Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: EE 1C-SUMMER 2021

College: Engineering
Campus: Bambang

Bachelor of Science
DEGREE PROGRAM in Computer COURSE NO. EE 1C
Engineering
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION Computer Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits 1
TITLE
YEAR LEVEL 2nd Year TIME FRAME 24 hours WK NO. 10-13 IM NO.

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Network Laws, Theorems, and Principles

II. LESSON TITLE

I. Kirchhoff’s Law
II. Maxwell’s Loop (Mesh) Method
III. Superposition Method
IV. Nodal Method
V. Source Transformation
VI. Millman’s Theorem
VII. Thevenin’s Theorem
VIII. Norton’s Theorem
IX. Maximum Power Transfer

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This chapter introduces a number of theorems that have application throughout the field of electricity and
electronics. Not only can they be used to solve networks such as encountered in the previous chapter,
but they also provide an opportunity to determine the impact of a particular source or element on the
response of the entire system. In most cases, the network to be analyzed and the mathematics required
to find the solution are simplified. All of the theorems appear again in the analysis of ac networks. In fact,
the application of each theorem to ac networks is very similar in content to that found in this chapter.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Recognize the different method in solving electrical networks.
2. Explain the behavior of electric circuits using network laws and theorems.
3. Apply Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorem to reduce any two-terminal network with any number of
sources.
4. Apply the maximum power transfer theorem to determine the maximum power to a load and to
choose a load that will receive maximum power.

V. COURSE CONTENT

4 NETWORK LAWS, THEOREMS AND PRINCIPLES

------------------------------Continuation------------------------------

4.4 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

In a network of resistors, the current in any resistor is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents delivered
by each independent sources assuming that each source is acting alone or independently with respect
to the other rs.

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one independent source
by calculating the contribution of each independent source separately. However, to apply the
superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:
1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned off.
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This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every current
source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.

With these in mind, we apply the superposition principle in three steps:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to
that active source using the previous techniques discuss earlier .
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.
Illustration:
𝑰𝟏 R1 R2 𝑰𝟐

𝑰𝟑

E1 R3 E2

Note: If a source (either a current or a voltage source) is acting alone, the other current
sources are open circuited while the other voltage sources are short circuited.
Step 1: If E1 acting alone.
𝑰𝟏 ′ R1
𝑰𝟐 ′ R2

𝑰𝟑 ′

E1 R3

Step 2: If E2 acting alone

𝑰𝟏 "
R1 R2 𝑰𝟐 "
𝑰𝟑 "

R3 E2

Note: Currents I1’, I2’, I3’, I1”, I2” and I3” are evaluated using basic circuit principles.
𝑰𝟏 = |𝑰𝟏 ′ − 𝑰𝟏 "|
𝑰𝟐 = |𝑰𝟐 ′ − 𝑰𝟐 "|
𝑰𝟑 = |𝑰′𝟑 + 𝑰𝟑 "|

EXAMPLE 4.4.1
Determine the current at 5Ω, 10Ω and 15Ω using Superposition in the circuit shown.
5Ω 10Ω

12V 15Ω 10V

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Solution:
Using 12 V acting alone while 10 V as short circuited.

𝑰𝟓 ′ 5Ω a 10Ω 𝑰𝟏𝟎 ′

𝑰𝟏𝟓 ′

12V 15Ω

@ node a
1 1 1 12
𝑉𝑎 ( + + )− =0
5 10 15 5
12
𝑉𝑎 = 5
1 1 1
( + + )
5 10 15
𝟕𝟐
𝑽𝒂 = 𝑽
𝟏𝟏
72
12 −
′
𝐼5 = 11
5
𝟏𝟐
𝑰′𝟓 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏
72
′
𝐼10= 11
10
′ 𝟑𝟔
𝑰𝟏𝟎 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓
72
′
𝐼15 = 11
15
′ 𝟐𝟒
𝑰𝟏𝟓 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

Using 10 V acting alone while 12 V as short circuited.

𝑰𝟓 "
5Ω a 10Ω 𝑰𝟏𝟎 "
𝑰𝟏𝟓 "

15Ω 10V

@ node a
1 1 1 10
𝑉𝑎 ( + + )− =0
5 10 15 10
1
𝑉𝑎 =
1 1 1
( + + )
5 10 15
𝟑𝟎
𝑽𝒂 = 𝑽
𝟏𝟏
30
𝐼5" = 11
5
" 𝟔
𝑰𝟓 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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30
10 −
"
𝐼10 = 11
10
𝟖
𝑰"𝟏𝟎 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏
30
"
𝐼15 = 11
15
𝟐
𝑰"𝟏𝟓 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏

𝐼5 = |𝐼5 ′ − 𝐼5 "|
12 6
𝐼5 = | − |
11 11
𝟔
𝑰𝟓 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏

𝐼10 = |𝐼2 ′ − 𝐼2 "|

36 5
𝐼10 = | − |
55 11
𝟒
𝑰𝟏𝟎 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏

𝐼3 = |𝐼3′ + 𝐼3 "|
24 2
𝐼3 = | + |
55 11
𝟑𝟒
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

EXAMPLE 4.4.2
Use superposition principle to find v in the circuit shown

𝟖𝛀

+
+
𝟔𝑽 -
𝟒𝛀 𝟑𝑨
-

Solution:
Using 6 V acting alone

KVL at loop:
6 − 12𝑖1 = 0
𝒊𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑨
also,
𝑣1 = (4)(0.5)
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐 𝑽

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Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: EE 1C-SUMMER 2021
Using 3A acting alone

Using current divider rule

8
𝑖3 = 3 ( )
3+8
𝒊=𝟐𝑨
and
𝑣2 = (2)(4)
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟖 𝑽

Therefore
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
𝑣 =2+8
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

EXAMPLE 4.4.3
Find current i0 in the circuit shown using superposition.

Solution:
Using 4 A acing alone

Mesh at loop 1:
𝒊𝟏 = 𝟒 𝑨

Mesh at loop 2:
3𝑖1 − 6𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 5𝑖0′ = 0
3(4) − 6𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 5𝑖0′ = 0
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12 − 6𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 5𝑖0′ = 0 (1)

Mesh at loop 3:
5𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 10𝑖3 − 5𝑖0′ = 0
5(4) + 𝑖2 − 10𝑖3 − 5𝑖0′ = 0
20 + 𝑖2 − 10𝑖3 − 5𝑖0′ = 0 (2)

KCL at node 0:
𝑖1 = 𝑖3 + 𝑖0′
4 = 𝑖3 + 𝑖0′ (3)

Solving simultaneously, using calculator

𝟖𝟎
𝒊𝟐 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟕
𝟏𝟔
𝒊𝟑 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟕
𝟓𝟐
𝒊𝟎 ′ = 𝑨
𝟏𝟕

Using 20 V acing alone

Mesh at loop 4:
−6𝑖4 + 𝑖5 + 5𝑖0 " = 0 (4)
Mesh at loop 5:
𝑖4 − 10𝑖5 + 20 − 5𝑖0" = 0 (5)
but:
𝑖5 = −𝑖0" (6)

Solving simultaneously, using calculator

𝟒𝟎
𝒊𝟒 = − 𝑨
𝟏𝟕
𝟔𝟎
𝒊𝟓 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟕
𝟔𝟎
𝒊𝟎 " = − 𝑨
𝟏𝟕

Therefore
𝑖0 = 𝑖0′ + 𝑖0"
52 60
𝑖0 = + (− )
17 17
𝟖
𝒊𝟎 = − 𝑨
𝟏𝟕

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: EE 1C-SUMMER 2021
EXAMPLE 4.4.4
For the circuit shown, use superposition theorem to find i.

Solution:
Using 12 V acting alone

𝟏𝟐
𝒊= =𝟐𝑨
𝟔

Using 24 V acting alone

Mesh at loop a:
−16𝑖𝑎 + 4𝑖𝑏 − 24 = 0
Mesh at loop b:
4𝑖𝑎 − 7𝑖𝑏 = 0
7
𝑖𝑎 = 𝑖𝑏
4
substituting
−16𝑖𝑎 + 4𝑖𝑏 − 24 = 0
7
−16 ( 𝑖𝑏 ) + 4𝑖𝑏 − 24 = 0
4
𝑖𝑏 = −1 𝐴
𝒊𝒃 = 𝒊𝟐 = −𝟏 𝑨

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Using 3 A acting alone

Using nodal analysis

@ node 1:
1 1 1 1
( + + ) 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0
4 4 3 4
5 1
𝑣 − 𝑣 =0
6 1 4 2
@ node 2:
1 1 1
− 𝑣1 + ( + ) 𝑣2 − 3 = 0
4 4 8
1 3
− 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 − 3 = 0
4 8
Solving simultaneously, using calculator
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟑 𝑽
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

𝑣1
𝑖3 =
3
3
𝑖3 =
3
𝒊𝟑 = 𝟏 𝑨
Thus,
𝑖 = 𝑖1 +𝑖2 + 𝑖3
𝑖 = 2−1+1
𝒊=𝟐𝑨

For the circuit shown, use superposition theorem to find v0.

Find vx in the circuit shown using superposition principle.

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Find v0 and vx in the circuit shown.

ASSESSMENT
PROBLEM 4.4.1
Find the current in the 20-ohm resistor using superposition.

PROBLEM 4.4.2
Use superposition to find the voltage vx in the circuit shown.

PROBLEM 4.4.3
Obtain v0 in the circuit shown using superposition.

4.5 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION METHOD

A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a current source is in
parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
Illustration:
➢ Voltage Source to Current Source

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where:
𝒗𝒔
𝒊𝒔 =
𝑹

➢ Current Source to Voltage Source

where:
𝒗𝒔 = 𝒊𝒔 𝑹

EXAMPLE 4.5.1
Determine the current at 5Ω in the circuit shown using Source Transformation Method.
5Ω 10Ω

12V 15Ω 10V

Solution:
Current at 5Ω transform it to current source
5Ω 10Ω

12V 10V
15Ω

We cannot transform 12V and 5Ω resistance, because the current at the 5Ω resistor is
required.

parallel connected

5Ω

12V 𝟏𝟎𝑽
15Ω 10Ω = 𝟏𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝜴

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transform to voltage source

5Ω

12V 1A
6Ω

5Ω 6Ω

12V
𝑰
(𝟔𝛀)(𝟏𝑨) = 𝟔𝑽

Apply KVL at Loop

12 − (5 + 6)𝐼 − 6 = 0
6
𝐼= 𝐴
11
Since, they are connected in series
𝟔
𝑰𝟓 = 𝑰 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏
Note: Same process will be applied if you wish to solve current at 10Ω and 15Ω.

EXAMPLE 4.5.2
Use source transformation to find v0 in the circuit shown.

Solution:
Transform the current and voltage sources

Combining 4Ω and 2Ω in series and transforming 12V voltage source in current source

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Combine 6Ω and 3Ω in parallel to get 2Ω and 2A (downward, negative) and 4A (upward,
positive) to get 2A.

Using current divider rule

2
𝑖 = 2( )
2+8
2
𝑖=
5
2
𝑣0 = ( ) (8)
5
𝟏𝟔
𝒗𝟎 = 𝑽
𝟓

EXAMPLE 4.5.3
Find vx in the circuit shown using source transformation.

Solution:
Transforming 6V and the dependent current source

The two 2Ω resistor combine to give 1Ω which is in parallel with 3A current source. The
current source is transformed to a voltage source.

KVL around the loop:

3 − 5𝑖 − 𝑣𝑥 − 18 = 0
5𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥 + 15 = 0

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KVL to the loop containing 3V only:
3 − 𝑖 − 𝑣𝑥 = 0
Solving simultaneously, using calculator
𝒊 = −𝟒. 𝟓 𝑨
𝒗𝒙 = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝑽

Find i0 in the circuit shown using source transformation.

use source transformation to find ix in the circuit shown.

ASSESSMENT
PROBLEM 4.5.1
Obtain v0 in the circuit using source transformation.

PROBLEM 4.5.2
Use source transformation to find V0 in the circuit shown.

PROBLEM 4.5.3
Apply source transformation to find ix.

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4.6 MILLMAN’S THEOREM
When any number of voltage sources of arbitrary generated voltage and finite internal resistance different
from zero are connected in parallel, the resulting voltage across the parallel combination is the ratio of
the ratio of the algebraic sum of the currents that each source individually delivers when short-circuited
to the algebraic sum of the internal conductance.

Illustration:
a

R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉
+ + + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
𝑉𝑎𝑏 =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ⋯+
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛

EXAMPLE 4.6.1
Determine the current at 5Ω, 10Ω and 15Ω in the circuit shown using Millman’s Theorem.
5Ω 10Ω

12V 15Ω 10V

Solution:
𝑰𝟏 5Ω 𝒂 10Ω 𝑰𝟐
𝑰𝟑

12V Loop A 15Ω Loop B 10V

12 10 0
+ +
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 5 10 15
1 1 1
+ +
5 10 15
𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑽
𝟏𝟏
12 − 𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝐼1 =
5
102
12 −
𝐼1 = 11
5
𝟔
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏

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10 − 𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝐼2 =
10
102
10 −
𝐼2 = 11
10
𝟒
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝐼3 =
15
102
𝐼3 = 11
15
𝟑𝟒
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

4.7 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is
the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:

𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝒊 𝑖=
Rth 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅
where
R 𝑉𝑡ℎ − 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑅𝑡ℎ − 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Vth
𝑅 − 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Illustration:
Solve for i3
R1 R2

𝒊𝟑

E1 R3 E2

Step 1: Compute Rth/Ro (short circuit all independent voltage sources and open circuit all
independent current sources).
R1 R2

b
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Rth 𝑹𝒕𝒉 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
a

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Note: Rth is computed using any principles of finding the total resistance of a given circuit.

Step 2: Open circuit R3 and solve for the voltage across the open circuited terminals.
R1 R2

b
E1 E2
Vth
a

Note: Vth is computed using any methods (Kirchhoff’s, Maxwell’s, Nodal, etc. …) of analyzing
network problems.

Step 3: Construct the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit (TEC) and solve the resulting current.
Rth

𝒊𝟑
𝑽𝒕𝒉
Vth 𝒊𝟑 =
R3 𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝟑

EXAMPLE 4.7.1
Determine the current at 10Ω in the circuit shown using Thevenin’s Theorem.
5Ω 10Ω

12V 15Ω 10V

Solution:

Solving for Rth:

5Ω a b
Rth

15Ω

(5)(15)
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
5 + 15
𝟏𝟓
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝜴
𝟒
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Solving for Vth:

5Ω a b
Vth

12V 𝒊
15Ω 10V

KVL at loop:
12 − 20𝑖 = 0
𝟑
𝒊= 𝑨
𝟓
3
𝑉15 = 15 ( )
5
𝑽𝟏𝟓 = 𝟗 𝑽
a b
Vth
- +

+ +

9V 10V
- -
KVL at loop:
9 + 𝑉𝑡ℎ − 10 = 0
𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏 𝑽

Draw the Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit (TEC)

𝟑
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝜴
𝟓
𝒊𝟏𝟎

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏𝑽 𝟏𝟎 𝜴

𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑖10 =
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 10
1
𝑖10 =
3
+ 10
5
𝟒
𝒊𝟏𝟎 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

EXAMPLE 4.7.2
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit shown to the left of the terminals a-
b. Then find the current through RL= 6, 16 and 36Ω.

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Solution:

For Rth:

(4)(12)
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 1 + [ ]
4 + 12
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟒𝜴

For Vth:

𝒊𝟏𝟎 𝒊𝟏𝟎

Apply Millman’s Theorem:

32
( + 2)
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 4
1 1
( + )
4 12
𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟑𝟎 𝑽

Draw the Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit (TEC)

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟒𝜴 𝒂
∙
𝒊𝑳

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟑𝟎 𝑽 𝑹𝑳

∙
𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝒃
𝒊𝑳 =
𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝑳
@ RL = 6 Ω
30
𝑖𝐿 =
4+6
𝒊𝑳 = 𝟑 𝑨

@ RL = 16 Ω
30
𝑖𝐿 =
4 + 16
𝟑
𝒊𝑳 = 𝑨
𝟐

@ RL = 36 Ω
30
𝑖𝐿 =
4 + 36
𝟑
𝒊𝑳 = 𝑨
𝟒

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EXAMPLE 4.7.3
Determine the voltages at the node in the circuit shown.

Solution:

Solving Rth:
The presence of the dependent source, we excite the network with a voltage source vo
connected to the terminals.

Mesh @ loop 1:
2𝑉𝑥 − 2𝑖1 + 2𝑖2 = 0
𝑉𝑥 − 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 0
But
𝑉𝑥 = −4𝑖2
−4𝑖2 − 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 0
−3𝑖2 − 𝑖1 = 0
Mesh @ loop 2:
2𝑖1 − 12𝑖2 + 6𝑖3 = 0
𝑖1 − 6𝑖2 + 3𝑖3 = 0
Mesh @ loop 3:
−1 + 6𝑖2 − 8𝑖3 = 0

Solve simultaneously, using calculator.

1
𝑖1 = 𝐴
6
1
𝑖2 = − 𝐴
18
1
𝑖3 = − 𝐴
6
Thus
𝟏
𝒊𝒐 = −𝒊𝟑 = 𝑨
𝟔
Hence
𝑣0
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
𝑖𝑜
1
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
1
6
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟔 𝛀
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Solving for Vth:

𝑽𝒕𝒉

Mesh @ loop 1:
𝑖1 = 5 𝐴
Mesh @ loop 2:
4𝑖1 − 12𝑖2 + 2𝑖3 = 0
(4)(5) − 12𝑖2 + 2𝑖3 = 0
20 − 12𝑖2 + 2𝑖3 = 0
10 − 6𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 0
Mesh @ loop 3:
−2𝑖2 + 2𝑖3 + 2𝑣𝑥 = 0
−𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑣𝑥 = 0
But
𝑣𝑥 = 4(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 )
𝑣𝑥 = 4𝑖2 − 20

Solve simultaneously, using calculator.

10
𝑖2 = 𝐴
3
𝑖3 = 10 𝐴
20
𝑣𝑥 = − 𝑉
3
Thus
𝟏
𝒊𝒐 = −𝒊𝟑 = 𝑨
𝟔
Hence
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 6𝑖2
10
𝑉𝑡ℎ = (6) ( )
3
𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎 𝐕

Draw the Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit (TEC)

𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟔𝛀
a

𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑽

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Using Thevenin’s Theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of the terminals in the circuit
shown. Then find I.

Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the figure shown to the left of terminals.

Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit of figure shown

Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit in the circuit shown.

ASSESSMENT
PROBLEM 4.7.1
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with respect to terminal a-b in the circuit shown.

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PROBLEM 4.7.2
For the circuit shown, find the Thevenin’s equivalent between terminals a and b.

PROBLEM 4.7.3
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent at terminals a-b of the circuit shown.

PROBLEM 4.7.4
Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit on the figure shown.

PROBLEM 4.7.5
Obtain the relationship between Vo and Io on the figure shown.

4.8 NORTON’S THEOREM

Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is
the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

Norton’s equivalent circuit:

𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝒊 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑛 ( )
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅
where
𝐼𝑛 − 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
In Rth R
𝑅𝑡ℎ − 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛′𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅 − 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

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Illustration:
Solve for i1

𝒊𝟏 R1 R2

E1 R3 E2

Step 1: Compute Rth/Rn (short circuit all independent voltage sources and open circuit all
independent current sources).
x y R2
Rth

𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
R3 𝑹𝒕𝒉 =
𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

Note: Rth is computed using any principles of finding the total resistance of a given circuit.

Step 2: Short circuit R1 and solve for the current across the short-circuited terminals.
R2

𝑰𝑵

E1 R3 E2

Note: IN is computed using any methods (Kirchhoff’s, Maxwell’s, Nodal, etc. …) of analyzing
network problems.

Step 3: Construct the Norton’s equivalent circuit (NEC) and solve the resulting current.

𝒊𝟏

𝑹𝒕𝒉
IN Rth R1 𝒊𝟏 = 𝑰𝒏 ( )
𝑹𝒕𝒉 + 𝑹𝟏

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EXAMPLE 4.8.1
Determine the current at 15Ω resistor in the circuit shown using Norton’s Theorem.
5Ω 10Ω

𝒊𝟏𝟓

12V 15Ω 10V

Solution:

Solving for Rth:

5Ω 10Ω

Rth

(5)(10)
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
5 + 10
50
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
15
𝟏𝟎
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝜴
𝟑

Solving for IN:

5Ω 𝒙 10Ω

𝒊𝑵

𝒊𝟏 𝒊𝟐
12V 10V

Mesh at loop 1:
12 − 5𝑖1 = 0
𝟏𝟐
𝒊𝟏 = 𝑨
𝟓
Mesh at loop 2:
−10 − 10𝑖2 = 0
𝒊𝟐 = −𝟏 𝑨
KCL at node x:
𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑁 + 𝑖2
12
= 𝑖𝑁 − 1
5
𝟏𝟕
𝒊𝑵 = 𝑨
𝟓

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Draw the Norton’s Equivalent Circuit (NEC)

𝒊𝟏𝟓

𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟎
𝑰𝑵 = 𝑨 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝜴 𝟏𝟓 𝜴
𝟓 𝟑

𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑖15 = 𝐼𝑁 ( )
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 15
10
17 3
𝑖15 = ( )
5 10 + 15
3
𝟑𝟒
𝒊𝟏𝟓 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

EXAMPLE 4.8.2
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit shown to the left of the terminals a-
b.

Solution:

For Rth/RN:

𝑅𝑡ℎ = 5//(8 + 4 + 8)
(5)(20)
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
5 + 20
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟒𝜴

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For IN:

Mesh at loop 1:
𝒊𝟏 = 𝟐 𝑨

Mesh at loop 2:
We ignore the 5Ω resistor because it has been short circuited.
12 − 20𝑖2 + 4𝑖1 = 0
12 − 20𝑖2 + 4(2) = 0
20 − 20𝑖2 = 0
𝑖2 = 1 𝐴
𝑰𝑵 = 𝒊𝟐 = 𝟏 𝑨

Draw the Norton’s Equivalent Circuit (NEC)

EXAMPLE 4.8.3
Using Norton’s Theorem, find Rth/RN and IN in the circuit shown at terminals a-b.

Solution:

Solving Rth/RN:

The presence of the dependent source, we excite the network with a voltage source v o
connected to the terminals. Also, the 4Ω resistor is ignore because it is short-circuited.

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𝑖𝑥 = 0
𝑣𝑜
𝑖𝑜 =
5
1
𝑖𝑜 = 𝐴
5
𝑣𝑜
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
𝑖𝑜
1
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
1
5
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟓𝛀

Solving for IN:

10
𝑖𝑥 =
4
5
𝑖𝑥 = 𝐴
2
@ node a:
10
𝐼𝑁 = + 2𝑖𝑥
4
10 5
𝐼𝑁 = +2( )
4 2
𝑰𝑵 = 𝟕 𝑨

Find the Norton’s Equivalent Circuit, for the circuit to the left of the terminals a-b.

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Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit at terminals a-b from the circuit shown.

Obtain the Norton’s equivalent of the circuit of figure shown

Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit in the circuit shown.

ASSESSMENT
PROBLEM 4.8.1
Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit with respect to terminal a-b in the circuit shown.

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PROBLEM 4.8.2
For the circuit shown, find the Norton’s equivalent between terminals a and b.

PROBLEM 4.8.3
Find the Norton’s equivalent at terminals a-b of the circuit shown.

PROBLEM 4.8.4
Obtain the Norton’s equivalent circuit on the figure shown.

4.9 MAXIMUM POWER

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. There are applications
in areas such as communications where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load. We
now address the problem of delivering the maximum power to a load when given a system with known
internal losses. It should be noted that this will result in significant internal losses greater than or equal
to the power delivered to the load.

The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can deliver to a load.
We assume that we can adjust the load resistance RL. If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin
equivalent except for the load, as shown in circuit below, the power delivered to the load is

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𝑃𝐿 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝐿
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen
from the load (RL = RTh).

Proof:
Power consumed by the load
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
For PL to be maximum,
𝑑𝑃𝐿
=0
𝑑𝑅𝐿
Differentiating both sides
𝑑𝑃𝐿 (𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )2 𝑉𝑡ℎ 2 − 𝑉𝑡ℎ 2 𝑅𝐿 2(𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )
=
𝑑𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )4
(𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 ) − 2𝑅𝐿
0 = 𝑉𝑡ℎ 2 (𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 ) ( )
(𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )4
(𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 ) − 2𝑅𝐿
0 = 𝑉𝑡ℎ 2 ( )
(𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )3
0 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ − 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝐿

Maximum power
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( ) 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( ) 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑉𝑡ℎ 2
𝑃𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
4𝑅𝑡ℎ 2
𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝟐 𝑽𝒕𝒉 𝟐
𝑷𝑳 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝑳 𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟒𝑹𝒕𝒉 𝟒𝑹𝑳

4.9.1 POWER TRANSFER EFFICIENCY

If PL is the power of supplied to the load and PT is the total power supplied by the voltage source,
then power transfer efficiency is given by
𝑃𝐿
𝜂=
𝑃𝑇
The generator or voltage source E supplies power to both the load resistance RL and to the
internal resistance Ri = Rg + R.

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𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝐿 + 𝑃𝑖

𝐸 ∗ 𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑖

𝑃𝐿 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿
𝜂= = 2
𝑃𝑇 𝐼 𝑅𝐿 + 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝐿 1
𝜂= =
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝐿

EXAMPLE 4.9.1
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown. Find the, maximum
power.

Solution:

Solving for Rth:

(6)(12)
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 2 + 3 +
6 + 12
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 9Ω
𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝒕𝒉 = 𝟗𝛀

Solving for Vth:

Mesh at loop 1:
12 − 18𝑖1 + 12𝑖2 = 0
Mesh at loop 2:
𝒊𝟐 = −𝟐 𝑨

12 − 18𝑖1 + 12(−2) = 0
−18𝑖1 − 12 = 0
𝟐
𝒊𝟐 = − 𝑨
𝟑

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KVL around the outer loop

𝑰𝑵 𝑰𝑵
𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟕
= 𝑨 = 𝑨

12 − 6𝑖1 − 3𝑖2 − 2(0) − 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 0

2
12 − (6) (− ) − (3)(−2) − 2(0) − 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 0
3
𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟐𝟐 𝐕

For maximum power

𝑉𝑡ℎ 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑡ℎ
222
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4(9)
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟒 𝐖

EXAMPLE 4.9.2
A voltage source delivers 4A when the load connected to it is 5Ω and 2A when the load
becomes 20Ω. Calculate;
a. maximum power which the source can supply.
b. power transfer efficiency of the source with RL of 20Ω.
c. the power transfer efficiency when the source delivers 60 W.
Solution:

a. when RL= 5Ω, I = 4A

20 = 𝐸 − 4𝑅𝑖

when RL= 20Ω, I = 2A

40 = 𝐸 − 2𝑅𝑖

Solve simultaneously
𝐸 = 60V
𝑅𝑖 = 10𝛺
𝑹𝒊 = 𝑹𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝜴

𝐸2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝐿
602
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4(10)
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗𝟎 𝐖

b. when RL= 20Ω, the power transfer efficiency (η)

𝑅𝐿
𝜂=
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖
20
𝜂=
20 + 10
𝜂 = 0.667
𝜼 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕%

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 Republic of the Philippines
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: EE 1C-SUMMER 2021
c. for finding the efficiency corresponding to a load power of 60W
2
𝐸
𝑃𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝐿
2
60
60 = ( ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝐿
602 𝑅𝐿
60 =
(10 + 𝑅𝐿 )2
2
𝑅𝐿 − 40𝑅𝐿 + 100 = 0

𝑹𝑳 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟑𝟐𝛀 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝛀

@ RL = 37.32Ω @ RL = 2.68Ω
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝜂= 𝜂=
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖
37.32 2.68
𝜂= 𝜂=
37.32 + 10 2.68 + 10
𝜂 = 0.789 𝜂 = 0.211
𝜼 = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟗% 𝜼 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟏%
𝜼𝟏 + 𝜼𝟐 = 𝟏

EXAMPLE 4.9.3
Two load resistance R1 and R2 dissipated the same power when connected to a voltage
source having an internal resistance of Ri. Show that (a) Ri2 = R1 R2 and (b) η1 + η2 = 1.

Solution:
a.
2 2
𝐸 𝐸
𝑃𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅1 = ( ) 𝑅2
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2
=
(𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑖 )2 (𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑖 )2
𝑅1 (𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑖 )2 = 𝑅2 (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑖 )2
𝑅1 𝑅2 2 + 2𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝑖 2 = 𝑅2 𝑅1 2 + 2𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝑖 2
𝑅1 𝑅2 2 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝑖 2 = 𝑅2 𝑅1 2 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝑖 2
𝑅1 𝑅2 2 − 𝑅2 𝑅1 2 = 𝑅2 𝑅𝑖 2 − 𝑅1 𝑅𝑖 2
𝑅1 𝑅2 (𝑅2 − 𝑅1 ) = 𝑅𝑖 2 (𝑅2 − 𝑅1 )
𝑹𝒊 𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

b.
If η1 and η2 are two efficiencies corresponding to the load resistances R1 and R2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝜂1 + 𝜂2 = +
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑖 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑖
𝑅1 (𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑖 ) + 𝑅2 (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑖 )
𝜂1 + 𝜂2 =
(𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑖 )(𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑖 )
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝑖
𝜂1 + 𝜂2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑖 2
2𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑖 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝜂1 + 𝜂2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑖 2 + 𝑅𝑖 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑖 2 = 𝑅1 𝑅2

2𝑅𝑖 2 + 𝑅𝑖 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝜂1 + 𝜂2 =
𝑅𝑖 2 + 𝑅𝑖 2 + 𝑅𝑖 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
2𝑅𝑖 2 + 𝑅𝑖 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝜂1 + 𝜂2 =
2𝑅𝑖 2 + 𝑅𝑖 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝜼𝟏 + 𝜼𝟐 = 𝟏

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the copy righted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution”
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: EE 1C-SUMMER 2021

Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum power from the rest of the circuit shown.
Calculate the maximum power.

Determine the maximum power delivered to the variable resistor R from the circuit shown.

For the circuit shown, what resistor connected across terminals a-b will absorb maximum
power from the circuit? What is that power?

For the circuit shown, what resistor connected across terminals a-b will absorb maximum
power from the circuit? What is that power?

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) P a g e | 34
“In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of a Copyright Work of Republic Act 8293,
the copy righted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution”
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: EE 1C-SUMMER 2021
ASSESSMENT
PROBLEM 4.9.1
For the circuit shown, obtain The Thevenin equivalent at terminal a-b. Calculate the current in RL
= 8Ω. Find RL for maximum power deliverable to RL. Determine the maximum power.

PROBLEM 4.9.2
For the bridge circuit shown, find load RL for maximum power transfer and the maximum power
absorbed by the load.

PROBLEM 4.9.3
Determine the maximum power that can be delivered at terminals a-b of the circuit shown.

PROBLEM 4.9.4
what value of resistor at terminal a-b to obtain the maximum power as shown.

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) P a g e | 35
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the copy righted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution”
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: EE 1C-SUMMER 2021
References

A) Book/Printed Resources

B. L. Teraja, A. K. Teraja. (2005). A textbook of Electrical Technology, First Multicolor Edition. New Delhi,
India: S. Chand and Company Ltd.
Bird, J. O. (2017). Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, Sixth Edition. United Kingdom:
Elsevier Ltd.
Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N.O. Sadiku. (2021). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, Seventh Edition.
New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
Rajput, R. K. (2007). Basic Concepts of Electrical Engineering, First Edition. Delhi, India: New Age
International.
Siskind, C. S. (2003). Electrical Circuits Direct and Alternating Current, Second Edition. Japan: Mc-Graw
Hill Company Inc.
U. A. Bakshi, V. U. Bakshi. (2009). Basic Electrical Engineering, Second Revised Edition. India: Technical
Publication Pune.
B) e-Resources

[Link]
[Link]

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) P a g e | 36
“In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of a Copyright Work of Republic Act 8293,
the copy righted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution”