize impacts on the environment,
ensure worker safety, and maintain construction quality. Collaboration and coordination
among engineers, contractors, regulators, and stakeholders are essential for the successful
completion of a large reservoir construction project.