BHARATHIYAR ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

OFFICE AUTOMATION
Unit 1 : Introductory concepts: Memory unit– CPU-Input Devices: Key board, Mouse
and Scanner. Output devices: Monitor, Printer. Introduction to Operating systems &
its features: DOS– UNIX–Windows. Introduction to Programming Languages
Unit 2: Word Processing: Open, Save and close word document; Editing text – tools,
formatting, bullets; Spell Checker – Document formatting– Paragraph alignment,
indentation, headers and footers, numbering ; printing – Preview, options, merge.
Unit 3 : Spread sheets : Excel– opening, entering text and data, formatting,
navigating; Formulas– entering, handling and copying; Charts–creating, formatting
and printing, analysis tables, preparation of financial statements, introduction to
data analytics.
Unit 4 : Database Concepts: The concept of data base management system; Data
field, records, and files, Sorting and indexing data; Searching records. Designing
queries, and reports; Linking of data files; Understanding Programming environment
in DBMS; Developing menu drive applications in query language(MS– Access).
Unit 5: Power point: Introduction to Power point - Features – Understanding slide
type casting & viewing slides– creating slide shows. Applying special object –
including objects & pictures – Slide transition–Animation effects, audio inclusion ,
timers.

UNIT 1:

Computer : is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of

programs stored in its own memory unit.
A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to give
information as output.
An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the
influence of a set of special instructions called Programs, to produce the desired
output (referred to as Information).
 Explanations
A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of
electronic components and uses electric energy (such as electricity) to operate.
A computer has an internal memory, which stores data & instructions
temporarily awaiting processing, and even holds the intermediate result
(information) before it is communicated to the recipients through the Output
devices.
It works on the data using the instructions issued, means that, the computer
cannot do any useful job on its own. It can only work as per the set of instructions
issued.
computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another form. The
data is normally held within the computer as it is being processed.
Program:
A computer Program is a set of related instructions written in the language of
the computer & is used to make the computer perform a specific task (or, to direct
the computer on what to do).
A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.
A set of instructions used to guide a computer through a process.
Data: Is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much
meaning to the user.
Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be
processed to produce information.
MEMORY UNITS
Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This
storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
Units of Memory
Memory units are used to measure the size and represent data. Some of the
commonly used memory units are:
1. Bit
The first memory location in a computer is bit. The smallest measurement unit
for data held in primary memory and storage devices is a bit. Out of the binary
values 0 and 1, a bit can only have one.
● The smallest measurement unit for data in primary memory and storage
devices.
● Represents binary values 0 and 1.
2. Nibble
● It means the group of 4 bits.
3. Word
It is a fixed number of bits, it is different from computer to computer, but the same
for each device. Compute store information in the form of words.
● A fixed number of bits that varies across computers but remains consistent
within each device.
● Used to store information in computers.
4. Bytes
The fundamental unit used to measure data is the byte. It has 8 bits in it. A byte
can therefore represent 2 * 8 or 256 values. They determine the size of files,
documents, photos, and other kinds of data.
● The fundamental unit for measuring data, consisting of 8 bits.
● Represents 256 values and determines file, document, photo, and data sizes.
5. Kilobyte
1024 bytes is equal to one kilobyte. It is widely used to denote small file sizes and
data storage capacities. One kilobyte can hold a small image or around 1024
characters of text. It frequently shows up in text documents, spreadsheets, and
small image files.
● Equal to 1024 bytes.
● Denotes small file sizes and storage capacities.
● Can hold small images or around 1024 characters of text.
6. Megabyte
A megabyte is 1024 kilobytes in size. It contains more info as compared to a
kilobyte. A megabyte can hold longer texts, high-resolution images, and short audio
clips. It is used to calculate the size of files comprising music and short
films, software packages, and documents. Megabytes are still important and
frequently used, even though larger units of measurement are being used more
frequently as a result of the growing number of data files.
● Comprising 1024 kilobytes.
● Contains more information compared to a kilobyte.
● Holds longer texts, high-resolution images, and short audio clips.
● Measures file sizes of music, short films, software packages, and documents.
7. Gigabyte
1024 megabytes is equal to one gigabyte. It has a substantial amount of data
storage space. Larger files, such full photo albums, high-definition movies, and
software programs can fit within a gigabit. The storage capabilities of hard
drives, solid-state drives, and other forms of data storage devices are routinely
assessed utilizing this technique.
● Equal to 1024 megabytes.
● Offers substantial data storage space.
● Suitable for larger files, such as full photo albums, high-definition movies, and
software programs.
8. Terabyte
A terabyte is made up of 1024 gigabytes. It has a substantial amount of data storing
capacity. A terabyte can hold a lot of data in large databases, massive media
collections, and enterprise-level storage systems. It is frequently used by data
centers, cloud storage services, and external hard drives with large storage
capacities. As the demand for large-scale data processing and storage grows,
terabytes are becoming more and more important.
● Comprising 1024 gigabytes.
 ● Provides substantial data storing capacity.
● Holds large databases, media collections, and enterprise-level storage
systems.
9. Petabyte
A petabyte is a colossal unit of data storage capacity. A petabyte may hold massive
amounts of data, including significant video libraries, sizable databases, and sizable
collections of high-resolution pictures. It is often used in data centers, cloud storage,
and scientific research that uses a lot of data.
● A colossal unit of data storage capacity.
● Stores massive data quantities, like video libraries and large databases.
10. Exabyte (1024 petabytes)
An exabyte is equal to one EB. It has a substantial amount of data storage space.
Exabytes can store vast film archives, massive data warehouses, and global internet
traffic. It is extensively used in large-scale scientific simulations, cloud
computing infrastructures, and enterprise-level storage systems.
● Equal to 1024 petabytes.
● Holds vast film archives, data warehouses, and global internet traffic.
11. Zettabyte (1024 exabytes)
A zettabyte. It represents a capacity for data storage that is almost unimaginable.
Zettabytes have the capacity to store unfathomably large amounts of data,
including worldwide internet content, long-term archival storage, and in-depth global
data analysis.
● Represents an almost unimaginable data storage capacity.
● Stores worldwide internet content, long-term archival data, and extensive
global analysis.
12. Yottabyte
1024 zettabytes make up a yottabyte (abbreviated YB). It stands for an incredible
amount of data storage. Unimaginable amounts of data, such as the equivalent of
storing all of the material on the internet numerous times or tracking vast amounts,
may be stored in yottabytes.
● Comprising 1024 zettabytes.
● Stands for an incredible amount of data storage.
● Can hold vast amounts equivalent to storing internet content numerous
times.
Conversions of Units
Name Equal To Size (In Bytes)
Bit 1 Bit 1/8
Nibble 4 Bits 1/2 (rare)
Byte 8 Bits 1
Kilobyte 1024 Bytes 1024
Megabyte 1024 Kilobytes 1, 048, 576
1024
Gigabyte 1, 073, 741, 824
Megabytes
Terabyte 1024 Gigabytes 1, 099, 511, 627, 776
Petabyte 1024 Terabytes 1, 125, 899, 906, 842, 624
Exabyte 1024 Petabytes 1, 152, 921, 504, 606, 846, 976
Zettabyte 1024 Exabytes 1, 180, 591, 620, 717, 411, 303, 424
1024 1, 208, 925, 819, 614, 629, 174, 706,
Yottabyte
Zettabytes 176

The following table lists some higher storage units −

Functions of Memory Unit
The memory unit of a computer has several functions:
● Stores Data and Instructions: The memory unit stores data and instructions
needed by the CPU to perform tasks efficiently. This includes data related to
operations to be performed and data related to the program.
● Tracks Interim Results: The memory unit keeps track of the interim results of
processing.
● Saves Final Results: The memory unit saves the final processing results
before sending them to an output device.
● Receives And Transmits Inputs And Outputs: The memory unit receives and
transmits all inputs and outputs.
The size of the memory unit affects its speed, power, and capabilities. without a
memory unit, the processor would have to wait longer for data retrieval.

CPU
CPU [Central Processing Unit]. It is the brain of the computer. It is the part that
does most of the work in a computer system. Just like how our brain controls our
body and processes information, the CPU carries out instructions from programs
and performs calculations. It’s made up of smaller components that work together
to execute tasks, making it the heart of any computing device.
All types of data processing operations from simple arithmetic to complex
tasks and all the important functions of a computer are performed by the CPU. It
helps input and output devices to communicate with each other and perform their
respective operations. It also stores data which is input, intermediate results in
between processing, and instructions. The CPU’s job is to make sure everything
runs smoothly and efficiently. In this article, we are going to discuss CPU in detail.
What is a CPU?
A Central Processing Unit is the most important component of a computer
system. A CPU is hardware that performs data input/output, processing, and
storage functions for a computer system. A CPU can be installed into a CPU socket.
These sockets are generally located on the motherboard. CPU can perform various
data processing operations. CPU can store data, instructions, programs, and
intermediate results.
Different Parts of CPU
Now, the CPU consists of 3 major units, which are:
 ● Memory or Storage Unit
● Control Unit
● ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Let us now look at the block diagram of the computer:

Here, in this diagram, the three major components are also shown. So, let us
discuss these major components in detail.
Memory or Storage Unit
As the name suggests this unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate
results. The memory unit is responsible for transferring information to other units of
the computer when needed. It is also known as an internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM) as all these are
storage devices.
Its size affects speed, power, and performance. There are two types of memory
in the computer, which are primary memory and secondary memory. Some main
functions of memory units are listed below:
● Data and instructions are stored in memory units which are required for
processing.
● It also stores the intermediate results of any calculation or task when they
are in process.
● The final results of processing are stored in the memory units before these
results are released to an output device for giving the output to the user.
● All sorts of inputs and outputs are transmitted through the memory unit.
Control Unit
As the name suggests, a control unit controls the operations of all parts of the
computer but it does not carry out any data processing operations. Executing
already stored instructions, It instructs the computer by using the electrical signals
to instruct the computer system.
It takes instructions from the memory unit and then decodes the instructions
after that it executes those instructions. So, it controls the functioning of the
computer. Its main task is to maintain the flow of information across the processor.
Some main functions of the control unit are listed below:
● Controlling of data and transfer of data and instructions is done by the control
unit among other parts of the computer.
● The control unit is responsible for managing all the units of the computer.
● The main task of the control unit is to obtain the instructions or data that is
 input from the memory unit, interpret them, and then direct the operation of the
computer according to that.
● The control unit is responsible for communication with Input and output
devices for the transfer of data or results from memory.
● The control unit is not responsible for the processing of data or storing data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical
functions or operations. It consists of two subsections, which are:
● Arithmetic Section: By arithmetic operations, we mean operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, and all these operations and
functions are performed by ALU. Also, all the complex operations are done by
making repetitive use of the mentioned operations by ALU.
● Logic Section: By Logical operations, we mean operations or functions like
selecting, comparing, matching, and merging the data, and all these are
performed by ALU.
Note: The CPU may contain more than one ALU and it can be used for maintaining
timers that help run the computer system.
What Does a CPU Do?
The main function of a computer processor is to execute instructions and
produce an output. CPU work Fetch, Decode, and Execute are the fundamental
functions of the computer.
● Fetch: the first CPU gets the instruction. That means binary numbers that are
passed from RAM to CPU.
● Decode: When the instruction is entered into the CPU, it needs to decode the
instructions. with the help of ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit), the process of
decoding begins.
● Execute: After the decode step the instructions are ready to execute.
● Store: After the execute step the instructions are ready to store in the
memory.

INPUT DEVICE
What is an Input Device?
An input device is a computer device or hardware that allows the user to provide
data, input, and instructions to the computer system.
Data is provided to the computer system in a raw format which is then converted
into a computer-understandable language by the input devices.
The central processing unit then processes the data to produce output.
In other words, an input device is a kind of peripheral device that helps the users
communicate with the computer system.
Input Devices of Computer
Hardware devices are used to provide instructions or feed data to computer
systems.
 The instruction or data inserted during this process is called “Input” while the
device used to input the data is known as an input device of a computer.
These input devices of a computer can be further divided into different
categories such as pointing devices, keyboard devices, drawing devices, recognition
devices, etc.
Some of the commonly used Input devices are-
1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Joystick
4. Scanner
5. Light Pen
6. Microphone
7. Digital Camera
8. Track Ball
9. Bar Code Reader
10. Optical Character Reader

KEYBOARD

The Keyboard is a major input device used with computers and other
electronic devices. It takes input from the user in the form of text, numbers, and
several other commands. If we look at the structure of a keyboard, it consists of
various buttons. These buttons are called keys and every keyboard has a variety of
keys with unique functions.
Types of Keys on Keyboard

As stated earlier, the structure of a keyboard

consists of various buttons. These buttons are called keys and every keyboard has a
variety of keys with unique functions. All input to a keyboard is given through these
keys. The variety of keys present in a keyboard are listed below:
1. Text and Numbers
● These keys are called alphanumeric keys and are used to enter textual and
numeric data. They consist of letters A-Z and numbers 0-9.
● The number keys also contain some special characters (like !, @, #,$,&,*) .

2. Navigation and Managing Input

 ●

Keys like Arrow Keys, Page up and Page down help in

navigating and moving cursor around.
● Editing is also possible through Delete key which removes unwanted
characters from the right of the cursor.
● Some other keys help in controlling the input entered by the user like – Caps
lock (switches between uppercase and lowercase letters), Num lock
(activates and deactivates number keypad) and Scroll lock (controls scrolling).

3. Special Function Keys

● A traditional keyboard has 12 Function Keys, from F1 to F12 where each key
has a unique function related to the software or application.

● Whenever a single key has two characters on it, a Shift key is used to access
the upper character. It also enables typing in uppercase.
● Control (Ctrl) and Alternate (Alt) keys are used with combination of other
keys for various shortcuts.

4. Other Important Keys

● Enter Key: It basically confirms any selection or is used for submitting
purposes.
● Backspace Key: It removes unwanted characters to the left of the cursor.
● Spacebar: It inserts a space between characters.
● Escape (Esc) Key: It is used to exit a currently running operation or dialog box.

Types of Computer Keyboard

There are four major types of Computer Keyboard used worldwide depending
on their size and numbers of keys are QWERTY, AZERTY, DVORAK and QWERTZ.
But there are some other types of keyboards that have different connectors, types
and sizes are:-
Apple Macintosh Keyboards also called ADB keyboard as it connects to the Apple
desktop bus and comes with two varieties in standard and extended which features
15 extra function keys.
Ergonomic Keyboards are broad and different shaped with spaces between
two set of keys that makes you work easier.
Personal Systems or PS/2 keyboards are designed for the Computers integrated
with PS/2 connector that are round pin and does not require USB ports
Multimedia Keyboards are similar to standard keyboard that has several additional
keys and buttons for multimedia purpose like volume, brightness and video controls
Gaming Keyboards consists of programmable keys, macro functions or digital
displays that can be used for playing games. It can be connected through wire by
USB and also wireless.
Membrane Keyboards are often covered by transparent and plastic shell which is
mostly use in medical facilities. It can also be used in mobile or landline phones.
Internet Keyboards are specially designed for the Internet users that include special
keys like email launch, browser launch, home, back and forward key.
Wireless keyboards are used without connectors that can be delivered through PS/2
or USB cables by electricity.
On-screen Keyboard is a visual keyboard that is displayed on Computer screen and
used instead of physical keyboards.
MOUSE :
A mouse is a small device that a computer user pushes across a desk surface
in order to point to a place on a display screen and to select one or more actions to
take from that position. The mouse first became a widely used computer tool when
Apple Computer made it a standard part of the Apple Macintosh.
Today, the mouse is an integral part of the graphical user interface (GUI) of
any PC. The mouse apparently got its name by being about the same size and color
as a toy mouse.
Mice typically have two buttons, a scroll wheel and a laser sensor. They are
used to move the cursor on the screen, select objects and click on buttons.
The mouse, which individuals use to direct cursors and make selections on a
computer screen, is integral to graphical user interfaces.
History of the mouse
The first mouse was invented in 1964 by Douglas Engelbart, a computer
scientist at the Stanford Research Institute. Engelbart's mouse was a wooden box
with two wheels on the bottom and two buttons on top. It was connected to a
computer by a wire.
The mouse was not widely adopted until the early 1980s when Apple
Computer introduced the Macintosh computer with a mouse as its standard input
device. The Macintosh was the first computer to use a GUI, and the mouse was
essential for navigation.
Types of mouse
There are two main types of mice: wired and wireless. Wired mice are
connected to the computer by a cable, while wireless mice use radio waves to
communicate with the computer.
Wired mice are more reliable than wireless mice, but they can be more difficult
 to use with laptops and other portable devices. Wireless mice are more
convenient than wired mice. But they can be more expensive, and they may have a
shorter battery life.
There are also a variety of other types of mice, including the following:
● Trackball mice. Trackball mice have a ball that is located on top of the mouse.
The user moves the ball with their hand to move the cursor on the screen.
● Touchpad mice. Touchpad mice have a flat surface that is sensitive to touch.
The user can move the cursor on the screen by dragging their finger across
the touchpad.
● 3D mice. 3D mice have a sensor that enables them to track the user's hand
movements in three dimensions. This lets the user interact with 3D objects on
the screen.
Features and capabilities of mice
Mice have a variety of features and capabilities, including the following:
● Buttons. Mice typically have two buttons, but some mice have three or more
buttons. The buttons can be used to perform different actions, such as
clicking on objects, scrolling through text and opening menus.
● Scroll wheel. The scroll wheel is a wheel that is located between the two
buttons on a mouse. It can be used to scroll up and down through text or
images.
● Laser sensor. Laser sensors are used to track the movement of the mouse.
Laser sensors are more accurate than optical sensors, but they can be more
expensive.
● Wireless connectivity. Wireless mice use radio waves to communicate with
the computer.
Benefits of using a mouse
There are many benefits to using a mouse, including the following:
● Accuracy. Mice are more accurate than other input devices, such as
keyboards, for tasks such as clicking on small objects and selecting text.
● Speed. Mice can be used to navigate the GUI more quickly than other input
devices.
● Comfort. Mice are more comfortable to use than other input devices for
extended periods of time.
SCANNER :
A scanner is an input device that captures documents such as photographs
and text. Scanners are of many types according to their design, scanning
mechanisms etc.
When a document is to be scanned, firstly a documents is converted into
digital signal and then scanning is performed on this electronic version of document.
A scanner can be connected to computer using different interface such as SCSI,
TWAIN etc, but today the most common method is USB cable.
TYPES OF SCANNER
FLATBED SCANNER
Flatbed scanners will take up some desktop space but provide a lot of bang for the
buck. They look like miniature printers with a flip-up cover protecting the glass
platen.

Flatbed scanners are some of the most commonly used scanners as it has both
home and office functions. The way they scan documents is that a mechanism
rolls under the document to obtain the image.
For a businesses that have a need for high processing abilities, the flatbed
scanner can scan any number of
documents with a click of a button.
SHEET-FED SCANNER
Sheet-fed scanner is smaller in size than flatbed scanner.
This type of scanner works like a flatbed scanner except that the document is
fed through the scanner and moves along the beam to be read rather than the beam
moving along document.
This type is not useful for books, but only single sheets.
A small size is its advantage but improper mechanism can skew the paper.
DRUM SCANNER
Drum scanner is used for scanning a document and produce at very high
resolution rate.
There is no any type of scanner that will give you the kind of resolution, detail,
sharpness, dynamic range, and color rendition that drum scanning can give you.
There are only a few companies that make these scanners, considering the
high cost of producing a scanner such as this. It is considered as a tremendous
upgrade to a regular flatbed scanner.
A drum scanner uses a photo-multiplier (PM) tube, which is a light sensing
device. That's why it offers a high sensitivity and good signal-to-noise ratio. The
image to be scanned is placed on spinning.
HANDHELD SCANNER
Handheld scanner is much like a flatbed scanner.
Handheld scanners are small helpful electronic devices that are widely used
for digitizing printed documents.
Handheld scanner provides lower quality scanners, they are still very popular
because they are small and less expensive than their flatbed.
They are able to scan items that could not fit in a flatbed scanner due to size
or location.
Their function includes moving them over the material being captured with
the aid of a tray to keep it in a straight line.
Experience is required to operate and handle the device since it is very
important to keep the scanner straight so that a distortion-free scan is possible.
Low cost and portability is the advantages of handheld scanner but poor
quality is its drawback.
OUTPUT DEVICES :
An output device is a computer hardware device that retrieves and presents
 the result of the inserted
input data from the computer system and further translates that data into human-
understandable language.
The output or result is then presented to us in the form of text, visuals, audio
or a hard copy (printed
on paper).
The output devices can be mainly classified into four categories such as
visual, data, print and sound. Based on the type of output and requirements,
different output devices can be attached to the computer systems to retrieve the
output
Examples of Output Devices are-
Monitor
Printer
Speakers
Headphones
Projector
GPS
Plotter
Braille Embosser
Haptic Devices
3D Printer
MONITOR :
The most general example of an output device is a monitor.
It is also known as a Visual Display Unit (VDU) and the major function of a
monitor is to display the processed data like images, videos, text, audio, etc.
A monitor arranges the microscopic dots known as pixels in a rectangular
pattern to make images. The number of pixels present determines the
sharpness of an image.
Monitors are further classified into two types- cathode-ray tubes and flat
panel displays.
Cathode Ray Tube:
Cathode Ray Tube Monitors use cathode ray tubes that help to produce
images in the form of video signals on the screen.
In short, CRT generates a beam of electrons with the help of electron guns
that strike the inner surface of the phosphorescent of the screen to generate
images.
The CRT monitor holds millions of phosphorus dotes in three different colors,
i.e., red, blue, and green.
The sharpness and quality of the picture depend on the number and size of
these pixels.
Flat Panel Display:
A flat-panel display uses liquid crystal technology or plasma to generate
output.
In such devices, light is passed through liquid crystals to form pixels.
 Flat Panel Displays have lesser volume, weight, and power consumption than
a CRT.
They can be put on the wrist or could be hung on the wall.
Some examples of flat-panel displays are calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computers, and graphical displays.
Plasma Monitor:
Plasma Monitors are also flat panel displays but use plasma display
technology.
In a plasma monitor, small cells are present between two glass panels.
These cells contain a solution of noble gases and mercury so when the
electricity supply on the gas present in the cell converts into plasma and produces
UV light that creates an image.
It is much better than an LCD monitor. The resolution of this monitor is also
high up to 1920 x 1920. It has a good contrast ratio, a high refresh rate, etc.

PRINTER :
Printers are another common example of Output devices.
Printers primarily operate by producing a copy, typically a hard copy or Xerox
copy, of the information transmitted by the computer.
The printer receives electronic data from the computers and produces a hard
copy of the processed data.
Printers are divided into two categories which are Impact Printer and Non-
Impact Printer.
1) Impact Printer: In impact printers firstly the characters are printed on the ribbon
which is then smashed on the paper. In other words, we can say that Impact
Printers uses a print head or hammer to print the data on paper. The hammer or
print head strikes an ink ribbon against the paper and the character starts printing
the paper. Some examples of impact printers are:
Dot matrix printer
Daisy wheel printer
Line printer
Chain printer
2) Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers do not use any hammer or print head to
strike the ink ribbon. These printers print characters or images without using
ribbons. Non-Impact printers are often known as Page Printers because they print
one full page at a time. Some examples of non-impact printers are:
Laser printer
Inkjet printer
OPERATING SYSTEM AND ITS FEATURES :
The operating system plays a major role in linking the two major parts of a
computer system. i.e. hardware and software. So, that end-user can perform the
function they intend to.
An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an interface or
 inherits the communication between end-user and system.
An operating system is an essential part of a computer system that helps the
user to run various other software. i.e. MS Office, calculator, Games, Notepad, etc.
Operating System helps us to communicate with machines without knowing
machine language. Without an operating system, it is impossible for the user to run
a computer system or a mobile device.
FEATURES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
The features of operating systems are increasing day by day. Because at the
starting development of the OS it was used to handle storage taps but now it is
working on GUI by throwing brilliant colours.

Given below are the features of the operating system –

Memory Management
The operating system controls the primary memory or main memory.
Primary memory is a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is
assigned a certain address.
It is a fast storage, and it can be accessed directly by the CPU which is present
inside the system. If a program wants to be executed, it should be first loaded in the
main memory.
The following activities are performed by operating system for memory
management −
 ● It keeps track of primary memory.
● Memory addresses that have already been allocated and the memory
addresses of the memory that has not yet been used.
● In multiprogramming, the OS decides for how long the process must stay and
the order in which processes are granted access to memory.
● It allocates the memory to a process when the process requests it and
deallocates the memory when the process has terminated.
Processor Management
The OS manages the order in which processes have access to the processor,
and how much processing time that each process must stay in the
multiprogramming environment. This is called process scheduling.
The following activities are performed by operating system for processor
management −
● Keep tracks of the status of processes.
● The program to track the status is known as traffic controller.
● It allocates the CPU.
● And de-allocates the processor when it is not required.
Device Management
An OS manages device communication through respective drivers.
The following activities are performed by operating system for device management
−
● Keeping track of all devices connected to the system.
● Designates a program that is responsible for every device called the Input/
output controller.
● It decides which process gets access to a device and for how long and
allocates devices in an effective and efficient way.
● And de-allocates devices when they are not required.
File Management
Operating system also keeps track of the file system of a computer normally
the file system is divided in directories which can be handled by the OS.
I/O Management
I/O management is one of the important tasks of the operating system. OS
manages the IO devices like mouse, keyboard, printer, display, LED's etc.
I/O devices can be of two types −
● Synchronous I/O − Here, CPU waits for the I/O device
● Asynchronous I/O − Here, the CPU execution takes place parallel to the IO
device.
The operating system helps the processor in communicating to the IO devices.
These communications are Special instruction I/O, Memory mapped I/O, Direct
memory access.
Security Management
The confidential data stored in the system is protected by the operating
system and does not allow the unauthorised person to access the system. It helps
the system from malware attack and it acts as supervisor mode and gives the
 system a strongly protected firewall.
DOS
Any operating system which runs from the hard disk drive is termed a Disk
Operating System (DOS was a single-user and single-tasking operating system,
which meant that only one program could be run at a time by a single user.

• Microsoft DOS (Disk Operating System) is a command line user interface (means -
there was no mouse, no menus, or any graphical components).

• MS-DOS 1.0 was released in 1981 for IBM computers and the latest version of MS-
DOS is MS-DOS 6.22 released in 1994.

• While MS-DOS is not commonly used by itself today, it still can be accessed from
Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows
Vistas or Windows 7 by clicking Start / Run and typing command or CMD in Windows
NT, 2000 or XP.

PURPOSE OF DOS
• DOS has hidden power, because with DOS we can interact more directly with the
components of the computer than we can with more modern operating systems. It
is this power that makes it valuable to know DOS today.

• The majority of computer users today use graphical systems, but users of
Windows, for instance, have the ability to interact with the computer through DOS
(or in the case of NT, with a DOSanalogue) to do things, which are difficult or
impossible to accomplish through the graphical interface.

• Familiarity with DOS is still considered essential for anyone supporting Intel-based
machines running Windows.
MS-DOS Commands
Commands can be categorized into INTERNAL (memory resident) and EXTERNAL
(utilities / programs) types.

INTERNAL COMMANDS :

• Internal commands are embedded into the [Link] file.

• Internal commands are memory resident commands. They are resident in the
memory when the [Link] is loaded in the boot up process.

• [Link] is a command processor, which works as an interface between

the user and DOS. It basically interprets what user has typed at the DOS prompt and
processes them.
1. BREAK Sets or clears extended CTRL+C checking.
2. CD Displays the name of or changes the current directory.
3. CLS Clears the screen.
4. COPY Copies one or more files to another location.
5. DATE Displays or sets the date.
6. DEL Deletes one or more files.
7. DIR Displays a list of files and subdirectories in a directory.
8. EXIT Quits the [Link] program (command interpreter).
9. MD Creates a directory.
10. PATH Displays or sets a search path for executable files.
11. PAUSE Suspends processing of a batch file and displays a message.
12. PROMPT Changes the MS-DOS command prompt.
13. REM Records comments (remarks) in a batch file or confi[Link].
14. REN Renames a file or files.
15. RD Removes a directory.
16. TIME Displays or sets the system time.
17. TYPE Displays the contents of a text file.
18. VER Displays the MS-DOS version.
19. VOL Displays a disk volume label and serial number.

EXTERNAL COMMANDS

• External commands are MS-DOS utilities / programs. These are

the .EXE or .COM programs located on our hard drive.
• External commands are not embedded into the [Link] and
therefore require separate files to be used.
• They are normally placed under C:\DOS, the default directory.
MS-DOS will load external commands if and only if user instructs
to execute them at the DOS prompt and /or in a batch program.

THE COMMANDS ARE -

1. APPEND Allows programs to open data files in specified directories as if they
were in the current directory.
2. ATTRIB Displays or changes file attributes.
3. CHKDSK Checks a disk and displays a status report.
4. COMMAND Starts a new instance of the MS-DOS command
interpreter.
5. COMP Compares the contents of two files or sets of files.
6. DEBUG Starts Debug, a program testing and editing tool.
7. DELTREE Deletes a directory and all the files and subdirectories in it.
8. DISKCOMP Compares the contents of two floppy disks.
9. DISKCOPY Copies the contents of one floppy disk to another.
10. DOSKEY Edits command lines, recalls MS-DOS commands, and creates macros.
11. DOSSHELL Starts MS-DOS Shell.
12. EDIT Starts MS-DOS Editor, which creates and changes ASCII files.
13. EXPAND Decompresses one or more compressed files.
14. FASTHELP Provides summary Help information for MS-DOS
commands.
15. FASTOPEN Decreases the amount of time needed to open frequently used files
and directories.
16. FC Compares two files or sets of files, and displays the differences between
them.
17. FDISK Configures a hard disk for use with MS-DOS.
18. FIND Searches for a text string in a file or files.
19. FORMAT Formats a disk for use with MS-DOS.
20. GRAPHICS Loads a program that can print graphics.
21. HELP Provides complete, interactive Help information for MS-DOS commands.
22. LABEL Creates, changes, or deletes the volume label of a disk.
23. MEM Displays the amount of used and free memory in your system.
24. MODE Configures a system device.
25. MORE Displays output one screen at a time.
26. MOVE Moves one or more files. Also renames files and directories.
27. MSAV Scans your computer for known viruses.
28. MSBACKUP Backs up or restores one or more files from one disk to another.
29. MSD Provides detailed technical information about your computer.
30. POWER Turns power management on and off.
31. PRINT Prints a text file while you are using other MS-DOS
commands.
32. QBASIC Starts the MS-DOS QBasic programming environment.
33. REPLACE Replaces files.
34. RESTORE Restores files that were backed up by using the BACKUP command.
35. SCANDISK Checks a drive for errors and repairs any problems it finds.
36. SETVER Sets the version number that MS-DOS reports to a program.
37. SHARE Installs file-sharing and locking capabilities on your hard disk.
38. SORT Sorts input.
39. SYS Copies MS-DOS system files and command interpreter to a disk specified.
40. TREE Graphically displays the directory structure of a drive or path.
41. UNDELETE Restores files previously deleted with the DEL command.
42. UNFORMAT Restores a disk erased by the FORMAT command.
43. VSAFE Continuously monitors your computer for viruses.
44. XCOPY Copies files (except hidden and system files) and directory
trees.
Advantages:
● 1. Will run on a much smaller system. (ENTIRE OS can be placed on a SINGLE
MODERN ROM chip!)
● 2. Gives more "direct" control of the processes.
● 3. Because of smaller size will "boot" much faster than ANY windows
version.
 ● 4. Is easier to write "special purpose" programs for, so long as they don't
require "fancy" graphics.
● 5. Allows to make use of the "old, slow" system hid in the closet when you
bought the "new" one.
Disadvantages:
● 1. Very few "new" programs available, therefore need to be able to write
programs in many cases.
● 2. Not nearly as fancy in the graphics department.
● 3. Not compatible with current "browsers" and most internet.

UNIX
Unix (all-caps UNIX for the trademark) is a family
of multitasking, multiuser computer operating systems that derive from the
original AT&T Unix, developed in the 1970s at the Bell Labs research center by Ken
Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others.
The UNIX operating system is divided into 4 prominent layers that help define
the interaction between the hardware and the user. As we move from layer 1 to
layer 4, we move away from hardware towards the software. UNIX OS consists of
a hardware layer, kernel layer, shell layer, and applications layer.
These layers together create a multiuser, multitasking operating system. The
following diagram shows a pictorial representation of the layers in the UNIX
operating system.

1. Hardware Layer:
It contains the hardware-related information required for the functioning of
the UNIX environment.
2. Kernel Layer:
The core (commonly known as the heart) of the operating system. It is a
software application that acts as the interface between the hardware and the
user. The kernel is responsible for handling the major functionality of the Unix
Operating System including process, memory, file, network, etc.
Functions of the Kernel Layer:
 oEnsures that all the system and user tasks are executed concurrently.
oActs as a device manager helping processes gain access to peripheral
devices connected to the computer with the help of device drivers .
oManages memory using techniques like paging, swapping, and virtual
storage.
3. Shell Layer:
The interface between the user and kernel. It is a program that interprets/
translates commands typed into the terminal into a series of commands that
can be sent to the shell. This script containing commands is called a shell
script. The shell is what keeps a history of commands typed in by the user. To
repeat a command previously typed, you can simply click the scroll-up key and
you will get access to the older commands.
UNIX uses multiple shells including Bourne Shell (sh), C shell (csh), Korn
shell (ksh), etc. The initial shell that the user logs into is defined by the system
administrator. The user can change the default shell by using
the 'chsh' command.
4. Application Programs Layer:
The outermost layer that includes programs that are accessed by command
on the command line. It executes external applications like word
processors and graphic programs . Although the earlier Command line was
the only way to access them, now GUI can also be used.

WHY UNIX ?

1. PORTABILITY:
The UNIX OS were written in assembly language that used less memory and
executed instructions faster than those written in other languages.
The UNIX system can be placed on different machines in relatively easy way.
Its design has a very small portion that depends on actual H/w of underlying
machine.
2. PORTABLE APPLICATION PROGRAMS:
A program written on one machine can be put to another machine and
executed there without great difficulty.
3. BACKGROUND PROCESSING:
With UNIX user can execute more jobs simultaneously and thus increase
productivity.
4. HIERARCHICAL FILE SYSTEM:
With UNIX a user can organize the information in structured fashion so that
he/she can handle with ease or confidence.
5. COMMAND INTERPRETER:
 UNIX in addition to execution of commands typed by the user acts as a
programming language, so the user can store a number of commands to be
executed in command file and execute all of them by giving the name of the file.
6. PIPES AND FILTERS:
User can connect two commands together so that the output from one
program becomes the input of the next program. Two or more commands
connected in this way form a pipe.
To make a pipe, put a vertical bar (|) on the command line between two
commands.
When a program takes its input from another program, performs some
operation on that input, and writes the result to the standard output, it is referred to
as a filter.
By piping user can offer the output of one command as the input to the
another. Thus various commands can be combined in useful ways.
7. UTILITIES:
UNIX provides a large collection of useful programs that are already written by
different people.

DOS vs. Unix

● DOS was initially designed for single-tasking, while Unix has always been
able to handle multi-tasking or running multiple programs at once.
● DOS was designed for single users, so it could never handle file ownership
and managing user permissions like Unix-based systems.
● DOS was less power-intensive than Unix, which made it ideal for early
personal computers.
WINDOWS :
Windows operating system is a computer program that manages all computer
resources and provides services to applications that run on top of it.
This operating system was developed by Microsoft and released in 1985
under the name Windows 1.0.
Since then, the Windows operating system has continued to evolve and
become one of the most popular operating systems in the world.
The Windows operating system is designed to run on various types of
hardware, including desktops, laptops, servers, and mobile devices.
Windows uses a graphical user interface (GUI) that allows users to interact
with the computer through icons, buttons, and visual menus, rather than using text
commands like other operating systems.
Windows also has many features such as multitasking capability, which
allows several applications to run simultaneously, as well as plug-and-play capability
that makes it easy for users to connect additional devices such as printers,
 scanners, and cameras.
Functions of the Windows Operating System
The functions of the Windows operating system are crucial in running various
applications and programs on computers or laptops. Some of the functions of the
Windows operating system include:
Managing Computer Resources: The primary function of the Windows operating
system is to manage and organize computer resources such as CPU, RAM, and hard
disk. The Windows operating system will complete various tasks such as opening
applications, accessing the internet, and printing documents using these resources.
Providing an Interface: The Windows operating system provides a Graphical User
Interface (GUI) that allows users to access and use various applications and
programs easily. This interface allows users to select menus, click icons, and
navigate various applications easily.
Providing Compatibility: The Windows operating system is designed to support
various hardware and software devices, making it easier for users to install and use
different applications and programs on their computers or laptops. Windows also
provides the ability to run programs and applications designed for different versions
of the Windows operating system.
Facilitating Network Setup: Windows operating system provides various tools to
facilitate network setup, such as network configuration, firewall configuration, and
network access configuration. This allows users to connect to networks and share
data with other devices in the network easily.
Facilitating Security: The Windows operating system provides various security
features such as anti-virus, anti-malware, and firewall that help protect computers
or laptops from virus and malware attacks. Windows also provides tools to configure
network security and access control to protect user’s important data.
Managing File Management: Windows also facilitates file management such as
data storage, access rights configuration, and file searching. Windows provides
various tools to help users organize and store data and files on their computers or
laptops.
Facilitating System Setup: Windows provides various tools for system setup such as
desktop appearance configuration, sound and visual effects configuration, and
operating system updates. This makes it easy for users to configure and update the
operating system according to their needs and preferences.
Providing Technical Support: Windows provides technical support for users in the
form of customer service, tutorials, and documentation. This helps users solve
problems and optimize the use of Windows operating system on their computers or
laptops.
Advantages Operating System
As the most widely used operating system in the world, Windows has various
advantages and disadvantages that need to be considered. Here are some of the
advantages and disadvantages of the Windows operating system:
Wide Compatibility: Windows has extensive compatibility with various hardware and
software devices, making it possible for users to use different types of devices with
this operating system.
Ease of Use: Windows is designed with a user-friendly and familiar user interface for
many people, making it easy to learn and use even for new users.
Rich Multimedia Features: Windows provides many multimedia features, such as
Windows Media Player, that allow users to play various types of audio and video
files easily.
Large Developer Support: There are many developers who make applications and
games for Windows, so users can choose from a variety of application and game
options available.
Long-term Support: Microsoft provides long-term support for each version of
Windows, which means users can receive updates and security support for several
years after its release.
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
To communicate with a person, we need a specific language, similarly to
communicate with computers, programmers also need a language is called
Programming language.
The tools used by software engineers to write down computer packages are
programming languages. They are the means of interacting with and commanding
computer systems. Numerous distinct programming languages exist, each with its
benefits and downsides.
Certain languages are more appropriate for optimistic roles than others. For
example, some languages are made for basic programming, while others are made
for specific fields like networking, statistics generation, and web and app
development.
A programming language is a computer language that is used
by programmers (developers) to communicate with computers. It is a set of
instructions written in any specific language ( C, C++, Java, Python) to perform a
specific task.
A programming language is mainly used to develop desktop applications, websites,
and mobile applications.
What is the need for programming languages?
Several software packages are made using programming languages, together with:
● Operating structures
● Web browsers
● Mobile apps
● Desktop packages
● Video games
 ● General Software program
● Business-related software programs
● Embedded structures
Types of programming language
1. Low-level programming language
Low-level language is machine-dependent (0s and 1s) programming language. The
processor runs low- level programs directly without the need of a compiler or
interpreter, so the programs written in low-level language can be run very fast.
Low-level language is further divided into two parts -
i. Machine Language
Machine language is a type of low-level programming language. It is also
called as machine code or object code. Machine language is easier to read because
it is normally displayed in binary or hexadecimal form (base 16) form. It does not
require a translator to convert the programs because computers directly understand
the machine language programs.
The advantage of machine language is that it helps the programmer to
execute the programs faster than the high-level programming language.
ii. Assembly Language
Assembly language (ASM) is also a type of low-level programming language
that is designed for specific processors. It represents the set of instructions in
a symbolic and human-understandable form. It uses an assembler to convert the
assembly language to machine language.
The advantage of assembly language is that it requires less memory and less
execution time to execute a program.
2. High-level programming language
High-level programming language (HLL) is designed for developing user-
friendly software programs and websites. This programming language requires a
compiler or interpreter to translate the program into machine language (execute the
program).
The main advantage of a high-level language is that it is easy to read, write,
and maintain.
High-level programming language includes Python, Java, JavaScript, PHP, C#,
C++, Objective C, Cobol, Perl, Pascal, LISP, FORTRAN, and Swift programming
language.
A high-level language is further divided into three parts -
i. Procedural Oriented programming language
Procedural Oriented Programming (POP) language is derived from structured
programming and based upon the procedure call concept. It divides a program into
small procedures called routines or functions.
Procedural Oriented programming language is used by a software
programmer to create a program that can be accomplished by using a programming
editor like IDE, Adobe Dreamweaver, or Microsoft Visual Studio.
The advantage of POP language is that it helps programmers to easily track
 the program flow and code can be reused in different parts of the program.
The advantage of POP language is that it helps programmers to easily track
the program flow and code can be reused in different parts of the program.
Example: C, FORTRAN, Basic, Pascal, etc.
ii. Object-Oriented Programming language
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) language is based upon the objects. In
this programming language, programs are divided into small parts called objects. It
is used to implement real-world entities like inheritance, polymorphism, abstraction,
etc in the program to makes the program resusable, efficient, and easy-to-use.
The main advantage of object-oriented programming is that OOP is faster and
easier to execute, maintain, modify, as well as debug.
Note: Object-Oriented Programming language follows a bottom-up approach.
Example: C++, Java, Python, C#, etc.
iii. Natural language
Natural language is a part of human languages such as English, Russian,
German, and Japanese. It is used by machines to understand, manipulate, and
interpret human's language. It is used by developers to perform tasks such as
translation, automatic summarization, Named Entity Recognition (NER), relationship
extraction, and topic segmentation.
The main advantage of natural language is that it helps users to ask questions
in any subject and directly respond within seconds.
3. Middle-level programming language
Middle-level programming language lies between the low-level programming
language and high-level programming language. It is also known as the
intermediate programming language and pseudo-language.
A middle-level programming language's advantages are that it supports the
features of high-level programming, it is a user-friendly language, and closely related
to machine language and human language.
Example: C, C++, language
Operation mechanism of programming languages
A programmer writes a set of instructions for the computer after they write
code in a programming language. These commands include instructing the
computer system to perform a hard mathematical computation or print a message
to the screen.
After writing, the code needs to be converted right into a language that the
system can understand. This is finished by using a compiler or interpreter.
Machine code is the low-level language that the computer's processor knows
and is translated from the code via a compiler; without changing the code into
machine code, an interpreter quickly runs the code.