Chapter II
REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the researchers
thorough and in-depth search. The chapter's inclusions aid in familiarizing readers
with details that are significant to and related to the current study.
Socio-Economic Status
Socioeconomic status is one of the most essential indicators to evaluate the
health status and nutritional status of a [Link] composite indexes have been
[Link] international scales are Hollingshead scale, Nakao and Treas scale,
Blishen, Carroll, and Moore scale, In India, the scales can be categorised into those
scales applicable in rural, urban or both (Gunjan Kumar,Gitanjali Pany et.,.al 2022).
The origin of the term “socioeconomic status” (SES) is difficult to determine, but
social scientists have long used the phrase to denote the relative location of an
individual or group within a socially desirable [Link] Weber identified three
distinct but interrelated aspects of the social hierarchy-namely, class, status, and
[Link] community studies of the 1930’s and 1940’s, assignment of status to
individuals and families could be reasonably well based on the judgmental or
reputational approach because the relationships and activities of people in the small
and middlesized places which were studied was a matter of record or common
knowledge and there was general agreement among residents about almost
everyone’s social [Link] existing controversy between advocates of the pure
prestige approach and those of SES determination of prestige of occupations seems
to ignore the third possibility of direct measurement of occupational SES without
reference to prestige (Charles B Nam&E walter Terrie 2021). Perceptions of
socioeconomic status (SES) can perpetuate inequality by influencing interpersonal
interactions in ways that disadvantage people with low SES. Indeed, lab studies
have provided evidence that people can detect others’ SES and that they may use
this information to apply stereotypes that influence interpersonal decisions. Here, we
examine how SES and SES-based stereotypes affect real-world social interactions
between people from a socioeconomically diverse population. We used the
computer-mediated online round-robin method to facilitate interactions among 297
participants from across the US Participants completed a series of dyadic
interactions with other participants in virtual rooms in which they discussed a recent
negative consumer experience (Bradley T Hughes,Sanjay Srivastava et.,.al 2025).
Socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the prime factors influencing the health status
of a nation. It is the measure of the social standing of the individual or a family and
has a wide impact on an individual/family's health, educational attainment, diet,
lifestyle, etc., The per capita income of citizens is a major factor that decides the
SES of the population. The affordability and utilization of the health facilities depend
on the socioeconomic profile of the population. The periodic changes in the
consumer price of goods globally as well as nationally due to inflation warrants that it
is mandatory to constantly update the income-based socioeconomic scales so as the
assessment is made correctly in practice(wani & Rabbanie Tariq 2019).
Socioeconomic status (SES) is a pervasive predictor of child development; parenting
is a large part of the reason why. This chapter deals with a historical introduction to
research on SES and parenting, followed by a discussion of definitions of SES and
approaches to its measurement. It summarizes the literature on differences in
parenting cognitions and parenting practices associated with SES. The chapter
traces pathways of influence from SES to parenting and identifies the separable
effects of its constituents, income, education, and occupation. It discusses remaining
questions and future research directions in the study of SES and parenting.
Parenting practices are the behaviors parents produce in interactions with their
children, the home environments parents create for children, and the connections to
the world outside the home that parents both enable and permit. Parents from
different socioeconomic levels expect different developmental timetables(Erika Hoff
& Brett Laursen 2022).
Academic Achievement
Academic achievement represents performance outcomes that indicate the
extent to which a person has accomplished specific goals that were the focus of
activities in instructional environments, specifically in school, college, and university.
School systems mostly define cognitive goals that either apply across multiple
subject areas (e.g., critical thinking) or include the acquisition of knowledge and
understanding in a specific intellectual domain (e.g., numeracy, literacy, science,
history). Therefore, academic achievement should be considered to be a
multifaceted construct that comprises different domains of learning. Because the
field of academic achievement is very wideranging and covers a broad variety of
educational outcomes, the definition of academic achievement depends on the
indicators used to measure it. Among the many criteria that indicate academic
achievement, there are very general indicators such as procedural and declarative
knowledge acquired in an educational system, more curricularbased criteria such as
grades or performance on an educational achievement test, and cumulative
indicators of academic achievement such as educational degrees and certificates
(Ricarda Steinmayr,Linda Wirthwein et.,.al 2014). Academic achievement plays an
important role in child development because academic skills, especially in reading
and mathematics, affect many outcomes, including educational attainment,
performance and income at work, physical and mental health, and longevity (Calvin
et al., 2017). Academic achievement is therefore a yard stick for ascertaining the
capabilities of a student from which his overt, covert and inherent or unrevealed
abilities could be inferred. Academic performance is generally used to determine
how well an individual is able to assimilate, retain, recall and communicate his
knowledge of what has been learnt. Knowles (1978) asserts that academic
performance is the demonstrated achievement of learning as opposed to the
potential for learning. It is knowledge attained or skills developed in school subjects
usually designated by scores in formal tests or examinations. Academic achievement
refers to the observed and measured aspect of a student‘s mastery of skills and
subject contents as measured with valid and reliable tests (Joe, Kpolovie, Osonwa &
Iderima (2014). One of the factors affecting student’s academic achievement is
student learning motivation. The motivation that exists in students can drive them to
be more enthusiastic to do excel in learning process. This study aimed to determine
whether there is a correlation between the tertiary students’ motivation and the
students’ academic achievement indicated by their Grade Point Average (GPA). This
study was designed using a quantitative correlational study and 39 students were
involved as the participant. Questionnaire and document perusal were done to
collect the data. The results suggest that there is a positive correlation between
students’ motivation and the students’ learning achievement (Eyin Tria Agustina,
Alfina Adelia Pratiwi et.,.al 2021). The other set of factors important for academic
performance consists of cognitive abilities, including but not limited to working
memory (simultaneous information storage and manipulation; Peng et al., 2018).