STRUCTURAL WORK 12/29/2020
A structure is any load bearing construction. Examples include bridges, buildings, towers,
pylons and so on.
For efficiency, a structural member should use a little metal as possible to carry as much
load as possible. Therefore structures should not be unnecessarily over designed.
Member – any load bearing part of a structure. It can be any section (angle, RSJ etc.)
Stanchion – In structural steel work stanchions or columns are vertical members.
Beam – horizontal members of a structure.
Splice – This is a method of joining two members end to end other than unenforced
butt joints. They are often used when structural members are required in
longer lengths than the available material.
Truss
Beam
Stanchion
Splice Base
Figure 1: Example of a simple structure
Structural material
The materials most commonly used in structural steel work are rolled steel sections
made from low-carbon (mild) steel.
These are made to British Standard sizes, some of which are shown.
Only the cross sectional forms are shown.
Carbon steel fabrications are available in two forms namely:
Hot rolled steel
Has a scally surface and slightly oversized from its specified dimensions.
Produced by passing white hot steel ingots through specially designed roll
Cold rolled steel
Bright in appearance and accurate to its specified dimensions
Mainly used for machining and tool manufacture
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High ductility ad low cost
Good weld ability and machinability
Cannot be heat treated
Angle section / Rolled steel angle (RSA)
Used for light framing and bracing sections
heel
lip Lip by lip by thickness
e.g. 40 x 40 x 5
or 40 x 75 x 5
radius root lip thickness
Figure 2: Equal lip and unequal lip angle sections
Rolled steel channel (RSC)/ universal channel
web Web by lip by thickness
lip e.g. 175 x 50 x 6
Figure 3: Channel section
Universal beam (UB)
Universal beams are rolled with either parallel or tapered flanges and are used
mainly as load bearing beams
Joists are a range of small size beams which have tapered flanges and are useful for
small frames and openings
flange Web by flange by thickness
web 5o taper flange e.g. 205 x 115 x 10
Figure 4: UB (taper flanges); UB (parallel flanges); RSJ (rolled steel joist)
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Universal column (UC)
Web by flange by thickness
e.g. 250 x 250 x 10
Figure 5: Universal column
Tee section
table Stalk by table by thickness
stalk e.g. 100 x 150 x 8
Figure 6: Tee section
Square / rectangular section
Outside length by width by thickness
e.g. 40 x 40 x 1.5
or 75 x 25 x 2
Figure 7: Square section; rectangular section
Round section
Outside diameter by thickness
e.g. 50 x 2
Figure 8: Round section / tube
The difference between UC and UB
1. UC has a thicker web and flange
2. UC has a stronger web
3. UC is mostly used vertically as a column
4. UC has a longer flange
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Structural steel connections
They are connected using these four basic methods
1. Use of black bolts
2. Use of high strength friction grip bolts
3. Riveting
4. Welding
Stanchion bases
Stanchion bases transmit the downward thrust on the stanchion to the foundation
upon which the stanchion and its load are supported.
The stanchion base also spreads the load so that the stanchion does not cut into
and/or crush the foundation, which is usually concrete.
There are two types of stanchion bases:
Slab base
Bases for stanchions transmitting only a direct load to the foundations.
Figure 9: slab base
Only the top face of the base slab has to be machined to ensure close contact
with the end of the stanchion so that the load is carried directly onto the base
plate or slab and into the foundations otherwise the total load on the stanchion
would be carried through the bolt or rivet shanks where these are used to secure
the assembly.
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Gusset base (built up base)
Bases where the stanchion has to transmit a considerable bending moment to
the foundations in addition to the direct, vertical load.
Figure 10: built up base
Stanchion splices
Splices in stanchions or columns should be arranged at a position above the
adjacent floor level so that the joint, including any splice plates, are well clear of
any beam (horizontal member) connection.
Splices should never be made on a connection, otherwise the bolts or rivets
making the joint would be subjected to double loading.
Figure 11: Splices for equal sections; for different sections
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Beam to stanchion connection
We are only concerned with right-angled connections, however, they may be
inclined or curved (arched) for special applications.
Simple beam-to-stanchion connections use seating cleats and their fixings.
Figure 12: Beam to stanchion connection
Beam to beam connections
Figure 13: Beam to beam connection
Where beam-to-beam connections are made, web cleats or welded-on end plates
are used to transmit the load from the secondary beams to the main beams.
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Trusses and lattice frames (girders)
Trusses
Trusses are plane frames consisting of sloping rafters which meet at the ridge.
A main horizontal tie connects the lower ends (feet) of the rafters, and the internal
bracing members.
Trusses are used to support the roof in conjunction with purlins.
Purlins are secondary members laid longitudinally across the rafters which carry the
roof covering.
ridge
purlin cleats
rafter
purlin cleat
stanchion
Figure 14: Roof truss; ridge detail; connection to stanchion
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Portal frame
purlin cleats ridge
rafter
apex cleat/brace
knee cleat/ brace
column base
Figure 15: Portal frame
Can be defined as two dimensional rigid frames that have the basic characteristic of
a rigid joint between column and beam. The main objective being to reduce bending
moment in the beam which allows it to act as one structural unit.
Lattice girders
Lattice girders are plane frames of open web construction.
They usually have parallel chords or booms which are connected with internal web
bracing members.
As with roof trusses, the framing of a lattice girder should be triangulated, taking
into account the span and the spacing of the applied loads.
The booms are divided into panels of equal length and, as far as possible, the panel
points are arranged to coincide with the applied loads.
Lattice girders may be used in flat roof construction or in conjunction with trusses or
trussed rafters.
Lattice girders can be fabricated from standard rolled sections.
There are two basic types of lattice girder, the ‘N’ type and the ‘Warren’ type.
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N type
Compression boom ties (thin)
Tension boom struts (thick)
Warren type
Compression boom ties
Tension boom struts
Figure 16: Lattice frames
Web stiffeners
Web stiffeners are required when a beam or plated structure is subjected to a
twisting force (torsion) or a sideways thrust.
The need for web stiffeners, or gussets, increases as the depth of the beam web
increases
With triangular-shaped gussets ‘feather edges’ must be avoided, and the sharp
edges must be removed, for otherwise the strength of the assembly may be reduced
rather than increased.
tension
compression
force
Figure 17: Application of web stiffeners
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Fabricated lightweight beams
Bar frames
Bar frames or open web frames are of ultra-light-weight construction and are
particularly useful for use as long-span roof purlins.
The flanges are usually formed of angle sections and the web diagonals are made
from round or square sections which are welded to the flanges.
angle section
square or round section
Figure 18: Bar frame
Castellated beams
The castellation system of construction is a simple method of increasing the
strength/weight ratio of a beam with very little waste.
By flame-cutting and arc-welding the depth of any beam can be increased by as
much as 50%, thus increasing its load capacity for large spans.
Advantages of castellated beams
1. They are stronger than the original beam
2. They have a high strength to weight ratio
3. They are lighter in weight
4. They have a deeper web
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Flame cutting to a calculated and predetermined profile
Separate the cut beam into 2 parts and fit A to A
The two components are welded together. The depth of a castellated beam is approx. 1.5
time that of the original beam
Figure 19: Castellation process
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Jigs and fixtures
Jig – the device which guides the tool path.
Usually not fixed to the machine table.
Fixture – a work holding device which positions the work; but doesn’t guide, locate or
position the cutting tool.
Permits the changing of work position during actual operations so as to place
the work planes convenient positions to operator.
Should the component distort, buckle, the location should be designed that
the work assembly does not lock in the fixture hence preventing its removal.
Uses of Jigs and Fixtures
Jigs and fixtures are used to reduce the cost of production as there use eliminates
out work and setting up of tools.
1. To increase the production.
2. To assure the high accuracy of the parts.
3. To provide for inter-changeability.
4. To enable heavy and complex shaped parts to be machined by holding rigidly to a
machine.
5. To control quality control expenses.
6. Less skilled labour.
7. Saving labour.
8. There use partially automates the machine tool.
9. Improve the safety at work, thereby lowering the rate of accidents.
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