CLASS XII - PHYSICS

CHAPTER 13 – NUCLEI

ATOMIC MASS

The unit kilogram is too large to measure the mass of atoms. Thus we define a new unit for mass called
‘unified mass’ or ‘atomic mass unit’ (u). It is defined as 1/12th of the mass of a Carbon (12C) atom.

1u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Certain elements have different types of atoms called isotopes. These isotopes have the same chemical
properties but have different masses. For example isotopes of hydrogen are protium, deuterium and tritium.

The average atomic mass of such elements is defined as the weighted average of the atomic masses of the
isotopes of that element. If r1, r2, r3….rn are the relative abundances of the n isotopes of an element with
𝑟1 𝑚1 +𝑟2 𝑚2 +⋯𝑟𝑛 𝑚𝑛
masses m1, m2, m3…..mn respectively, then the average atomic mass mavg = =
𝑟1 +𝑟2 +⋯𝑟𝑛
𝑟1 𝑚1 +𝑟2 𝑚2 +⋯𝑟𝑛 𝑚𝑛
[since r1 r2 etc are in percentages]
100

{Try: The relative abundances of two isotopes of chlorine of mass 34.98u and 36.98u are 75.4% and 24.6%
respectively. Find the average atomic mass of Chlorine}

Discovery of neutrons: Since the chemical properties of different isotopes are all the same, they must
contain the same number of protons in them. The difference in masses could be due to the presence of
some neutral matter in the nucleus. This hypothesis was later verified by James Chadwick who observed
emission of neutral particles when Be nuclei was bombarded with alpha particles. Chadwick called these
neutral particles ‘neutrons’. The mass of neutron was found to be 1.00866u which is very close to the mass
of proton 1.00727u.

Terms to describe nuclear composition

• Nucleons: the protons and neutrons which are present in the nucleus of an atom.
• Atomic number (Z): the number of protons in a nucleus.
• Mass number (A): the total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in a nucleus.
• Neutron number (N) = mass number – atomic number = A – Z
• Nuclear mass: the total mass of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus = Zmp + (A-Z)mn
• Nuclide: Specific nucleus characterized by its atomic number and mass number. Symbolically it is
represented as AZX, where X is the chemical symbol of the element and Z and A are the atomic and
mass numbers respectively.

Nuclear Size

The volume of nucleus is directly proportional to its mass number.

4
πR3 α A R3 α A R α A1/3
3

R = R0 A1/3 , where R0 = 1.2 x 10-15m

Nuclear density:

Mass of nucleus α mass number A

Mass of nucleus = mA, where m is average mass of nucleons.

4 4
Volume = 3 πR3 = 3 πR30 A

3𝑚
Density = Mass/Volume = is a constant and is independent of the mass number.
4𝜋𝑅03

Einstein’s energy-mass equivalence

Eintein suggested that mass is a type of energy and this mass-energy can also be converted into other forma
of energy.

E=mc2

Mass defect (Δm): It is the difference in mass between the rest mass of the nucleus and the sum of rest
masses of the its constituent protons and neutrons. The sum of the masses of the constituent protons and
neutrons is higher than the mass of the ncleus.

Δm = Zmp + (A-Z)mn – MN

BINDING ENERGY OF THE NUCLEUS (Eb)

It is defined as the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons and to
separate them over large distances so that they do not interact with each other. It is also the energy released
when the nucleons become bound together to form a nucleus.

Eb = Δmc2 = [ Zmp + (A-Z)mn – MN ]c2

In terms of atomic mass M, MN = M – Zme

Thus, Eb = [ Zmp + (A-Z)mn – (M – Zme )]c2 = [ Zmp + (A-Z)mn – M + Zme ]c2

Binding enrgy per nucleon(Ebn): It is the average energy required to extract one nucleon from the
nucleus. It is equal to the ratio of the binding energy of the nucleus to the mass number.

Ebn = Eb/A

Nuclear forces: Strong attractive forces between the protons and neutrons which keep them bound
together in a tiny nucleus.

• It is the strongest of the four fundamental forces.

• They are short range forces (10-15m).
• They are charge independent. The force between two protons, two neutrons and a proton and a
neutron are all the same.
• They are non central forces.
• They show stauration effect. A given nucleon interacts only with its nearest neighbours.
Variation of potential energy of nucleons with distance

Initially when the distance between the nucleons is large they attract
each other and the potential energy of the system is negative.

As the distance between them decreases this potential energy becomes

more and more negative till the attraction becomes maximum (r = r0).

On further decreasing the distance they start repelling and the potrntial energy
increases towrds zero. Repulsion finally dominates the potential energy becomes
positive.

Binding energy curve: Plot of Ebn vs A

Features of the graph

• Ebn is small for very light nuclei like 11H, 21H and 31H.
• In the mass number range 2-20, the curve reveals maxima for nuclei like
4 12 16 6 10 14
2He, 6C and 8 O indicating their higher stability and minima for 3Li, 5B and 7N indicating their
lower stability compared to their immediate neighbours.
• The curve maintains a more or less constant maximum in the mass number range 30-170. It is a
consequence of the fact that the nuclear force is short-ranged. Consider a particular nucleon inside a
sufficiently large nucleus. It will be under the influence of only some of its nearest neighbours. If
any other nucleon is at a distance more than the range of the nuclear force from the particular
nucleon it will have no influence on the binding energy of the nucleon under consideration. It is
59
maximum for 26 𝐹𝑒 with a value of 8.75MeV per nucleon.
• Ebn gradually decreases for mass numbers higher than 120.

The binding energy curve can be used to explain the following phenomena:

• Nuclear fission: Ebn of very large nuclei are smaller than medium sized nuclei. Thus when a heavy
nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei, stability increases and a large amount of energy is released.
• Nuclear fusion: Ebn for very light nuclei are smaller than a medium sized nucleus. Thus when two
lighter nuclei combine to form a medium nucleus, stability increases and a large amount of energy
is released.
Nuclear reaction: it involves a collision between the target nucleus A and a bombarding particle a which
produces another nucleus B along with an elementary particle b or γ photon.

A+a B+b+Q

Q value: It is the energy absorbed or released in a nuclear reaction. It is the energy equivalent of the
difference between the rest masses of the reacting particles and rest masses of the product particles.

Q = [Mreactants – Mproducts]c2

• If Q value is positive, the initial rest mass is greater than the final rest mass and the reaction is
exothermic. Only such reaction can happen spontaneously in nature.
• If Q value is negative, the final rest mass is greater than initial rest mass and the reaction is
endothermic. These reactions cannot happen spontaneously in nature.

Nuclear Chain Reaction:

235 236 141 92
Consider a fission reaction of uranium. 92U + 10n → 92U → 56Ba + 26Kr + 3 10n + Q

If these freshly produced neutrons further cause fission in other uranium nuclei, producing still more
neutrons, the number of fissions taking place in each successive stage increases rapidly like a geometric
progression. Thus a chain reaction is set up.

Multiplication factor (k): It is the number of fission causing neutrons at the beginning of a generation to
the number of fission causing neutrons in its previous generation.

Critical size and critical mass: It is the size and mass of the fissionable material for which the
multiplication factor k is unity.

At critical mass, k=1 and the chain reaction is steady.

The mass of the fissionable material is called subcritical if it is smaller than critical mass. Then k < 1 and
the chain reaction gradually dies out.

The mass of fissionable material is called supercritical if it is greater than critical mass. Then k > 1 and the
chain reaction grows and the whole material will explode liberating a lot of energy. It is an uncontrolled
nuclear reaction. This is the principle behind atom bombs.

Controlled chain reaction: A chain reaction can be controlled by absorbing a suitable number of neutrons
at each stage of the reaction, so that on an average only one neutron remains available for exciting further
fission. It is the principle behind nuclear reactors.

Necessary conditions for nuclear fusion:

• High temperature (107 – 108 K): This helps the light nuclei to have sufficient kinetic energy to
overcome their repulsion and fuse together. Thus fusion is called thermonuclear reaction.
• High pressure or density: It increases the frequency of collision of light nuclei and hence
increases the rate of fusion.

Fusion reactions are the source of energy in the sun.

Controlled thermonuclear reaction: If the energy released in a thermonuclear reaction is controlled in
such a manner that a limited amount of energy is produced continuously, it can be used for generating
electrical power. The energy released by fusion is clean and is not polluted by any radioactive waste.
However, it is difficult to set up a sustained and controllable source of energy since nuclear fusion requires
very high temperatures. Such temperatures can be reached by causing an explosion through a fission
process. Moreover, no solid container can withstand such high temperatures where matter can exist only in
plasma state.