AQF 503: PRODUCTION OF OTHER MARINE PRODUCTS

Synopsis: Ecology, life histories of crustacean and aquatic mollusk, culture of shrimps,
oysters; crabs, crayfish, lobster, cockles, periwinkles, marine gastropods, frogs, edible sea weeds
and fresh water plants. Deep sea and shore farming of some products. Processing and
preservation of marine products. (1 hour of lectures and 3 hours of practical/week).

The Course synopsis is outlined on lecture basis as follows:

Lectures 1-2: Ecology

Lecture 3-4: Life histories of crustaceans and aquatic mollusks

Lectures 5-8: Culture of Shrimps, Oysters, crayfish, crabs, periwinkles and frogs

Lecture 9: Culture of edible sea weeds

Lecture 10-11: Sea and Shore farming of some products

Lecture 12: Processing and preservation of marine products.

BY:

Dr. Abubakar M. Idi-Ogede

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MARINE COMMUNITIES
The sea biota is not abundant but contains well marked diversity. Every major group of algae and
almost every major group of animals can be found somewhere in the oceans. The only striking
omissions are the vascular plants and insects, which are abundant in estuaries but which have
few or no marine representatives. The marine biotic communities can be studied separately for
different life zones of the ocean.

The bottom of the sea is soft ooze, made of organic remains and shells of Foraminifera,
Radiolaria and other animals. Sea cucumbers, brittle stars, crinoids (sea lilies), sea urchins,
certain benthic fishes, and several types of crustaceans, as well as sea anemones, clams and and
other animals.

Concept of Ecology
ECOLOGY means literally “the study of home condition”. The term was coined by Haeckel in
1869 from the Greek “oikos” meaning home or dwelling. He spelt it “oecology”, and since then,
with its modern spelling. It has become used to describe the study of living things as they have
their existence in their own natural surroundings, or as it was, in their own homes. Such study is
one of accurate and precise natural history, and it may be more briefly defined as the
interrelationships between living things and their environments.
Such a system in which organisms live as communities related in an inseparable way to their
environments is known as ecosystem. It may be a pond or a forest, a fresh-water lake or a salt
marsh, but in every case the nature of the environment and the changes in it have an influence on
every aspect of the lives of the organisms that inhabit it and they in their turn exercise some
control over the nature of the conditions in which they live.
There`are two fairly well defined approaches to ecological study; one deals with the individual,
the other with the community. If we are concerned with a single plant or animal species
throughout its life history in relation to its living conditions, we are making an autecological
study. On the other hand, if we concerned ourselves with the plants and animals which occur
together in common surroundings, we are making a synecological approach or an approach
through sociology.
Autecology, the detailed study of the individual, its complete life story including form and
physiology, its methods and rate of spread, its adjustments and behavior under different habitat
conditions, is a long and difficult study. It may be the ideal approach to the wider subject of
sociology, but can hardly be achieved successfully by the student at some level, it is more
convenient for him to embark on synecology, the ultimate end of which in any case will lead to
autecology, since he will always have to consider the individual in making a complete study of a
community.
The first step in any synecological study, whether it be of a large or a small area, is the making of
a survey involving two clear-cut practical projects. First, a list of all the plants and animals which
may be found in the area must be compiled, so that the community can be described in terms of

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its constituents. Then a detailed analysis of the habitat factors must be made in order to reach an
understanding of the conditions in which the inhabitants associate together. In connection with
the first, notes on the habits of the animals listed are very necessary, so that a picture may be
formed of the behavior of each animal in the area, whether feeding, breeding or merely passing
through or over it.

Fig 1: Components of a freshwater pond ecosystem. Source: Adapted from Miller G.T.
(1991.67)

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Aquatic Ecosystems
These are majorly water ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems can be further classified to include
oceans, lakes, rivers, estuaries (mouth of river segment or ocean inlets where saltwater and fresh
water mix), coastal, and inland wetlands (swamps, marshes). These various types of aquatic
ecosystems are a result of local physical conditions.
These physical local conditions, which shape the aquatic ecosystems, are differences in amount
of nutrients dissolved in water, differences in depth of sunlight penetration and differences in
average water temperature.

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Factors Limiting Aquatic Ecosystems
Similarly as in the case of the terrestrial ecosystems, certain factors or conclusion determine the
types and members of organisms in the aquatic ecosystems. These factors are summarized as
follows:
1) Salinity
2) Depth of sunlight penetration
3) Amount of dissolved oxygen
4) Availability of plant nutrients
5) The water temperature.
1. Salinity
This is determine through the concentration of dissolved salts especially sodium chloride in a
body of water. Furthermore the salinity of water body or used to divide the aquatic ecosystem
into two major types. Examples are marine or saltwater ecosystem - are those with very high
salinity levels and these includes the oceans, estuaries, coastal wetlands and coral reefs. Secondly
is the freshwater ecosystem with a low salinity e.g. lakes, reservoirs and flowing water (these are
characterized as the inland bodies of standing water)
2 Depth of Sunlight Penetration
This is determined by measuring in meters the depth of penetration of sunlight measured from
the surface of the water body to the bottom. For a clear understanding of this, let us divide the
oceans from its surface into three (3) regions. And these are:
i) Euphoric zone
ii) Bathyal zone
iii) Abyssal zone
i) Euphoric Zone: is the zone that enjoys the most sunlight. At this zone, which between O and
200 metres, photosynthesis do take place. This zone supports scattered population of microscopic
drifting producers (mostly algae and bacteria), they fed upon by slightly larger and mobile
zooplankton (animal plankton).
ii) Basal Zone: This zone is between the depth of 200metres and 1,500 metres. And it is also
known as twilight zone.

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iii) Abyssal Zone: This third zone exists between the depths of 1500 metres and 10000 metres.
This area is also known as the darkness zone, as a result of the reduced penetration of sunlight.
3 Major World Types of Aquatic Ecosystems
From the five factors limiting aquatic ecosystems explained earlier above. There are basically
two types of aquatic ecosystems. These are categorized as follows:
1. Oceans
2. Inland Water bodies.
3.1 Major Ocean Zones
The ocean zones of the world can be divided into two zones. These are the coastal zone and open
sea. These two zones are determined largely by five factors limiting aquatic ecosystems.
Examples are oceans, estuaries, streams, coastal wetland and coral reefs. It contains 90% of the
total surface area of the ocean but only about 10% contain plants and animal life. They are
divided in three zones based on sunlight penetrations.
3.2 Inland Water Bodies
Example of the inland water bodies is lakes, reservoirs, ponds, inland wetlands and flowing
water (e.g. streams and rivers). The inland water bodies are low salinity. The inland water bodies
are generally standing water. This type of major ocean zone is equally determined by those five
factors limiting aquatic ecosystems.

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 MAIN CONTENT
Open Sea
Modern science has taught us to know that the sea is the very source of life on earth. It is, so to
speak, the amniotic fluid from which all living forms sprang. Throughout history, the oceans
have been vital to human civilization - as a resource base, as a route to other lands and other
peoples, or as an outlet for population overflow. For the human imagination, the sea has always
been a symbol of vastness and freedom.
Paradoxically, the marine zone, which contain about 90% of the total surface of the ocean only
contain about 10% of the plants and animal life found in the ocean zones. The open sea is
divided into three zones of photosynthesis, twilight and darkness according to the depth of sun
penetration.
Oceans of World
It was not until the frost colour pictures of earth come back from space that we knew our planet
look blue. But with a little knowledge of geography, anyone might have guessed. Over 70
percent (70.8%) of the surface of the globe is ocean about 330 million square kilometers, or over
360 square kilometers when coastal water is also included. The oceans of the world are the Artic
Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean and Atlantic Ocean. These four oceans together occupy the
space mentioned above on the surface of the globe. Infact, all the landmass of the earth
(continents and islands) would fit into the Pacific Ocean alone and with room to spare.
A Vast Inter-connected System
Although the oceans and their adjacent seas have their own names, they behave much more like
an entwined, moving snake than the massive lakes; we may imagine them to be. At the surface,
water warmed by the tropical sun (sometimes reaching 30%) is transferred by an ocean current
system towards high latitudes and the poles. Deep below the surface, wide cold (about 20C)
"Thermohaline currents move slowly around the world. The water in this deep part of the so-
called `conveyor belt' moves very slowly -- about 1 mm/sec, taking as long as 1,000 years to
complete its cycle. As a result, we find Mediterranean water at a depth of 2,200 meters near
Bermuda and Iceland, while water from the Red Sea turns up in the Indian Ocean.

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Pacific and Indian Oceans, taking 500 years to get there. This deep current is technically hard to
study and so is still poorly understood, but we know it plays a major role in stabilizing world
climate.
Where the atmosphere is very cold (for example, at the poles) there can be a major vertical
transfer between the deeper layers of the oceans and the warmer surface water. Warm water from
the tropics travels towards higher latitudes, where it meets cold air. Here, some of this water
evaporates (forming fog land rain) and as a result, the surface layer becomes cooler (as low as -
2°C), denser and more saline. This denser water slowly sinks as it returns towards the equator on
the global coupling of ocean and atmosphere is a major factor during climate in the medium term
and regional weather in the short term.
How the oceans transport heat

Importance of the Oceans

The vast ocean planet is important in number of ways. And these are:
a) They serve as receptacles for terrestrial water flowing from rivers.
b) They have the capacity to reduce harmful human-produced waste into less harmful or
harmless state.
c) They play a major role in regulating climate of the earth.
d) They participate in other biogeochemical cycles.
e) They serve as habitat for 250, 000 species of more plants and animals.

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f) They are a source of valuable resources such as sand, gravel, phosphates, lime, magnesium, oil
and natural gas.
Case study: The Ocean Charter
The oceans and their resources are a necessary element of life on this planet.
The health of the oceans, and the wise, safe and sustainable use of the ocean resources, should be
an axiom for all governments to accept and honour for the long-term benefit and existence of
their respective and collective peoples.
The acquisition of the knowledge necessary for the understanding and stewardship of the oceans
and their adjacent seas for the adoption of policies, standards and regulations to protect the ocean
environment and to husband their resources, are goals to be pursued both nationally and
internationally.
There should be mutual assistance and the will to work together to achieve common goals for the
oceans - adjacent and regional coastal states should cooperate in the adoption of local policies
and actions - countries with knowledge and resources should assist less fortunate neighbours -
data and information for global and regional problems should be readily available - States should
make use of international and intergovernmental organizations to generate global programmes
and agreements.
We recognize the wisdom of acting in unison to protect the oceans and to use their resources in a
sustainable manner and accept this Ocean Charter as a basis for future action.
Source: UNESCO/Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
Coastal Zones
This is relatively warm, nutrient-rich, shallow water that extends from the high tide mark on land
to the edge of a shelf like extension of the continental land mass known as the continental shelf.
Over 90 percent of the planet's living and nonliving resources are found within a few hundred
kilometers of the coastal zone.
On or near these coasts live two-third of the world's people. The coastal zone represents less than
10% of the total ocean area. The coastal zone is also the commercial zone, of major ocean zones.
For major commercial marine fisheries. It is also the source of most of the oceans’ biological
Productivity, which support oceanic animal life.

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 Types of Coastal Zone
The coastal zone includes a number of different habitats. And these are the estuaries, wetlands
and coastal wetlands.
Estuaries
These are semi-enclosed coastal body of water, which has a free connection with the open sea
but within which the salinity level of the ocean is considerably diluted by the addition of fresh
water brought in by a river system. Estuaries can be sub-divided into four main groups.
a) Drowned river valleys, which result from the submergence of a coastline e.g. Chesapeake Bay.
b) Fiords or Fjords - This form when the sea floods deep glacial valleys. These are found on
most glaciated coastlines, including British Columbia, Southern Chile, Scotland Norway and
News Zealand's South Island.
c) Teutonic Estuaries - which the down faulting of small sections of the earth's crust causes.
Although generally uncommon example South Francisco Bay.
Wetlands
They're any area of low-lying land where the water table is at or near the surface for most of the
time, resulting in open-water habitats and waterlogged land areas. Wetlands are typically
founding estuaries, along rivers with little vertical desert or in uplands where natural drainage is
impeded due to extensive boulder clay deposit or by drainage channels disrupted by glacial
watershed beaching. Wetlands may also form in areas of very high rainfall and low temperature.
Depending on their location, wetland can be fresh water, brackish or salt-water habitats.
Wetlands extending inland from estuaries and covered all or part of the year with-salt water are
known as coastal wetland. In temperate areas, coastal wetlands usually consist of a mix of bags,
lagoons and salt marches where grasses are dominant vegetation. In tropical areas, we find
swamps dominated by mangrove trees. These nutrient-rich areas are among the worlds most
productive and important ecosystem.

The class Crustacean

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CRUSTACEA, Kru-sta’shea, a class of usually aquatic animals, with segmented bodies, jointed
legs, and two pairs of antennae. The 26,000 species of Crustaceans include such familiar animals
as crabs, shrimps, lobsters, crayfishes, sowbugs, sandhoppers, and barnacles, as well as a host of
less well-known forms. Crustaceans range in size from microscopic copepods with less than
8/1000 inch (0.2 mm) in length to the giant Japanese crab (Macrocheira kaenuferi), whose
outstretched legs may span more than 12 feet (3.6 inches).

Distribution. Crustaceans are found in almost every type of habitat except the really dry
terrestrial ones. Most are found in the sea. They occur from the surface layers to the greatest
depths of the ocean, and they form a major component of the marine fauna. Terrestrial species
have evolved among the true crabs, hermit crabs, amphipods, and especially the isopods.

Coloration and Luminescent. Crustaceans exhibit an almost infinite variety of colors. Many
planktonic crustaceans have transparent bodies with little or no pigment. Deep-sea shrimps and
mysids (Opossum shrimps) are often a uniform brilliant red. Self-luminescent, or light-emitting
species, are found in the sub-class, Ostracoda and in the orders Copepoda, Mysidacea,
Amphipoda, Euphausiacea and Decapoda. Only marine species are self-lumiscent, but freshwater
and terrestrial crustaceans may become luminous when infected with luminescent bacteria.

Characteristics of the class Crustacean:

1. The main diagnostic feature of the class is the occurrence of two pairs of pre- oral
appendages which are antenniform and sensory in function, i.e., Crustaceans possess two
pairs of antenna.
2. The body of a crustacean consists of the head, the thorax and the abdomen. There is a
tendency for the head and the anterior segments of the thorax to fuse to form a
cephalothorax.
3. The head consists of six segments and bears the following three pairs of post-oral
appendages which act as jaws; the Mandible, the Maxilludes and the Maxilla.
4. The trunk appendages are variable in number, from and function: They occur in on every
segment of the thorax and abdomen and are typically biramous.
5. Respiration is usually by means of gills through the general body surface.
6. Excretion is by means of green glands which occur on the second (Antenary) or third
(Maxillary) segment.
7. The sexes are usually separate. A few species such as the barnacles are hermaphrodites.
8. The typical crustacean larva is the Naupilus which has three pairs of appendages
(Antenules, Antenna and Mandibles).

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY

To allow movement, the rigid crustacean shell is broken into a series of segmental rings, or
somites, connected by flexible membranes. The earliest Crustacean probably had a large and
indefinite number of somitee; some existing crustaceans have more than 60, but most have
between 16 (Copepoda) and 21 ( Malacostraca). The most anterior part of the abdomen
(telson), which bears the anus at its base, are not considered true somites.

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Appendages. Typically the crustacean body is divided into three major regions: head,
thorax and abdomen. In some groups the head is fused with some of the thoracic segments
to form the combined structure known as the cephalothorax. Each body region bears a
number of joints, or segments. The stem, or base, segment, known as protopodites, is
composed of two parts: the coxopodite, which is joined to the body, and the basipodite.
Characteristically, the appendages have two branches, attached to the bsipodite. The inner
branch arising closer to the middle of the body, is called the exopodite. Both the endopodite
and the exopodite may themselves be segmented.
One of the two branches may be lacking on certain appendages in some crustaceans. The
pincers (chelipeds) and walking legs (pereiopods) of the lobster, for example are formed
from only the stem (protopodite) and endopodite, the exopodite branch being absent.
The five pairs of head appendages are the first antennae (or antennules), the second
antennae, the mandibles, the first maxillae (or maxillae). The first antennae are typically
unbranched, although in many Malacostraca they have two branches. Both pairs of antennae
are primarily sensory, but

They may have other functions, most commonly locomotion or feeding. The mandibles
serve to chew the food, but the outer-end segments (palps) may aid in locomotion or in
setting up feeding currents. Both pairs of maxillae, which tend to be broad, assist in feeding.
The thoracic appendages serve a great variety of functions in different crustaceans. One
to three of the first three pairs may be modified to assist in feeding, in which case they are
called maxillipeds. Other appendages may be adapted for grasping or for locomotion. Often
the posterior thoracic limbs or the anterior abdominal limbs are absent in many groups of
crustaceans. When present, they are commonly used for setting up current of water, for
swimming, or for carrying eggs and young.

Cuticle. The crustacean exoskeleton, or cuticle, is secreted over the whole body surface by
the epidermis, a single layer of cells covering the body. The cuticle is composed mainly of
protein and chitin and varies from a thin, flexible sac to a thick, rigid shell. It is usually
stiffened and hardened by the deposition of calcium salts whitin it and by a tanning process
in which the protein part of the cuticle is hardened by quinines derived from the blood. The
cuticle often sends projections and folds into the interior of the body; these serve as
attachment points for muscles and as braces for the body. Externally, the cuticle forms a
wide variety of spines and hollow projections, called setae, which have many different
functions.

Structurally the cuticle consists of four layers: a thin, outer, nonchitinous epicuticle and
three chtinous layers of endocuticle-the pigmented layer, the calcified layer, and
theuncalcified layer. The epicuticle and pigmented layers, as well as the calcified layer, are
calcified.

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Eyes. Two types of eyes occur in crustaceans: simple –eyes, located centrally (median eyes), and
compound eyes located on either side. Median eyes occur in the nauplius stage of the larvae and
are the only eyes in copepods, adult barnacles, and most ostracods. Such an eye consists of two
or more sensory cells surrounded by a cup of screening and reflecting pigments. Sometimes a
lens is present. The compound eye is similar in structure to that of insects, consisting of a
number of tubular units, called ommatidia, radiating out from the end of the optic nerve. The
outer surface of each ommatidium is covered by a corneal lens, a transparent bit of cuticle
secreted by two underlying epidermal cells. Below the epidermal cells is the cylindrical or
conical crystalline cone, a lenslike structure leading to the retinula. The retinula, consisting of
light-sensitive nerve cells, surrounds the translucent, light-refracting rhabdome, or optic rod.
Nerve fibres from the retinula enter the optic nerve.
Each ommatidium is isolated from the others by two groups of pigment cells, one group around
the crystalline cone, the other around the retinula. The pigment moves within the cells to cover
more of the ommatidium in bright light, less of it in dim light.
.

Digestive system. The crustacean digestive system is a relatively straight tube consisting of three
parts: foregut, midgut and hindgut. The foregut and hindgut are lined with a chitinous layer,
which is shed and replaced at each molt. The foregut may be only a tubular esophagus, but in
most malacostracans it widens to form the cardiac part of the stomach, the walls of which bear
grinding ridges, teeth and calcareous ossicles moved by muscles. The cardiac stomach chews the
food and its teeth are reduced or absent in decapods, whose mandibles have sharp teeth for
chewing food. Tubular digestive structures called cecae open into the midgut; in higher
crustaceans one pair of cecae has developed into a large digestive and absorptive organ known as
the hepatopancrease.

The blood vascular system is generally described as an ‘open’ system as opposed to the more
familiar vertebrate ‘closed’ system in which blood circulate through the vessels. It include a
muscular contractile heart which lies within a pericardium and which communicates by one or
more ostia (Singular ostium) with the pericardial sinus. The heart is dorsal to the gut. There are
often blood vessels (arteries) leading from the heart to the organs from which the blood drains to
the sinuses in the haemocoele, which, in turn, conduct it back to the heart. Blood is a pale fluid
containing leucocytes, except in ostracods and copepods. It contains, in Malacostraca, thye
copper- containing respiratory pigments, heamocyanin, which is found in plasma but not in the
corpuscles. Occasionally haemoglobin has been found in some crustaceans e.g. Leananthropus,
an Entomostracan.
Excretion. Paired excretory organs open on or near the bases of the second antennae or the
second maxillae. Both antennal and maxillary glands are commonly present in larvae, but usually
only one pair persists in the adult. The principal nitrogenous waste product is ammonia, but urea,
uric acid, and amines are also excreted. A significant amount of the wastes may be excreted by
diffusion through the epithelium of the gills.

Nervous system. As in other arthropods, the nervous system is basically of the ‘ladder’ type,
consisting primitively of a pair of ventral (bottom) nerve cords with a cross-connecting ganglion
(mass of nervous tissue) in each somite. In all but the more primitive crustacean, however, the
two cords are fused.

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The brain is composed of the fused ganglia of the first and second antennae and the eyes. Nerve
cords from the brain circle down past the oesophagus to join the suboesophageal ganglion,
composed of the fused ganglia of the mouthparts. Varying degree of fusion of the ventral ganglia
have developed independently within most crustacean groups. In most crabs, all ventral ganglia
are fused with the subesophogeal ganglion to form a single mass.
Respiration. In very small crustaceans, respiration takes place through the general body surface,
especially in certain specialized areas of the integument (outer covering). Integumentary
respiration may also occur to some extent in crustaceans that rely mainly on other methods.
Gills are the usual respiratory organs, however, and they are typically associated with the
appendages. The typical gill in the largest group of crustaceans (the Malacostraca) is a thin
walled structure, well supplied with blood vessels, that arise from the base of a thoracic limb.
Adaptations for aerial respiration occurring in in terrestrial and semiterrestrial crustaceans
comprise a progressive reduction in the number and size of the gills. Air provides more available
oxygen than does water, and so less gill area is needed for aerial respiration. Reduction of the
gills also diminishes the amount of body water lost through the gills. Land crabs, with their
relatively higher metabolic rate and greater need for oxygen and by enrichment of the walls of
the gill chamber with blood vessels to facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

LIFE HISTORIES OF CRUSTACEANS

Reproduction. In most crustaceans the sexes are separate, but most barnacles are
hermaphroditic, with both male and female reproductive organs present in each individual.
Sex reversal is widespread among the parasitic isopods and in the shrimp genus Pandalus,
individuals functioning first as males and later as females. Sex reversal with the female phase
first occurs in isopodlike tanaidacean Tanais stanfordi and in the Isopod Cyathura carinata.

Development. Most crustaceans develop from fertilized eggs, but in some forms,
panthenogenesis, or development from unfertilized eggs occurs regularly. The newly hatched
young may resemble the adult, but more often it differs markedly in appearance. The earliest
larva is called the nauplius; it has an unsegmented body, median eye, and three pairs of
appendages (first and antennae, mandibles). Then the body elongates, its posterior part becomes
segmented, and additional appendages are added. The larva is now called a metanauplius. In
barnacles the last metanauplius becomes the ostracodlike Cypris larva which attaches to a solid
object and metamorphoses into an adult. In euphausiids (Krill) and decapods (shrimps.
Lobsters,and crabs), the metanauplius is followed by larval stages in which all trunk segments
are present and the first six pairs of appendages are functional. In these stages, the larvae are
called zoeae, and the abdominal appendages are absent or rudimentary. In the postlarval stage,
which follows the final zoeae stage, the zoeae transform into a megalops in crabs and into a
mysis in shrimps. The above pattern of three juvenile stages- naupliar, zoeal and megalopa or
mysid is often modified by the suppression of one or more stages. In most decapods the naupliar
stages are passed in the eggs, and the young hatch as zoeae. Freshwater decapods have direct
development, as do the Peraarida(amphipods, isopods, mysids), which brood their young in
thoracic pounches.

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The phylum known as Arthropoda incorporates chelicerates, insects and crustaceans. The
Crustacean class is the largest group of arthropods of a marine nature, and there are
approximately 30,000 different species in this group alone. The life cycle for different
crustaceans is going to have unique qualities, but there are also similarities between one
crustacean and the next when it comes to their lifecycles.

Naupilius Stage

This stage of the crustacean’s life cycle is perceived as being a defining link among all
crustaceans. This is the first larval stage for crustaceans and consists only of the crustacean’s
head and telsons as neither the abdomen nor the thorax has developed. The nauplius has only a
single eye located a top the head and three pairs of cephalic appendages that allow them to swim.

Zoea larval Stage

The crustacean’s life cycle involves a larval stage that is known as a zoea. When the zoea name
was given to the crustacean naturalists believe that it was an entirely separate species. During
this stage, the larvae will swim with thoracic appendages rather than cephalic appendages.

Sexual reproduction normally occurs although parthenogenesis can occur. Sexes are separate
except for the sessile Cirripedes, some parasitic Isopods and a few scattered members which are
hermaphroditic. Gonads of both sexes are typically paired, elongated, hollow organs of which
ducts lead directly to open either at the base of a pair of trunk appendages or on a sternite

Fertilization is either internal or external. Sperm are usually but not always immobile when they
are transferred to the females in packets or spermatophores. Most crustaceans brood their eggs in
the brood chambers located in various part of the body or on certain appendages or within a sac
when the eggs are expelled. The ova are usually yolky when they undergo meroblastic cleavages.
Development into adult may be direct, but in most cases it involves a larval stage or stages. The
basic types of crustacean larva is nauplius larva which is characterized by having three pairs of
appendages- antennules which are uniramous, antennae and mandibles which are biramous, In
the decapod crustacean, the eggs hatches as a more advanced larva, the zoea, the nauplius stage
having been passed in the egg.

Increase in body size can only be affected by a series of moults or ecdyses during which the old
skeleton is cast off and a new one is secreted in its place. Moulting and growth are regulated by
hormones. In most crustaceans, moulting continues throughout life but this process ceases in
others as soon as final growths stage is reached.

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Mysis or Megalopa Stage

The stage of growth following the zoea stage is either the mysis or megalopa stage dependent on
what crustacean group is involved. The megalopa stage is the final stage of growth for most
decapods crustaceans including lobster and crabs. The mysis or megalopa stages of development
are the final stages of development before reaching the post-larval stage

Post-Larval Stage

During the post-larva growth stages, the maturing crustacean will begin to look more like its
adult form. This is also the stage of growth where the crustacean will depend more on foraging
and grazing to feed. This is the period of growth where the crustacean will begin to develop its
legs for swimming as well as walking. By the time the crustacean has reached the end of its post-
larval growth stage, it will be at its full size and its adult appearance.

Adult Growth Stage

The adult growth stage is reached by one year of age for most crustaceans. After a year has
passed, most crustacean varieties will be capable of mating and reproducing. By the adult stage
of life, the crustacean has finished growing and is grazing and feeding on its own rather than
relying on nutrients from its egg.

The class crustacean is now divided into eight subclasses – Cephalocarida, Branchiopoda,
Ostracoda, Mystacocarida, Copepoda, Branchiura, Cirripedia and Malascostraca. This class used
to be divided into two groups, ‘Entomostraca’ and Malascostraca’. This division has no real
taxanomic basis and therefore is not officially recognized.

16
17
 Aquatic mollusk

Phylum: Mollusca
The phylum mollusca comprises the second largest invertebrate phylum. The term, mollusca, is
derived from the Latin word, mollis, meaning soft. This emphasizes the importance of their soft
parts which are of particular interest to the zoologists, rather than that of the shell with which
those studying fossils (paleontologists) are mostly concerned.

Mollusca are triploblastic, coelenterate (the coelom being represented by the pericardial
and the gonadial cavities) and mostly bilaterally symmetrical. The body cavity is haemocoelic.
They have soft non-segmented bodies consisting typically of an anterior head which is usually
developed (except in scaphopoda and bivalvia), a ventral muscular foot which is variously
modified for crawling, burrowing or swimming and a dorsal visceral mass. The body is more or
less surrounded by a thin, fleshy mantle (‘pallium’) the glandular surface of which secrets an
external shell that is largely calcareous. This mantle often grows out peripherically to enclose the
mantle cavity in which etenidia or gills lie, and into which open the anus and the kidney ducts.
The shell, consisting of three layers- outer periostractum which is usually extremely thin and
easily rubbed off, prismatic with crystals of calcium carbonate and some protein, and nacreous –
may be internal in some, reduced in others, and completely absent in some others. The organic
compounds of the molluscan shell, collectively termed conchiolins, are essentially proteinaceous.
The alimentary tract is complete, often U-shaped or coiled and the mouth is usually
provided with a rasping organ called the radula with chitinous toothlike projections (except
Bivalvia). The radula teeth are produced at the posterior end in the radula sac. A large digestive
gland or hepatopancreas opens into the stomach and there are often salivary glands.

A blood system consisting of a dorsal heart with one or two auricles or atria and one
ventricle, arterial and venous system , is present. The blood is without the usual red colour since
haemocyanin serves as the respiratory pigment.

Respiration is by one to many gills (ctendia), a lung in the mantle cavity, the mantle, or
by the epidermis.
Excretion is by one, two or six pairs of kidneys, or in some cases only one kidney
usually connecting to the pericardial cavity.
The nervous system consists typically of three pairs of gangalia (cerebral above mouth,
pedal in foot and visceral in body) which are joined by longitudinal and cross-connectives and
nerves. Sense organs include those of touch, smell or taste and there are eyespots or complex
eyes as well as statocysts for balance.
Sexes are separate in most species although many molluscs are hermaphrodites. There may be
one or two or four gonads with ducts; fertilization is either external or internal. Most molluscs
are oviparous while a few are viviparous. The terrestrial, as well as some other forms, lay eggs,
and in marine and some freshwater forms, development frequently includes trochophores; as
well as veliger larval stage which has a special locomotory and food- collecting organs known as
the velum. Development into an adult may be direct but there is no asexual reproduction.

18
 Molluscs are mostly marine, but various snails and some bivalves inhabit brackish waters
and freshwaters, while other snails and slugs are terrestrial. Most molluscs are free living
creatures that creep slowly on the substratum. Some attach to rocks, shells or wood; some
burrow; others float; and both the squids and octopuses can swim freely. Clams, oysters, squids
and other serves as human food and few bivalves such as Pinetado specie produce pearls. Some
mollusc shells have been used as currency. Some snails and slugs feed on cultivated plants.
Certain freshwater snails are intermediate hosts for parasitic worms, some bivalves bore into
rocks, and the shipworms (teredos) damage wooden ships and wharves.
Over 80,000 living molluscs specie have been described and are diverse in form. They
can be grouped into seven classes according to their symmetry and the characters of the foot,
shell, mantle, gills and nervous system. The classes are: (1) Polyplacophora (chitons), (2)
Aplacophora (solenogasters), (3) Scaphopoda (tooth shells), (4) Bivalvia (bivalves), (5)
Gastropoda (snails and slugs), (6) Cephalopoda (squids and octopuses), and (7) Monoplacophora
(Necopilinia).
The chitons (polyplacophora) are rare in Nigeria. They are limpets with a very low
profile and wide convex foot surface that provides a powerful attachment to rocks at the sea
shore by means of suction pressure. The wide concave shell characteristically consists of eight
overlapping transverse plates, hence the term polyplacophora (Greek polys, several; plax,
plate;phora, bearing).
The three common groups in Nigeria- Gastropoda, Bivalvia and Cephalopoda- are treated in this
account.

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Shrimps and Prawns
Shrimps and pawns are used jointly in most parts of the world in a state of confusion. In most
recent aquaculture study, the name prawn appears to be used for fresh water forms of
Palaemonids and shrimps for the others, particularly the marine species. Shrimps and prawns
have become high-value commodities in many developing countries, including Nigeria mainly
because of their export market potential. Species of prawn (Palaemonidae) include Palaemonetes
monodon, [Link], and P. orientalis while family Penaeidae includes species such as Panaeus
Sorientalis, P. monodon, P. japonicus and P. setiferus. In the present state of knowledge on
shrimp nutrition, fresh food continues to be important in larval and fry rearing, as well as
adultgrow-out. Commercial feeds are becoming available in many areas; but their acceptance in
commercial farming is rather slow. When used, many farmers supplement them with natural
foods and feedstuffs.

Crayfishes and Crabs

Aquaculturists world over have devoted more time for the culture of crayfishes (crawfishes),
lobsters and crabs due to high market demandfor them. However, it is only crayfishes that
presently account for any significant production through culture and some small-scale production
of crabs have also been exported from tropical countries, Nigeria exclusive. The long time
(gestation period) the juveniles take to grow tomarket size and pronounced cannibalism at both
larva and adult stages, have made available technologies for culture uneconomical commercially.
Crayfishes belong to families Cambaridae and Astacidaeand it is widely distributed over all
continents including Africa. Themost important species include Procambarus clarkii,
Pacifastacus leniusculus, and P. acutus. The breeding season of crayfish is around September
when rising waterlevel entices the females to release the young and become more active outside
their burrows. Crayfish are omnivorous but the bulk of their dietconsists of microbial-enriched
detritus. Vascular plants and epiphytesare also relished as food items while animal matters or
remains such as worms, insect larva, mollusks and zooplankton are very much preferred by
juvenile crayfish. Crabs belong to the family Brachyura and the common species for commercial
purpose is the Pre-moult blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) inthe U.S.A. Apart from this, Japan has
been the country with the widestor largest commercial production level of crab in the world.
Seed stock of the Japanese blue crab Neptunus pelagicus is regularly produced in hatcheries for
stocking open waters as well as larva of Portunus trituberculatus. Other successfully spawned
species in Japan is the kingcrab, Paralithodes camtschatica. This stage of crab production is
however not met by Nigeria aquaculture status as it is under exploited. There are three groups of
marine crabs found in Nigeria waters. Theyare:
(a) The estuarine species which include members of the family Gecarcinidae and Grapsidae.
(b) The swimming species in inshore waters all belonging to the family Portunidae.
(c) The deep sea crabs, mainly Geryonidae, which form is an important component of the
benthic ecosystem on the continental shelf.

20
Oysters
Cultivated oysters belong to two genera: Crassostrea (the cuppedoysters) and Ostrea (flat
oysters). Though aquaculture production of cupped oysters is much higher than that of flat
oysters, the latter are held in greater esteem to be served on the half-shell, and command a much
higher price in many countries. The more important species being cultivated world over are;
Crassostrea gigas (Pacific oyster), [Link] (American oyster), C. angulata (Portuguese
oyster), [Link] (Sydney rock oyster), C. glomerata (Auckland rock oyster), C. plicatula
(Chinese oyster), C. rivularis (Chinese oyster), Ostrea edulis (European oyster), Ostrea edulis
(European oyster), [Link] (Chilean oyster) and Crassostrea gasar (Mangrove oyster).
Although, not yet at commercial production stage, Crassostrea gasar is found in abundance in
mangrove water of Nigeria coastal swamps and have been exploited subsistently. Other bivalves
that are being exploited Sin Nigeria include the ark clams Senilla senilis, Anadara senegalensis
and Cardium costratum.

21
Frog:

Adaptation to aquatic environment

1. It possesses mucus glands in the skin for the production of a slimy fluid which causes its
body to be slimy thus making it difficult to catch.
2. The slimy fluid also keeps its body moist thus making possible the exchange of gases on
its skin.
3. It has no tail since the presence of a tail would interfere with its hopping and swimming
movement.
4. When swimming its body is bluntly pointed at both ends so that it can move easily
through the water.
5. Its tongue is attached at the front of the mouth and free behind; thus the tongue can be
flicked out to catch its prey.
6. It uses its hind limbs as paddles when swimming. This is made possible by the fact that
the hind limb toes are joined together by a web of skin which expands during each
swimming stroke.
7. It has a protective coloration which may be green, yellow or brown to harmonize it with
its surroundings.

22
 Life cycle of frog

The frog eggs will hatch within 3-25 days, depending on the species and water temperature.
They will hatch faster if the water is warmer. Colder temperatures will slow down the hatching
process. Eggs vary in size, colors and shapes with different species. The eggs are usually covered
with a jellylike substance that acts like a protective coating. Even the jelly differs, depending on
species.

Young frogs are called tadpoles or polliwogs. They do not look like
frogs yet. They look more like little fish. They have a tail and have
external gills which they breathe through. Tadpoles eat plants and
decaying animal matter. However, some will eat eggs of other frogs
and even tadpoles. As the tadpole develops, it will first grow the hind
legs and then the front legs or arms. The tail slowly retracts and disappears and the frog hops up
to the land as an adult. This process of transformation is called metamorphosis.

23
Not all eggs or tadpoles will make it to the adult stage. There are many threats like ducks, fish,
insects and other water creatures that will eat the eggs. When they are tadpoles, they still face
danger like being eaten by larger water animals or die when the pond dries up. How fast tadpoles
turn into an adult depend on the species and their natural surroundings. It might take a less than 2
weeks or even up to a few months.

24
 THE SEAWEEDS
The seaweeds form the commonest vegetation of rocky shores, where they either grow between
the tide marks, and are subject to alternate exposure and submergence by the sea twice daily, or
below low-water mark and are permanently submerged. They may also be found floating freely
in the sea in places, the most striking of such locations being the Sargasso Sea Off the African
coast between 200 and 350 latitude N.

The vast bulk of the seaweeds are members of two Algal groups, commonly called, because of
their coloration, the Brown and the Red Seaweeds. In the members of both chlorophyll is
present, but it is masked by other pigments, coloured brown and red respectively.

The brown seaweeds include the most massive members of the Algae, and some are indeed,
among the largest of living plants. They show differentiation of the thallus to a considerably
greater extent than do other members of the Algae. Thus, in the common Sargassum vulgare of
the West Indies and elsewhere, the base of the thallus becomes flattened to form a structure,
called the hold-fast, by which the plant attaches itself to the rock on which it lives. The main part
of the thallus (which may in some seaweeds be many centimeter long ) is, in Sargassum
vulgare, rounded in cross- section, and show a difference in structure between its outer and inner
parts. Microscopic examination shows the outer part to be made up of thin-walled cells, while
the inner part consists of filaments embedded in mucilage. Further, from the main thallus many
side branches are given off, and in them a considerable degree of differentiation is known. At
the base of each branch are one or two flattened, leaf-like organs, and in their ‘axils’ may be born
a number of hollow air-bladders, which will obviously make the seaweed more buoyant. It is on
certain of the side branches that the reproductive organs are born. On these fertile branches there
are separate male and female organs formed within little pits. The reproductive cells of both
sexes are shed into the sea, and it is here that fertilization takes place between the passive, and
relatively large, female cell, and the small, motile male cells. The zygote formed as a result of
fertilization germinates to form a new seaweed plant.

The red seaweeds are even more complicated in general structure and reproduction, though they
never attain the massive structure of the browns. Many of them live below low-water mark and,
in clear water, penetrate to considerable depths. They are more abundant in tropical than in
temperate seas.

Edible sea weeds

Edible seaweed, or sea vegetables, are algae that can be eaten and used in the preparation of
food. They typically contain high amounts of fiber. They may belong to one of several groups of
multicellular algae: the red algae, green algae, and brown algae.

Seaweed or macroalgae refers to several species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae.

The term includes some types of red, brown, and green...

25
Green algae such as sea lettuce or ulva, and sea grapes

 Brown algae such as kombu, arame, kelp, and wakame (the miso soup seaweed)

 Red algae such as dulse, laver, and nori (the sushi seaweed)

 Blue-green algae such as spirulina and chlorella

Benefit of Seaweeds
 There are many benefits of seaweed and it is a very nutritious food.
 Healthy people can enjoy seaweed as a condiment a few times a week.
 If you have concerns about thyroid health or digestive function, you may want to speak to
your doctor about monitoring your condition as you introduce more seaweed into your
diet.
 With a few exceptions, radioactivity and heavy metal toxicity is of low concern for
seaweed.
 In general, seaweed harvested from the Korean coast is quite safe.

26
FISH AND MARINE PRODUCTS AS A SOURCE OF
MATERIALS FOR OTHER INDUSTRIES
Scale and shell products. A number of products are made from the scales and shells of fishes.
Herring scales are a source of pear essence, a suspension of guanine crystals sprayed on beads,
textiles, and other articles to impart an iridescent sheen. Marine and freshwater shells, harvested
mostly in Australia and the Far East, are used to manufacture buttons, buckles, and similar items.

Freshwater mussel shells are taken for the same purpose from the Mississipi River and
tributaries. Many are exported to Japan to be used as spherical core matrices for the artificial
cultivation of pearls.

Oyster and Clam shells are commonly ground for use in poultry feed. In some locations such as
southern California, huge deposits of clam shells in tide flat areas are “mined” by dredging at
low tide.

Pearls. Natural pearls are formed when some foreign matter accidentally becomes inserted
between the shell and the soft body tissues of mollusks. The prevalence of natural pearls has
been sharply declining due to the deterioration of harvesting grounds and the expansion of pearl
culturing. Natural pearls have been produced up to the present in the Persian Gulf, around the
northwest coast of Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), in the Bay of Aden in the Red Sea, on the
northwest Coast of Australia, and in the South Pacific.

Cultured`pearls were pioneered by the Japanese and others in the 19 th Century. Several species
of marine and freshwater mussels, oysters, and clams are employed. Pearl farms have most
recently been developed in the Kuri Bay area of Austalia and in India.

Corals. Corals, largely of the genus Corallium, have been harvested since ancient days in the
Mediterranean and were at one time an article of commerce with the Far East, whose own coral
fisheries date only from the 19 th century, starting in Malaya Peninsula and moving to waters of
Japan.

Coral is divided into three categories according to its colours. Pink and red corals are the most
valuables. Black corals of the genus Antipathes, are harvested and worked into various
ornamental items in the West Indies, Malaysia. The Red Sea region, southeast India, and
Indonesia.

Sponges. The skeletons of sponges consist of resilient sponging, making them well suited for
cleaning purposes.

But sponge fishing, once flourishing in the Medterranean and the West Indies,where sponge
farms were established, is another of the many marine industries threatened with depleted stocks
and possible extinction of species due to excessive harvesting.

27
Processing and preservation of marine products
Principles of preservation

The principles on which preservation depends involve those factors which cause the spoilage of
fishes. The spoilage is minimized if not completely eliminated. Therefore, the following steps
must be taken during the process of preservation.

1. Cleaning
2. Refrigeration
3. High temperature
4. Dehydration
5. Salting

Cleaning

It means to prevent spoilage of fish from contamination and unhygienic conditions. Fish may
carry a number of microbes, particularly bacteria, both on surface of body as well as in the
intestines and body cavity. There are chances of contamination with dirt, dirty water or dirty
hands during handling. Poor sanitary conditions and careless handling of fish, particularly in
tropical regions, greatly increase speed of spoilage. Bleeding of fish due to injury during
capture or when fish is gutted, leave blood stains and smears leading to unhygienic
conditions. Therefore cleaning of fish greatly inhibits spoilage activity, so also keeps
hygienic conditions at all levels of handling of fish.

Refrigeration

This means the temperature lowered so much that autolytic enzyme activities and bacterial
multiplication is slowed down. At 27 oC-32OC, autolysis is quite rapid but at 6 oC, the
enzymatic activity is slowed down and instead of ATP, only AMP is the breakdown product.
At 8oC (frozen condition), it is the only IMP as end product. Lowering the temperature not
only limits the enzymatic activities also retards the growth of bacteria. At 40 oC, many strains
of bacteria are destroyed leading to storage death.

High Temperature

Heat decomposes autolytic enzymes and thereby brings their activity to a stop. A temperature
in the range of 110oC-121OC under a steam pressure of 7 kg per 6.45 square cm, kills all such
bacteria which cause fish spoilage. Even the spores of bacteria which are more resistant than

28
 the bacteria themselves are destroyed. Thus, the application of this principle is very effective
in stopping all chances of spoilage and in ensuring a very long term preservation.

Dehyderation

Dehydration means removal of water which is useful in maintaining the quality and period of
fish. Moisture is very beneficial for the growth and multiplication of bacteria. If the water
contents are removed, it makes bacteria very difficult to survive and even kills them.
Dehydration may be done by treating the fishes with alcohols or suitable preservatives.

Salting

Salting removes the moisture from the fish tissues by osmosis and further it enters tissues and
increases salt concentration to saturation point. The presence of high salt concentration
destroys autolytic enzymes and halts bacteria activity. The bacteria slow down their
multiplication and are forced to spore-formation. Many microbes and bacteria are destroyed
as salt has a toxic effect upon them especially the halophobic ones.

Methods of preservation

As fish is a highly perishable commodity. Different methods have [Link], preservation,

fishes are washed with clean water to remove slime, blood stains, mud and sand. Larger fishes
are gutted and the body cavity is washed. Some of the important methods of preservation are
metioned below.

1. Chilling
2. Freezing
3. Freezing-drying
4. Smoking
5. Sun drying
6. Salting
7. Canning

29