& Sampling Techniques & Samples Types Hi Outlines ~ Sample definition Ci » Purpose of sampling > Stages in the selection of a sample > Types of sampling in quantitative researches > Types of sampling in qualitative researches » Ethical Considerations in Data Collection >Sampling... & Hi The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals represent the larger group from which they were selected os SAMPLING....-.+ & [_stupyropuan= | Wy& + A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a population used to determine truths about that Ci population” (Field, 2005) » The sampling frame A list of all elements or other units containing the elements in a population. —_— S Population... ...the larger group fror individuals are selected to participate in a study >Target population A set of elements larger than or different NA from the population sampled and to which the researcher would like to generalize study findings. Who do you want to The Theo RZ __ generalize to? Populaiurs | Ci What population can The Stuuy you get access to? | Population How can you get The Sampling access to them? Frame Who isi diel in your study? | ) The Sample UL OOThe purpose of sampling... + » To gather data about the population in order N to make an inference that can be generalized to the population in th ee ine Define the target population n2 of a Sample - Select a sampling frame Oi Determine if a probability or nonprobability| sampling method will be chosen fan procedure for selecting sampling units pa {fp Determine sample size a - Select actual sampling units | Conduct fieldwork oH woreQuantitative Sampling Rn » Purpose - to identify participants from Ci whom to seek some information » Issues Nature of the sample (random samples) Size of the sample Method of selecting the sample | Quantitative Sampling Y » Important issues Representation - the extent to which t i sample is representative of the population Generalization - the extent to which the results of the study can be reasonably extended from the sample to the population Sampling error The chance occurrence that a randomly selected sample is not representative of the population due to errors inherent in the sampling technique >Quantitative Sampling Y » Important issues (continued) » Sampling bias + * Some aspect of the researcher’s sampling y design creates bias in the data. » Three fundamental steps + Identify a population + Define the sample size + Select the sample a Types of sampling in quantitative y researches a ASelecting Random Samples wv, » Known as probability sampling » Best method to achieve a representative Ci sample » Four techniques 1. Random 2. Stratified random 3. Cluster 4. Systematic a Selecting Random Samples Ww, 1. Random sampling Selecting subjects so that all members of a population hay -+ equal and independent chance of being selected fy «Advantages 1. Easy to conduct 2. High probability of achieving a representative sample 3, Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures + Disadvantages 1. Identification of all members of the population can be difficult 2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult >Selecting Random Samples J, » Random sampling (continued) Ci Selection process - Identify and define the population + Determine the desired sample size + List all members of the population + Assign all members on the list a consecutive number + Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of random numbers and read the appropriate number of digits i; Selecting Random & Samples 2. Stratified random sampling Ci The population is divided into two or more groups called strata, according to some criterion, such as geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and subsamples are randomly selected from each strata. >Selecting Random Samples J, » Stratified random sampling (continuec’ Advantages + More accurate sample * Can be used for both proportional and non- proportional samples + Representation of subgroups in the sample Disadvantages + Identification of all members of the population can be difficult + Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult Selecting Random Samples J, » Stratified random sampling (continuec i Selection process + Identify and define the population - Determine the desired sample size - Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for which you want to guarantee appropriate representation + Classify all members of the population as members of one of the identified subgroups >Stratified random sampling Selecting Random Samples J, 3. Cluster sampling Ci » The process of randomly selecting intact groups, nov individuals, within the defined population sharing similar characteristics » Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members of the population can be found + Examples + Neighborhoods + School districts * Schools , + ClassroomsSelecting Random Samples J, » Cluster sampling (continued) Advantages Ci + Very useful when populations are large and spread large geographic region + Convenient and expedient + Do not need the names of everyone in the population Disadvantages + Representation is likely to become an issue Selecting Random Samples J, » Cluster sampling (continued) + Selection process (y + Identify and define the population + Determine the desired sample size + Identify and define a logical cluster + List all clusters that make up the population of clusters + Estimate the average number of population members per cluster + Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size by the estimated size of a cluster + Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters + Include in the study all individuals in each selected cluster >Cluster sampling Y Cluster Three Sample Two Selecting Random Samples J, 4. Systematic sampling + Selecting every K'" subject from a list of t Qi members of the population Advantage + Very easily done Disadvantages * subgroups + Some members of the population don’t have an equal chance of being included PPSelecting Random Samples J, » Systematic sampling (continued) Ci Selection process + Identify and define the population = Determine the desired sample size + Obtain a list of the population + Determine what K is equal to by dividing the size of the population by the desired sample size + Start at some random place in the population list + Take every K'* individual on the list Systematic sampling Y » Example, to select a sample of 25 dorm rooms ir i college dorm, makes a list of all the room numbers dorm. For example there are 100 rooms, divide the wrar number of rooms (100) by the number of rooms you want in the sample (25). The answer is 4. This means that you are going to select every fourth dorm room from the list. First of all, we have to determine the random starting point. This step can be done by picking any point on the table of random numbers, and read across or down until you come to a number between 1 and 4. This is your random starting point. For instance, your random starting point is "3". This means you select dorm room 3 as your first room, and then every fourth room down the list (3, 7, 11, 15, 19, etc.) until you have 25 rooms selected.SAMPLE SIZE RZ Ae » According to Uma Sekaran in Research Methe Business 4th Edition, Roscoe (1975) proposed the rv thumb for determining sample size where sampl larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most research, and the minimum size of sample should be 30% of the population. » The size of the sample depends on a number of factors and the researchers have to give the statistically information before they can get an answer. For example, these information like (confidence level, standard deviation, margin of error and population size) to determine the r sample size. Types of sampling in quantitative ; vy, researches a Non-probability samples Ci (Random): allows a procedure governed by chance to select the sample; controls for sampling bias.Nonrandom sampling methods & 4. Convenience sampling Ci 2. Purposive sampling 3. Quota sampling a 4. Convenience sampling: the process of including whoever happens tu be available at the time + _..called “accidental” or “haphazard” Qj sampling (¢(< disadvantages... ...difficulty in determining how much of the effect (dependent variable) results from the cause (independent variable) a 2. Purposive sampling: v the process whereby the researcher selects a sample based on experience or knowledge *, the group to be sampled ...called “judgment” samplinga Ci ...potential for inaccuracy in the researcher's disadvantages... criteria and resulting sample selections a 3. Quota sampling & + the process whereby a researcher gathers fy data from individuals possessing identified characteristics and quotas& disadvantages... Hi -..people who are less accessible (more difficult to contact, more reluctant to participate) are under-represented a Sampling & in * Qualitative ResearcnSampling in Qualitative Research v ww Researchers in qualitative research selec Ci their participants according to their : 1) characteristics 2) knowledge a The purposeful sampling % It is when the researcher chooses Ci persons or sites which provide specific knowledge about the topic of the study. |Types of Purposeful Samplin J 1) Maximal Variation Sampling a 2) Typical Sampling Ny 3) Theory or Concept Sampling 4) Homogeneous Sampling s) Critical Sampling 6) Opportunistic Sampling 7) Snowball Sampling 1- Maximal Variation Sampling & + It is when you select individuals that differ Cj certain characteristic. In this strategy you should first identify the characteristic and then find individuals or sites which display that characteristic. >2- Typical Sampling v It is when you study a person or a site that is fi “typical” to those unfamiliar with the situation. You can select a typical sample by collecting demographic data or survey data about all cases. a 3-Theory or Concept Sampling & It is when you select individuals or sites becaus Ci can help you to generate a theory or specific concepts within the theory. In this strategy you need a full understanding of the concept or the theory expected to discover during the study. >4- Homogeneous Sampling aL It is when you select certain sites or pe Ci because they possess similar characteristics. In this strategy, you need to identify the characteristics and find individuals or sites that possess it. a ‘e 4 NA 5- Critical Sampling ° +> It is when you study an exceptional ca: Q represents the central phenomenon in dramatic terms.oo 6- Opportunistic Sampling . oa It is used after data collection begins, when fy may find that you need to collect new information to answer your research questions. a 7- Snowball Sampling & It is when you don't know the best people Ci study because of the unfamiliarity of the topic or the complexity of events. So you ask participants during interviews to suggest other individuals to be sampled. whya Ethical Considerations in A ETHICAL Data Collection ~ It is the researcher’s ethical responsibility to i safeguard the story teller by maintaining the understood purpose of the research... » The relationship should be based on trust between the researcher and participants. » Inform participants of the purpose of the study. % + > Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general eth. Q issues to consider, such as: * reciprocity * assessment of risk + confidentiality, « informed consent « and data access and ownership. > - Being respectful of the research site, reciprocit; using ethical interview practices, maintaining privacy, and cooperating with participants.» Qualitative researchers must be aware of the nA potential for their own emotional turmoil in processing this information » During the interview process, participants may Ci disclose sensitive and potentially distressing information in the course of the interview.. References RY v Creswell, J., W. (2012) Educational research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4th ed. v Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. >