MAGNETIC COMPASS

Magnet :
Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet can be shown by iron filings on
paper. A magnet is an object that has a magnetic field.

A so-called permanent magnet is made of a ferromagnetic material. Such

materials consist of atoms or molecules that have a magnetic field (resulting
from the spin angular momentum of electrons within them), but objects
composed of these materials have magnetic fields only to the extent that
these microscopic magnetic fields are positioned to reinforce rather than
cancel each other. The details of transition processes back and forth
between reinforcing and canceling orientations reflect the behavior of the
material's magnetic domains, which are zones of mutually reinforcing
molecules or atoms.

An electromagnet has a field produced by a current, typically through a loop

or a coil of many turns; its field becomes insignificant when the current
ceases.

Various materials (soft iron is a frequent example), when exposed to a

magnetic field, direct and concentrate it, and consequently share many of the
properties of permanent and electro- magnets. It is not usual to call them
"induced magnets", but their behavior is often described as induced
magnetism. Combinations of electromagnets with such materials, for the
sake of this behavior, are often designed as a form of enhanced
electromagnet. One of the more common types of magnet today is the Alnico
magnet.

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A magnet is a magnetic dipole. That is not really a statement about "having
two poles", but about the mathematical properties of its magnetic field,
which are reflected in the "magnetic field lines" or "lines of force" that are so
convincingly evoked in the accompanying image. The poles are not a pair of
things on or inside the magnet, but rather, for the purposes of this article, the
two areas on the surface that look as they do in the image. (That look is a
consequence of the highest surface intensity of the magnetic field strength
occurring there.)

A standard naming system for the poles of magnets is important. A magnet

can be regarded as having two magnetic poles; one "north" and one "south".
Historically, those terms reflect awareness, by early scientific researchers
into magnetism, of the relationship between magnets and the earth's
magnetic field.

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A freely suspended magnet will eventually orient itself north-to-south,
because of its attraction to the north and south magnetic poles of the earth.
The end that points towards the Earth's geographical North Pole is called the
magnetic north pole; correspondingly, the other end that ends up pointing
south is the magnetic south pole. Note that since the north pole of the
magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet, the Earth's
geographic north is actually a magnetic south.

Using this approach as a definition of terminology for magnetic poles and

fields would require a clarification about the terms not being interchanged
when the earth's magnetic field undergoes its next reversal. Without
addressing the details, a formal definition in terms of direction of current in
an electromagnet and a "right-hand rule" defines north and south for
magnetic fields, without reference to the earth's geomagnetic field.

The mistaken idea of a magnetic pole as a thing rather than as a description

of the orientation of a magnetic field invites the expectation that cutting a
magnet in half should separate the two poles. There are theories involving
the possibility of north and south magnetic monopoles, which could be
mounted at the ends of, say, a wooden rod to produce a dipole magnet. This
could indeed be cut to separate the monopoles.

In contrast, all known magnets have dipole fields resulting from motion of
electric charges without such monopoles, and separation of parts of such a
magnet merely produces smaller magnets with weaker dipole fields, each
with ends that we label north and south. Unless magnetic monopoles turn
out to exist, we will never see a north pole without a south one, because in all
the magnets that have been found or created they are complementary
directions rather than two separable things.

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"Permanent" magnets can be demagnetized in the following ways:

 Heat (Heating a magnet until it is red hot will make it lose its magnetic
properties.)
 Contact (Stroking one magnet with another in random fashion will
demagnetize the magnet being stroked.)
 Hammering and/or Jarring (Such activity will loosen the magnet's
atoms from their magnetic attraction.)
 Breaking electric current (for electromagnets only)

The Earth's magnetic field has a north and South Pole. We can use the
magnetic field of the Earth to help navigate by using a magnetic compass.

Compasses can also be used to figure out which side of a magnet is the
north or south pole of that magnet.

Earth's magnetic field :

---The earth, like all other magnets, has a magnetic north pole and magnetic
south pole. The magnetic north pole is located at an approximate latitude and
longitude of 74° N and 101° W. The magnetic south pole is located at an
approximate latitude and longitude of 68° S and 144° E. These magnetic
poles are distinguished from the true North Pole, latitude of 90° N and the
true South Pole, latitude of 90° S (see Figure 6-1).

---The magnetic lines of force that connect the magnetic poles are called
"magnetic meridians." These meridians are not great circles. Because of the
irregular distribution of magnetic material in the earth, the meridians are
irregular, and the planes of the magnetic meridians do not pass through the
center of the earth. Approximately midway between the magnetic poles is a

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line called the "magnetic equator." The magnetic equator is an irregular arc,
varying in latitude from 15° S in South America to 20° S in Africa.

--- Colors have been assigned to avoid confusion when speaking of the
action of poles. The earth’s north magnetic pole is designated as "blue" and
the south magnetic pole is designated as "red." A law of magnetism states
that "unlike poles" attract each other while "like poles" repel. Therefore, the
north-seeking pole of a magnet is attracted to the earth’s north magnetic pole
and is "red" while the south-seeking pole is attracted by the earth’s south
magnetic pole and is "blue."

Geographic South Pole :

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The Geographic South Pole is the point where the earth's axis of rotation
intersects the surface. This is the point usually meant when an unspecified
"south pole" is mentioned.

At present, Antarctica is located over the South Pole, although this has not
been the case for all of Earth's history because of continental drift. The
projection of the south geographic pole onto the celestial sphere gives the
south celestial pole.

Geomagnetic South Pole :

The South Magnetic Pole is one of the two magnetic poles of the Earth's
magnetic field. It lies near the Geographic South Pole, but its exact location
is gradually shifting. The South Magnetic Pole is named for its proximity to
the Geographic South Pole; in a strict magnetic sense, it is a north pole. The
south pole of a magnet is attracted to the north poles of other magnets; the
south pole of a freely suspended magnet (as in a compass) will point toward
the Geomagnetic South Pole.

Magnetic South Pole :

The Magnetic South Pole is the point nearest the Geographic South Pole
where the field lines of Earth's magnetic field point directly into the ground. It
does not coincide with the Geomagnetic South Pole.

Magnetic compass :

A compass (or mariner's compass) is navigational instrument for finding

directions. It consists of a magnetized pointer free to align itself accurately

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with Earth's magnetic field. A compass provides a known reference direction
which is of great assistance in navigation. The cardinal points are north,
south, east and west. A compass can be used in conjunction with a clock
and a sextant to provide a very accurate navigation capability. This device
greatly improved maritime trade by making travel safer and more efficient.

A compass can be any magnetic device using a needle to indicate the

direction of the magnetic north of a planet's magnetosphere. Any instrument
with a magnetized bar or needle turning freely upon a pivot and pointing in a
northerly and southerly direction can be considered a compass. A compass
dial is a small pocket compass with a sundial. A variation compass is a
specific instrument of a delicate type of construction. It is used by observing
variations of the needle. A gyrocompass can also be used to ascertain true
North.

Compass Designation :

The magnetic compass onboard ship may be classified or named according

to its location or use. The magnetic compass located in a position favorable
for taking bearings and used in navigation is called the standard compass.
The magnetic compass at the steering station (used normally for steering or
as a standby when the steering gyro repeater fails) is called the steering
compass. Direction from either of these instruments must be labeled as "per
standard compass" or "per steering compass" for identification.

Component of a magnetic compasses:

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Magnets ( A ) : These are four (two in older compasses) cylindrical
bundles of magnetic steel wire or bar magnets which are attached to the
compass card to supply directive force. Some newer compasses have a
circular magnet made of a metallic alloy.

Compass Card ( B ) : This is an aluminum disc, graduated in degrees

from 0° to 360° . It also shows cardinal and intercardinal points. North is
usually indicated by the fleur de lis figure in addition to the cardinal point.
Being attached to the magnets, the compass card provides a means of
reading direction.

Compass bowel ( C ) : This is a bowl-shaped container of nonmagnetic

material (brass) which serves to contain the magnetic elements, a reference

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mark, and the fluid. Part of the bottom may be transparent (glass) to permit
light to shine upward against the compass card.

Fluid ( D ) : This is liquid surrounding the magnetic element. According to

Archimedes principle of buoyancy, a reduction of weight results in a
reduction of friction, making possible closer alignment of the compass
needle with the magnetic meridian. Any friction present will tend to prevent
complete alignment with the magnetic meridian. Today’s compasses contain
a highly refined petroleum distillate similar to Varsol, which increases
stability and efficiency and neither freezes nor becomes viscous at low
temperatures.

Float ( E ) : This is an aluminum, air-filled chamber in the center of the

compass card. This further reduces weight and friction at the pivot point.

Expansion bellows ( F ): This is an arrangement in the bottom of the

compass bowl. This operates to keep the compass bowl completely filled
with liquid, allowing for temperature changes. A filling screw facilitates
addition of liquid, which may become necessary notwithstanding the
expansion bellows.

Lubber line : This is a reference mark on the inside of the compass bowl.
It is aligned with the ship’s fore and aft axis or keel line of the ship. The
lubber line is a reference for the reading of direction from the compass card.
The reading of the compass card on the lubber line at any time is the "ship’s
heading."

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Gimbals : This is a metal ring on two pivots in which the compass bowl is
placed. The compass is also on two pivots which permits it to tilt freely in
any direction and remain almost horizontal in spite of the ship’s motion. The
compass rests on the binnacle. An important concept is that regardless of
the movement of the ship, the compass card remains fixed (unless some
magnetic material is introduced to cause additional deviation from the
magnetic meridian). The ship, the compass bowl, and the lubber line move
around the compass card. To the observer witnessing this relative motion, it
appears that the compass card moves.

LIMITATIONS OF THE MAGNETIC COMPASS :

The following characteristics of the magnetic compass limit its direction-

finding ability:

 Sensitive to any magnetic disturbance.

 Useless at the magnetic poles and is sluggish and unreliable in areas
near the poles.
 Deviation (explained later) changes as a ship’s magnetic properties
change. The magnetic properties also change with changes in the
ship’s structure or magnetic cargo.
 Deviation changes with heading. The ship as well as the earth may be
considered as a magnet. The effect of the ship’s magnetism upon the
compass changes with the heading.
 Does not point to true north.

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Points of the compass :Boxing the compass

The mariner's compass card is divided into thirty-two equally spaced points.
Four of these - east, west, north, and south - are the cardinal points, and the
names of the others are derived from these.

REPEAT THE COMPASS.

N. Stands for North. S. by W., South by West.
N. by E., North by East. S. S. W., South South-West.
N. N. E., North North-East. S.W. by S., South-West by South.
N. E. by N., North-East by North, S. W., South-West.
N . E., Nort-East. S. W, by W., South-West by West.
N. E. by E., North-East by East. W. S. W., West South-West.
E. N. E., East North-East. W. by S., West by South.
E. by N., East by North. W., West.
E., East. W. by N. West by North.
E. by S., East by South. W. N. W., West North-West.
E. S. E., East South-East. N.W. by W., North-West by West
S. E. by E., South-East by East. N. W., North-West.
S. E., South-East. N.W. by N., North-West by North.
S. E. by S., South-East by South. N. N. W., North North-West.
S. S. E., South South-East. N, by W., North by West.
S. by E. South by East. N., North.

S., South.

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Do iron ships pose particular problems for magnetic
compasses?

Yes. The magnetic field of the iron body of the ship itself affects the reading
on the compass.

When iron and steel ships became common, many scientists studied the
problem. One of the earliest was the Astronomer Royal, Sir G.B. Airy, who in
1838 used the iron steamer Rainbow for his experiments. Airy thought of a
method of neutralizing a ship's magnetism by placing magnets and pieces of
unmagnetized iron near the compass.

How was the problem of magnetic variation solved?

Variations do not worry navigators now because of the introduction of the

gyroscopic compass. It was invented in 1908. This uses a spinning
gyroscope which keeps the compass pointing not to the magnetic north, but
to Earth's true North. A rapidly spinning gyroscope is at the heart of the
gyrocompass. Once the gyroscope is set spinning, it remains pointing in the
same direction, regardless of the ship's heaving motion.

Today, a ship anywhere in the world can check its exact position by means of
a signal from a satellite in orbit. However, all navigators still have a compass
on board as well. Tracy Edwards, who captained the yacht Maiden in the
1989-90 Whitbread Round-the-World Yacht Race, used Navsat (satellite
navigation) and found it had so many technical problems that she often used
a magnetic compass instead.

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Compass Error
Direction relative to the Geographic North Pole is regarded as TRUE
direction. Anything that affects our compass reading, that is, anything that
alters it from the direction of true north, is called compass error. We need to
understand what forces will do this so that we can correct these errors and
derive our actual heading.

Variation :
As previously mentioned, the magnetic poles correspond roughly with the
actual geographical poles. Close, but no cigar. The north magnetic pole is
located at approximately 78.9°N latitude and 103.8°W , over 600 miles from
the geological north pole. And while your compass doesn't point exactly
towards the north magnetic pole, it does point to a location near it.

The problem that's created here is that a compass will point to a direction

other than true north, the difference

between the two depending where

on Earth the compass is.

This error is called Variation, and it's

the angular difference between true

north and magnetic north.

Look at the fig.

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 fig.M1 Magnetic Variation

Variation is determined by measuring the angular difference between true

north and magnetic north. So, if we are located on Long Island, NY, magnetic
north (the direction that our compass points to barring any other errors) is
about 14° west of the true, geographic north, so our variation is 14°W. Now
let's go to the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. Here magnetic north is about 15°
east of true north, and our variation is 15°E.

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Let's look at an example of variation. As shown in fig. M2 above, if we look at
our compass as we sail next to the Fire Island Light, we know that the local
variation is 14° West. That means that all of our compass readings (barring
additional errors) are going to be 14° west of the true direction. Say our
compass says we are heading on a course of 090° psc (per ship's
compass). We are actually heading 076° true. If the compass reads 015°,
we're on a course of 001°.

Some things to remember:

 Another name for variation is declination.

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  An area's local variation can be found within the Compass Rose of your
nautical chart. It changes a very slight amount every year due to the
slow migration of the Earth's magnetic poles so check the year that
your chart was printed and note the annual increase or decrease in
variation.
 Some places have no variation. Other areas have extreme magnetic
disturbances, to the point where conventional magnetic compasses are
useless. These areas will be marked on charts of the area.
 Variation affects devices that rely on the Earth's magnetic field to
work. Gyroscopic compasses, radio direction finders, and global
positioning instruments are not effected by variation.

Deviation :
Another force that acts upon your compass to create error is deviation.
Deviation is the influence of the immediate environment upon your
compass. Being a magnet, your compass will be attracted to (or repelled by)
iron bearing metal and other magnets (including magnetic fields created by
flowing electricity). Unlike variation, deviation is not constant, it's different in
every ship, and it's even different within the same ship, depending on which
direction she's sailing. Deviation is measured by the angular difference
between the magnetic heading and the compass heading.

The navigator should know what the deviation is on his vessel. While it is
beyond the scope of this tutorial to describe the process, most quality
compasses can be adjusted to eliminate most, if not all deviation error. What
deviation remains can be found and documented on a Deviation Card.

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This card or graph will list the deviation for various compass courses and is
referred to by the navigator when compass courses need to be corrected.

Some more facts about deviation:

 Don't forget about everyday objects that you take on and off your
ship. A common mistake we make as cops is to place the portable
radio next to the compass. This is guaranteed to add a huge error to
our compass readings.

Sample of deviation card :

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Applying compass error:

There many ways to remember how to apply compass error , here we have
mentioned one : Error East –Compass Least / Error West – Compass Best.

Our true course is 045° and we know our variation to be 14°W, while our
deviation card gives our deviation on this course to be 4°E. First we plug in
the numbers:

TRUE VARIATION MAGNETIC DEVIATION COMPASS

045° 14°W 4°E

Since we're working from left to right, that is we know our true course and
need to find our compass course to steer, we will add west errors and
subtract east errors.

TRUE VARIATION MAGNETIC DEVIATION COMPASS

045° 14°W 059° 4°E 055°

Which gives us a compass course of 055°.

Let's try another one. Here our compass reads 232°, our local variation is
8°E, and our deviation for this course is 6°W. What is our True Course?

TRUE VARIATION MAGNETIC DEVIATION COMPASS

8°E 6°W 232°

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This time we are working from right to left, so instead of adding west errors,
we subtract them (and add east errors) which gives us ....

TRUE VARIATION MAGNETIC DEVIATION COMPASS

234° 8°E 226° 6°W 232°

Some useful definitions

Angle of dip : The angle between the direction of inclination of line of force
and the earth’s horizontal surface is called dip .Somewhere near the earth
geographic equator , each line of force becomes parallel to the earth and the
dip becomes zero .

Magnetic equator : An imaginary line on the earth surface joining all places
where the dip is zero is called magnetic equator or Aclinic line .

Magnetic materials : These are substances which are capable of being

magnetized. They are mainly ferrous materials .

Induced magnetism : Magnetism which is present only when the material is

under the influence of an external field .

Permanent magnetism : Magnetism which remains for long period without

any appreciable reduction , unless the substances is subjected to a
demagnetizing force , is called permanent magnetism .

Residual magnetism : That part which remains after magnetizing is removed .

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Intensity of magnetization : The strength of magnetization that is much
greater in a bar than in the surrounding .

Susceptibility : Is a ratio between the intensity of the magnet station and the
intensity of magnetizing force causing magnetization .

Retentivity : A ferromagnetic substance that retains much its magnetism in

the absence of an external field is said to have high retentivity .

Coerctivity : The strength of reverse field require to reduce the magnetism of

a magnet to zero is called coerctivity .

Swinging ship :

when a ship is completed ,she is swung and the deviation is found for all
headings .As much as possible the deviation will be removed by contracting
the ship’s polarity with permanent magnets .The vessel will be swung once
more and the deviation will be found for all headings .The residual deviation
will be given in the form of a table or in the form of a graph called the
deviation curve .
This will be done every two years or after any dry dock . It should be noted
that different cargoes will have different effects on the ship’s polarity and
this will affect the deviation .

 At dry dock the swing normally will be carried by a compass adjuster .A

complete adjustment and swing should be carried out in the following cases:
1- A new ship after her sea trial and prior to her maiden voyage .
2- When there is a large structural changes to the hull .

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3- When the ship has been in collision or stranded and subsequently
repaired .
4- When the ship has been stricken by lightning .
5- After being laid up for a long time .
6- After a major fire on board .

 A swing should be carried out and deviations tabulated in the following

cases :

1- Once a year .
2- After any dry dock .
3- After carriage of cargoes of magnetic nature .
4- After using of electromagnetic cranes .
5- After changing any correctors on board .
6- When considerable change in magnetic latitude or when 50 nm from
magnetic equator .
7- When operating in an area remote from the last place of swing .

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