Module 16
Reason and impartiality as Minimum 1. Choosing freely
requirements of Morality 2. Choosing from alternatives
3. Choosing after thoughtful consideration
The minimum requirements of morality are reason 4. Prizing and being happy with the choice
and impartially. “ Moral judgement must be 5. Prizing and willing to affirm the choice
backed up by good reason and impartially .” publicly
Morality requires the impartial consideration of 6. Acting on the choice
each individual’s interests.” Moral judgement, or 7. Acting repeatedly in some pattern of life
resolving a dilemma of moral judgement must be
backed by good reason. Critique: Creative Responsibility
Reason and impartially refer to a mental activity
following the basic principle of consistency, the Fr. Gorospe (1974) termed as “ creative
lack of contraction between one idea and another. responsibility,” which has the following
characteristics:
“ Morality requires impartial consideration of each First, a creative and fitting response involves
individual’s Interest. some form of positive human action…
Second, to give a fitting human response in some
form of positive action inevitably means “ create” a
SCOTT RAE’S 7 STEPS OF MORAL REASONING response. The creative responsibility is something
The following is another sample method of arriving to be discovered and created and is best
at an ethical or moral decision, the 7 steps of Rae’s envisioned in concrete cases…
moral reasoning. (1996) Third, a creative response means one has to
1. First, gather the facts ,information. choose from among many possible fitting
2. Second, determine the ethical issues, similar to responses. It is impossible to find only one possible
“ statement of the problem.” fitting response to a human situation….. Fourth, in
3. Third, determine what virtues/ principles have order that creative response of the individual be
a bearing on the case. authentic he must be in constant dialogue with the
4. Fourth, list the alternatives or develop a list of community and culture in which he lives.
options. Creative responsibility is not only individual but
5. Fifth, Compare the alternative with the virtues/ collective; it is co- responsibility.
principles.
6. Sixth, Consider the consequences or test the Creative responsibility is responding silently or
options. verbally to a call and address an ethical problem
7. Seventh, make a decision. creatively by considering all possible points of
view, thinking outside the box, using relevant
frameworks.
Values Clarification
MODULE 17
Moral reasoning either arrives at what is right or The moral person is endowed with an intellect
wrong, good or bad ( valuable or not valuable). The and will.
moral reasoning process may thus follow a model The “will” is what “disposes” what the “the
called values clarification. intellect proposes”.
Values clarification method as a part of the moral
reasoning model consists of a series of questions The will is the faculty of the mind that is associated
which one may ask himself or others in order to with decision making.
arrive at one’s true values, values that he really Decision making which is an activity of the will can
possesses and acts upon. be developed. Early in life, like children , one
should already be given the opportunity to exercise
his will, like being trained to make choices from
alternative.
The following consists of the steps of the values
clarification model: ( Raths, L. et al, 178).
JEAN PAUL SARTE. The French philosopher, and The various dominant mental frames may be
the most popular existentialist was saying that an classified as follows:
individual person is nothing until he/she starts 1.) Virtue or character ethics of Aristotle
making decisions. 2.) Natural law or commandment ethics of St.
Thomas and others
“Free will” is the “capacity of rational agents to 3.) deontogical and duty framework of Immanuel
choose a course of action from among various kant
alternatives.” 4.) utilitarianist, teleological, and consequentialist
approach
Free will is the ability to choose between different 5.) love and justice framework
possible courses of action unimpeded, the power
or right to act, speak or think as one wants.
1. Virtue or Character Ethics of Aristotle
To Hornedo (1972) The stuff of free will is a multi-
dimensional power, energy, or strength. Virtue ethics asks, who is the ethical person? For
Aristotle, the ethical person is virtuous, one who
Emphasis is made on what freedom is, and not on has developed good character or has developed
what it is not. virtues.
Freedom must not only be understood as the
absence of obstacle ; it must be an autonomous 2. Natural law or Commandment Ethics of St.
energy. Thomas
A free person is one who is physically healthy and •For St. Thomas, what is right is what
strong, psychologically normal, financially stable. follows the natural law, the rule which says, “do
good and avoid evil.
The Courage To Be “Purity of heart is to will one
thing” says Kierkegard. But to “will one thing” 3. Deontological and duty framework of
needs courage. Immanuel kant
• Kant’s framework is deon or duty or
According to Paul Tillich (1952), “courage is self- deontological framework.
affirmation ‘in-spite-of,’ that is in spite of that • The “deontological approach is based on
which tends to prevent the self from affirming universal principles such as honesty, fairness,
itself” justice and respect for persons and property.”
• Acting out of duty (deon) is acting out of
good will or intentions.
Module 18 4. Utilitarianist, teleological and consequentialist
The meaning of ethical Framework Framework
• The Utilitarianist teleological approach focuses
on consequences. “the decision maker is
Ethical framework is a set of codes that an concerned with the utility of decision.
individual uses to guide his or her behavior.
Guides an individual in answering these two [Link] and Justice
questions: “what do I ought to do?” and” Why do I •What is ethical is that which is just and that
ought to do so”? So ethical framework serve as which is loving. Justice giving what is due to
guidepost in moral life others(justice) while is giving even more than what
is due to others.
MODULE 19
ARISTOTLE’S VIRTUE ETHICS
The virtue of courage is a mean between two
The following excerpts clarifies what virtue is: extremes of deficiency and extreme, namely:
• An ethical act is the action that a virtuous person
would do in the same circumstances. 1. Cowardice and 2. foolhardiness respectively
•Virtue ethics is person-based rather than action
based. It looks at the virtue or moral character of Too little courage is cowardice and too much
the person carrying out an action, rather than at courage is foolhardiness ( MacKinnon, et al 2015)
ethical duties and rules or the consequences of
particular actions. Virtue Ethics in other traditions
Confucius emphasized two virtues, Jen(or ren) and
•Virtue ethics does not only deal with the rightness li Jen means humaneness, human-heartedness and
or wrongness of individual actions. compassion. Li means propriety, manners or
• It provides guidance as to the sort of cultures.
characteristics in behaviors a good person will seek
to achieve. Hinduism emphasizes five basic moral virtues;
• In that way virtue ethics is concerned with the 1. Non-violence
whole person’s life, rather than particular episodes 2. Truthfulness
or actions. 3. Honesty
• A good person is someone who lives virtuously 4. Chastity
who possesses and lives the virtues. 5. Freedom
• Virtue ethics is an ethics whose goal is to It also emphasizes mental virtues:
determine what is essential to being a well- 1. Calmness
functioning or flourishing human person. 2. Self-control
3. Self-Settledness
• Virtue ethics stresses an ideal for humans or 4. Forbearance
persons. 5. Faith and complete concentration
6. Hanger for spiritual liberation
Basic types of Virtue ( Excellence ) (George V 2008)
Aristotle gave two types of virtue. These are:
Buddhism also has its intellectual and moral
1. Intellectual virtues virtues.
2. Moral virtues
Intellectual virtues- refer to excellence of the
mind.
Moral Virtues- refer to a persons disposition to act
well.
Intellectual virtues include ability to understand,
reason and judge well while moral virtues dispose
a persons to act well.
In the context of Aristotle, virtue is an attained,
actualized or self realized potential or possibility.
Virtue as a mean
For Aristotle, virtue is the golden mean between
two extremes.