Pagliacci

Opera Box
Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s

Welcome Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Lesson Plan Unit Overview and Academic Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Lesson Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Synopsis and Musical Excerpts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Flow Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

Ruggero Leoncavallo – a biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Catalogue of Pagliacci’s Operas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Background Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

The commedia dell’arte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

The Many Faces of Verismo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 2000 – 2001 SEASON

World Events in 1892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

History of Opera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

History of Minnesota Opera, Repertoire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

The Standard Repertory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 GIACOMO PUCCINI

Elements of Opera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Glossary of Opera Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

Glossary of Musical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

Bibliography, Discography, Videography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

VINCENZO BELLINI
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

KURT WEILL

[Link]
GIOACHINO ROSSINI

RUGGERO LEONCAVALLO
 620 North First Street, Minneapolis, MN 55401

Kevin Ramach, PRESIDENT AND GENERAL DIRECTOR

Dale Johnson, ARTISTIC DIRECTOR
Dear Educator,

Thank you for using a Minnesota Opera Opera Box. This collection of material has been designed to help any educator
to teach students about the beauty of opera. This collection of material includes audio and video recordings, scores,
reference books and a Teacher’s Guide.

The Teacher’s Guide includes Lesson Plans that have been designed around the materials found in the box and other
easily obtained items. In addition, Lesson Plans have been aligned with State and National Standards. See the Unit
Overview for a detailed explanation.

Before returning the box, please fill out the Evaluation Form at the end of the Teacher’s Guide. As this project is new,
your feedback is imperative. Comments and ideas from you – the educators who actually use it – will help shape the
content for future boxes. In addition, you are encouraged to include any original lesson plans. The Teacher’s Guide is
intended to be a living reference book that will provide inspiration for other teachers. If you feel comfortable, include
a name and number for future contact from teachers who might have questions regarding your lessons and to give credit
for your original ideas. You may leave lesson plans in the Opera Box or mail them in separately.

Before returning, please double check that everything has been assembled. The deposit money will be held until I
personally check that everything has been returned (i.e. CDs having been put back in the cases). Payment may be made
to the Minnesota Opera Education Department. All forms of payment are accepted.

Since opera is first and foremost a theatrical experience, it is strongly encouraged that attendance at a performance of
an opera be included. The Minnesota Opera offers Student Matinees and discounted group rate tickets to regular
performances. It is hoped that the Opera Box will be the first step into exploring opera, and attending will be the next.

I hope you enjoy these materials and find them helpful. If I can be of any assistance, please feel free to call or e-mail me
any time.

Sincerely,

Jamie Andrews
Community Education Director
Andrews@[Link]
612.342.9573 (phone)
[Link]
[Link]

introduction letter 1
P a g liacci Opera Box
Lesson Plan Unit Overview with Related Academic Standards

lesson title minnesota academic national standards

standards: arts k–12 for music education

1 – Life and Times of Leoncavallo Music [Link].1 8, 9

Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

2 – Discovering Italian Comedy Music [Link].1 8, 9

Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

3 – That was a great performance and I know why! Music [Link].1 8, 9

Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

4 – Translating “Vesti la giubba” into other genres. Music [Link].1 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9

Music [Link].2
Music [Link].3
Music [Link].2
Music [Link].3
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Music [Link].3
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Music [Link].3
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2

5 – Acting out scenes from Pagliacci Music [Link].1 8, 9

Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

6 – Looking at Pagliacci though different “lenses” Music [Link].1 8, 9

Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

lesson plans with related standards 2

lesson title minnesota academic national standards
standards: arts k–12 for music education

7 – Leoncavallo’s Music Choices Music [Link].1 6, 7, 8, 9

Music [Link].2

8 – Understanding the libretto Music [Link].1 7, 8, 9

Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

9 – Comparing and contrasting different Music [Link].1 6, 7, 8, 9

performances of “Vesti la giubba.” Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2
Music [Link].1
Music [Link].2
Theater [Link].1
Theater [Link].2

lesson plans with related standards 3

O pera Box Lesso n Pl ans with R el at e d Sta n da r d s

The lessons in this Teacher Guide are aligned with the current Minnesota Academic Standards, Arts k–12, and the
National Standards for Music Education. It is not the intention of these lessons to completely satisfy the standards. This
list only suggests how the standards and lesson objectives relate to each other.

minnesota academic standards, arts k–12

The Minnesota Academic Standards in the Arts set the expectations for achievement in the arts for k–12 students in
Minnesota. The standards are organized by grade band (k–3, 4–5, 6–8, 9–12) into four strands that foster the
development of students’ artistic literacy.
The strands are as follows:
i. Artistic Foundations
2. Artistic Process: Create or Make
3. Artistic Process: Perform or Present, and
4. Artistic Process: Respond or Critique.
Each strand has one or more standards that can be implemented in the arts areas of dance, media arts, music, theater
and/or visual arts. The benchmarks for the standards in each arts area are designated by a five-digit code. In reading
the coding, please note that for code [Link].2, the 0 refers to refers to the 0–3 (k–3) grade band, the 3 refers to the
Artistic Process: Perform or Present strand, the 1 refers to the first (and only) standard for that strand, the 5 refers to
the fifth arts area (visual arts), and the 2 refers to the second benchmark for that standard.
See the Minnesota Department of Education website for more information: [Link]/mde
Grades 9–12
strand: Artistic Foundations
standard 1: Demonstrate knowledge of the foundations of the arts area.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the elements of music including melody, rhythm,
harmony, dynamics, tone color, texture, form and their related
concepts are combined to communicate meaning in the creation of,
performance of, or response to music.
[Link].2
benchmark: Evaluate how the elements of music and related concepts such as
repetition, pattern, balance and emphasis are used in the creation of,
performance of, or response to music.
[Link].3
benchmark: Analyze how the characteristics of a variety of genres and styles
contribute to the creation of, performance of, or response to music.
arts area: Theater
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the elements of theater, including plot, theme,
character, language, sound and spectacle are combined to
communicate meaning in the creation of, performance of, or response
to theater.

lesson plans with related standards 4

 [Link].2
benchmark: Evaluate how forms such as musical theater, opera or melodrama, and
structures such as chronological or nonlinear are used in the creation
of, performance of, or response to theater.
[Link].3
benchmark: Evaluate how the characteristics of Western and non-Western styles,
such as Kabuki, Noh, Theater of the Absurd or classical contribute
to the creation of, performance of, or response to theater.
arts area: Visual Arts
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the elements of visual arts such as repetition, pattern,
emphasis, contrast and balance are used in the creation of,
presentation of, or response to visual artworks.
[Link].2
benchmark: Evaluate how the principles of visual art such as repetition, pattern,
emphasis, contrast and balance are used in the creation of,
presentation of, or response to visual artworks.

standard 2: Demonstrate knowledge of and use of the technical skills of the art form, integrating
technology when applicable.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Read and notate music using standard notation system such as
complex meters, extended ranges and expressive symbols, with and
without the use of notation software in a variety of styles and
contexts.
[Link].2
benchmark: Sing alone and in small and large groups (multi-part), or play an
instrument alone in and in small or large groups, a variety of music
using characteristic tone, technique and expression.
[Link].3
benchmark: Use electronic musical tools to record, mix, play back, accompany,
arrange or compose music.
arts area: Theater
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Act by developing, communicating and sustaining character; or
design by conceptualizing and realizing artistic interpretations; or
direct by interpretations dramatic text and organizing and
rehearsing for informal or formal productions.
[Link].1
benchmark: Use technology for purposes of research, feedback, documentation or
production.
arts area: Visual Arts
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Integrate the characteristics of the tools, materials and techniques of
a selected media in original artworks to support artistic purposes

lesson plans with related standards 5

 standard 3: Demonstrate understanding of the personal, social, cultural and historical contexts that
influence the arts areas.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the personal, social, cultural and historical contexts
influence the creation, interpretation or performance of music
including the contributions of Minnesota American Indian tribes
and communities.
[Link].2
benchmark: Synthesize and express an individual view of the meanings and
functions of music.
arts area: Theater
code: [Link].2
benchmark: Analyze how the personal, social, cultural and historical contexts
influence the creation, interpretation or performance of music
including the contributions of Minnesota American Indian tribes
and communities.
[Link].2
benchmark: Synthesize and express an individual view of the meanings and
functions of theater.
arts area: Visual Arts
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze how the personal, social, cultural and historical contexts
influence the creation, interpretation or performance of music
including the contributions of Minnesota American Indian tribes
and communities.
[Link].2
benchmark: Synthesize and express an individual view of the meanings and
functions of visual arts.
strand 2: Artistic Process: Create or Make
standard 1: Create or make in a variety of contexts in the arts areas using the artistic foundations.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Improvise, compose or arrange new musical compositions in a
variety of styles and contexts using available technology to preserve
the creations.
[Link].2
benchmark: Revise a musical composition or arrangement based on artistic intent
and using multiple sources of critique and feedback.
[Link].3
benchmark: Justify an artistic statement, including how audience and occasion
influence creative choices.
arts area: Theater
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Create a single, complex work or multiple works in theater such as a
script, character or design.

lesson plans with related standards 6

 [Link].2
benchmark: Revise a creation based on artistic intent and using multiple sources
of critique and feedback.
[Link].3
benchmark: Justify an artistic statement, including how audience and occasion
influence creative choices.

strand 4: Artistic Process: Respond or Critique

standard 1: Respond to or critique a variety of creations and performances using the artistic
foundations.
arts area: Music
code: [Link].1
benchmark: Analyze, interpret and evaluate a variety of musical works of
performances by applying self-selected criteria within the traditions
of the art form.
[Link].2
benchmark: Justify choices of self-selected criteria based on knowledge of how
criteria affect criticism.
arts area: Theater
arts area: Theater
[Link].1
benchmark: Analyze, interpret and evaluate a variety of works in theater by
applying self-selected criteria within the traditions of the art form.
[Link].2
benchmark: Justify choices of self-selected criteria based on knowledge of how
criteria affect criticism.

lesson plans with related standards 7

national standards for m us ic educati on

1 Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.

2 Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music.
3 Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments.
4 Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines.
5 Reading and notating music.
6 Listening to, analyzing, and describing music.
a analyze aural examples of a varied repertoire of music, representing diverse genres and cultures, by describing
the uses of elements of music and expressive devices
b demonstrate extensive knowledge of the technical vocabulary of music
c identify and explain compositional devices and techniques used to provide unity, variety, tension and release in
a musical work and give examples of other works that make similar uses of these devices and techniques
d demonstrate the ability to perceive and remember music events by describing in detail significant events
occurring in a given aural example
e compare ways in which musical materials are used in a given example relative to ways in which they are
used in other works of the same genre or style
f analyze and describe uses of the elements of music in a given work that make it unique, interesting, and
expressive
7 Evaluating music and music performances.
a evolve specific criteria for making informed, critical evaluations of the quality and the effectiveness of
performances, compositions, arrangements, and improvisations and apply the criteria in their personal
participation in music
b evaluate a performance, composition, arrangement, or improvisation by comparing it to similar or exemplary
models
c evaluate a given musical work in terms of its aesthetic qualities and explain it to similar or exemplary models

8 Understanding relationships between music, the others arts, and disciplines outside the arts.
a explain how elements, artistic processes, and organizational principles are used in similar and distinctive ways
in the various arts and cite examples
b compare characteristics of two or more arts within a particular historical period or style and cite examples from
various cultures
c explain ways in which the principles and subject matter of various disciplines outside the arts are interrelated
with those of music
d compare the uses of characteristic elements, artistic processes, and organizational principles among the arts in
different historical periods and different cultures
e explain how the roles of creators, performers, and others involved in the production and presentation of the
arts are similar to and different from one another in the various arts
9 Understanding music in relation to history and culture.

lesson plans with related standards 8

 P ag l i ac c i Ope r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 1: Life and Times of Leoncavallo

objective(s)
Students will understand the life, times and culture of Leoncavallo.

material(s)
• reference books about Leoncavallo
• LIFE AND TIMES OF LEONCAVALLO TIMELINE RESEARCH CHECKLIST (see following page)
• general reference books about 19th-century Europe
• internet access
• poster board

procedure(s)

(1) Divide class into groups. Assign research topics related to Leoncavallo to each group. Direct the class to research
their specific topics and prepare a presentation for the rest of the class based on their findings. The nature and scope
of the presentations is at the discretion of the teacher.
Suggested topics:
– political and social culture of Europe during Leocavallo’s lifetime (1857–1919)
– scientific and technological achievements during Leoncavallo’s lifetime.
– social life and class divisions in Italy and Europe during Leoncavallo’s lifetime.
– artistic and musical life in Italy and all of Europe from 1850 to 1920.
~ Verismo in opera
~ Use of realism in literature and music
~ Literary and artistic trends

(2) Offer some guided (in-class) research time with students. Depending on students’ ability to conduct research,
additional guidance might be needed.
(3) Each group is to create a piece of the timeline poster that will be posted on the wall. It is suggested that the
teacher predetermine what form the timeline will look like. For example, cut pieces of poster board, mark the
time span and topic of each section and mount final piece on the classroom wall. Each piece of the timeline
should contain 20 facts.
(4) Student groups will give oral presentations based on their topic. Each group should create five questions about their
topic that they feel are the most important. Questions are to be submitted to the teacher prior to giving the

assessment(s)
Assign value for class participation and group cooperation. In addition, assign value to each of the following
activities:
– demonstration of checklist completed
– all group members participating in presentation
– correct number of facts, clearly written, for piece of timeline
– evidence of note-taking during all presentations

opera box lesson plans 9

LIFE AND TIM ES OF LEONCAVALLO TIMELINE RESEARCH CHECKLIST

group members

topic

Each item must be completed to earn full point value. _____ points possible
for each item
research checklist

_____ List 20 facts related to the topic and how they relate to Leoncavallo. _____ points earned

_____ Organize all facts into chronological order. _____ points earned

_____ Write three-sentence descriptions of each fact to be put on timeline. _____ points earned

_____ Proofread all sentences prior to putting them on the timeline. _____ points earned

_____ Put each fact on the timeline for public display. _____ points earned

class presentation checklist

_____ Prepare an outline of class presentation. _____ points earned

_____ Based on this outline, create five questions that your group feels address
the most important points of the presentation. _____ points earned

_____ Submit five questions to teacher prior to presentation. _____ points earned

_____ Assign speaking parts for each group member. _____ points earned

_____ Practice speech. _____ points earned

_____ Give presentation. _____ points earned

_____ Put piece of timeline on wall. _____ points earned

_____
total

opera box lesson plans 10

 P ag l i ac c i Ope r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson
Lesson 2: Discovering Italian Comedy

objective(s)
Students will learn the basic elements and characteristics of the Italian commedia dell’arte.

material(s)
• DISCOVERING ITALIAN COMEDY CHECKLIST AND RUBRIC HANDOUT (one per student)
• Reference books on Italy circa the Italian Renaissance through the 18th century
• Internet access

procedure(s)

(1) Divide class into smaller groups and assign a topic to research in relationship to this topic. Suggested topics are:
– Influences of the form (i.e. when and where did this occur)
– Properties used in performances
– Improvisation
– Stock Characters
– Costumes and masks
– Music
– Plots/story lines
(2) Each group will create a two paragraph summary of their finds. Each group will then share their summary with
the rest of the class.
(3) As a class, create a summary of all the findings. Ask students to identify the main points of each topic.
(4) Combine small groups into large groups (four to six students per group) and assign them the task of creating
and performing a mini commedia dell’arte piece. See DISCOVERING ITALIAN COMEDY CHECKLIST AND RUBRIC
for more details.

assessment(s)
Students are to complete all the steps on the checklist and perform their piece. See DISCOVERING ITALIAN COMEDY
CHECKLIST AND RUBRIC for details.

opera box lesson plans 11

DI SC OVE RING IT AL IAN C OM EDY RUBR IC AND CHECKLIST

Lesson 2

directions

(1) Divide into groups of two to three students and chose a topic to research in relationship to commedia dell’arte.
Suggested topics are:
– Influences of the form (i.e. when and where did this occur)
– Properties used in performances
– Improvisation
– Stock Characters
– Costumes and masks
– Music
– Plots/story lines
(2) Research this topic and create a two-paragraph summary of your findings. Plan to share these findings with the
rest of the class.
(3) Take notes as the class discusses the major ideas found from all the groups.
(4) Join with another group and create your own commedia dell’arte piece. Based on your research and the research
from the rest of the class, come up with a story (it can be based on a common commedia dell’arte story) and create
some dialogue. Include characteristic use of props, music, masks, etc. The entire piece should last about five
minutes.
(5) Assessment will based on the following checklist and rubric.

DISCOVERING ITALIAN COMEDY CHECKLIST

_____ Pick Research Topic (What is your topic? _____________________________)

_____ Create two paragraph summary of your findings (must be turned in at end of assignment).

_____ Evidence of note taking on classroom discussion (must be turned in at end of assignment).

_____ Script of commedia dell’arte piece (must be turned in at end of assignment).

_____ Performance of commedia dell’arte piece.

opera box lesson plans 12

DISCOVERING ITALIAN COMEDY RUBRIC

COMMEDIA DELL’ARTE PERFORMANCE RUBRIC

c at e gor y 4 3 2 1

Almost always listens Often listens to, shares

Rarely listens to, shares
to, shares with and Usually listens to, with and supports the
with and supports the
c ol l a b or at i o n supports the efforts of shares with and efforts of others in the
efforts of others in the
wi t h p e e r s others in the group. supports the efforts of group but sometimes is
group. Often is not a
Tries to keep people others in the group. not a good team
good team member.
working well together. member.

Student seems pretty The student is

Student is completely Student does not seem
prepared but might somewhat prepared,
p r e pa r e dn e s s prepared and has at all prepared to
have needed a couple but it is clear that
obviously rehearsed. present.
more rehearsals. rehearsal was lacking.

Evidence of 4–5 Evidence of 2–3 Evidence of 1–2 No evidence of

e v i de n c e of
characteristics of characteristics of characteristics of characteristics of
c h a r a c t e r i st ic s
commedia dell’arte. commedia dell’arte. commedia dell’arte. commedia dell’arte.

p oi n t s e a r n e d

ta sk t o ta l p oints p os s ibl e total p oints earned

c om p l e t e d c h e c k l is t

p e r f or m e d pie c e

t ur n e d i n su m ma r y,
c l a ss di sc u s s io n
n ot e s a n d s c r ipt

opera box lesson plans 13

 P ag l i ac c i Ope r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 3: “That was a great performance and I know why!”

objective(s)
Students will learn about applying objective and subjective statements toward a musical performance. Students will
apply this knowledge of criticism by writing a critique of a performance. Ideally this lesson should be used in conjunction
with attending a live performance.

material(s)
• Pagliacci CD or DVD (any recording will work)
• “THAT WAS A GREAT PERFORMANCE AND I KNOW WHY!” OBEJCTIVE/SUBJECTIVE CHART (see following page)
• Various reviews from newspapers and magazines of opera, concerts, musicals, theater, movies and other media.
(not in Opera Box)
Depending on your particular subject area, you may choose to focus on different aspects of reviewing. For example, a
music class might choose to limit themselves and only look at musical reviews.

procedure(s)
(1) Play an excerpt from Pagliacci. Suggested excerpts would be A) a complete act, or B) shorter excerpts, such as the
Prologue, Act I or Act II.
(2) After listening or viewing, ask students to make objective and subjective statements about the performance.
Chart and categorize the class comments into two categories, objective and subjective.
DISCUSSION POINTS

– Differences between objective and subjective statements

– Which is easier to make, subjective or objective statements?
– Which type of statement provides more information about a performance for a potential listener?
(3) Explain that the role of any music critic is to balance the differences between the two. A possible extension for this
lesson could be to have students conduct research on the professional critic.
(4) Assign students to find and read three reviews from a newspaper, magazine or online source. Students are then
to analyze the reviews, identifying the subjective and objective attributes. They will put their answers on the
“THAT WAS A GREAT PERFORMANCE AND I KNOW WHY!” OBJECTIVE/SUBJECTIVE CHART.
(5) In class, question students about their findings.
(6) Then assign students to write a review about a common, singular topic. For example, everyone will write about
their experiences passing in the halls between periods, or eating in the cafeteria. Discuss the subjective and
objective nature of the comments given.
(7) Assign students to write a review outside of class. This review could be based on the performance the class will
attend.

opera box lesson plans 14

assessment(s)
option one
Evaluation shall include the successful completion of the reviews found, analyzed and written. Class participation
should also be included.
option two
Evaluation shall include the successful completion of the reviews found, analyzed, and written. In addition, students
are to fill out another “THAT WAS A GREAT PERFORMANCE AND I KNOW WHY!” OBJECTIVE/SUBJECTIVE CHART
evaluating an additional excerpt from Pagliacci. (The suggested Pagliacci excerpt is one of the excerpts not used in
Step 1 above. Class participation should also be assessed.)

additional c omment(s)
Encourage students to write a review about a live performance of another ensemble within the school or a professional
group. A group of students could also review a new movie. Also, if possible, inquire if some of these reviews could
be included in a school or local newspaper.

opera box lesson plans 15

 THAT W AS A GREAT PER FORMANCE AN D I KNOW WHY!

SUB JECTIVE/OBJECTIVE CHART

name
Lesson 3

directions
After listening to a piece of music, create a list of five (5) objective statements regarding the overall performance itself, the quality of the piece(s) and the
performers. Then make a list of five (5) subjective statements regarding the same criteria. In the “criteria” box, identify what you are (sub) objectifying.

criteria criteria criteria

objective subjective objective subjective objective subjective

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4
opera box lesson plans

5 5 5
16
 P ag l i ac c i Ope r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 4: Translating “Vesti la giubba” (“On with your costume”) into other genres.

objective(s)
Students will understand the characteristics of this aria and translate those characteristics into other genres.

material(s)
• Pagliacci CD
• Pagliacci libretto (one copy of the aria per student
• TRANSLATING “VESTI LA GIUBBA” INTO OTHER GENRES RUBRIC (one copy per student)

procedure(s)
(1) As a class, read the text of “Vesti la giubba” and discuss the following points:
– What is the form of the text ? Is it a solo, duet, etc.?
– What is the overall meaning of the text?
– Does the content of the text have meaning in today’s society?
– Is there a popular song that deals with the same emotions?
(2) Students are to take the text of “Vesti la giubba” and set it into another musical genre. For example, students
may turn the text into a rap, country, or pop song. Encourage the students to modernize the words.
(3) Students are to perform their compositions with the other students serving as the audience.
(4) Discuss as a class which performances were successful. Why or why not? Include discussion of the effectiveness
of the text separate from the music.
(5) As a class, listen to the CD recording of “Vesti la giubba.” Compare and contrast the original setting and the
student compositions. Discuss which setting is more effective, more entertaining and why.

assessment(s)
The final class performance will be evaluated on completeness of text and its understandability. The audience can
provide feedback by determining the most creative and the most effective performance. Value will be given placed
on class participation. See TRANSLATING “VESTI LA GIUBBA” (“ON WITH YOUR COSTUME”) INTO OTHER GENRES
RUBRIC for details.

opera box lesson plans 17

TRANSLATING “VESTI LA GIUBBA” (“ON WITH YOUR COSTUME”) INTO OTHER GENRES.

Lesson 4 NAME

DIRECTIONS

(1) Read the text of “Vesti la giubba” (“On with your costume”) and discuss the following points:
– What is the form of the text? Is it a solo, duet, etc.?
– What is the overall of the text?
– Does the content of the text have meaning in today’s society?
– Is there a popular song that deals with the same emotions?
(2) Pick a partner and translate the text into another genre. For example, you could turn this duet into a rap, country
and western song, a church hymn, a piece of minimalism or Gregorian chant. You can modernize the words if you
chose, but try to maintain the original meaning of the text.
(3) Perform your composition for the class. You will be assessed by the criteria in the rubric below.
(4) At the end, you will listen to the excerpt from Pagliacci and compare and contrast Leoncavallo’s composition to
yours.

PRESENTATION RUBRIC

c at e gor y 4 3 2 1

Almost always listens Often listens to, shares

Rarely listens to, shares
to, shares with and Usually listens to, with and supports the
with and supports the
c ol l a b or at i o n supports the efforts of shares with and efforts of others in the
efforts of others in the
wi t h p e e r s others in the group. supports the efforts of group but sometimes is
group. Often is not a
Tries to keep people others in the group. not a good team
good team member.
working well together. member.

Student seems pretty The student is

Student is completely Student does not seem
prepared but might somewhat prepared,
p r e pa r e dn e s s prepared and has at all prepared to
have needed a couple but it is clear that
obviously rehearsed. present.
more rehearsals. rehearsal was lacking.

Stays on topic most

Stays on topic all Stays on topic some (89 It was hard to tell what
stay s on t op ic (99 – 90%) of the
(100%) of the time. – 75%) of the time. the topic was.
time.

Sometimes does not

Listens intently. Does Listens intently but has Sometimes does not
l i st e n s t o ot he r appear to be listening
not make distracting one distracting noise or appear to be listening
p r e se n tat i ons and has distracting
noises or movements. movement. but is not distracting.
noises or movements.

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 P ag l i ac c i Ope r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 5: Acting out a scene from Pagliacci

objective(s)
Students will learn about the physical gestures and vocal inflection needed to create characterization on stage.

material(s)
• libretto of Pagliacci (one copy per student)
• (optional) “Props” – items for acting out the scene could be a chair, window (Columbine), guitar (Harlequin), table with plates,
etc. (Columbine and Harlequin), basket (Taddeo), a small bottle (Harlequin), items for a clown and a knife (Pagliaccio).

procedure(s)
(1) Before you do this lesson in class it is recommended that you read through this excerpt. There maybe a few words
that your students will not understand, and you will want to be comfortable with the roles and story that you
will be asking your students to act out. Suggest to the class that a libretto is only the text of what is being sung
and the translation is from those words. It’s not meant to be a spoken play.
(2) Give one copy of libretto to each student. Have students read and act the following parts: This lesson must be
done with all of these parts being acted out.
the characters
– Nedda as Columbine – Canio as Pagliaccio
– Beppe as Harlequin – Silvio
– Tonio as Taddeo – Audience watching the play
(3) Students are to read through the excerpt, take notes and discuss the personalities of the characters. Then they are
to read through it again, but they are to act out their roles in front of the classroom. Encourage students to add
vocal inflection and gesture to their parts. Their choices will be discussed in the next step.
(4) After they finish acting the excerpt, discuss the choices they made in creating their characters. What was done
to differentiate the men from the women, nobility from the servants, the young and the old, etc? Why were these
choices made? Is there a level of hierarchy being displayed here?
(5) As a class, move the discussion to the acceptability of these gestures and inflections. You are moving the
discussion towards stereotypes and preconceived ideas. Here are some suggested questions:
– Are these choices and roles acceptable to our current sensibilities?
– Are there some gestures and/or vocal inflections that are acceptable and others unacceptable?
– Why do we have these stereotypes?
(6) For the final project, assign the students to create a list of observed gestures of the world around them, i.e.
classmates, adults, parents, people on television. These gestures should be an obvious movement that gives a clear
meaning to the observer. For example, someone is waving his/her hand, bowing, pointing and making a funny
or angry face – all have meaning. Students are to tally the times they see the gesture repeated, and then create a
list of the ten most interesting observations. For each of the ten most interesting, they are to write a paragraph
explaining why these gestures were interesting and what they signify.

assessment(s)
Value should be given to quality of the reviews of peers, class participation in discussion and acting performance.

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ACT ING EVAL UAT ION WOR KSHEET

Lesson 5 name of observer

name of performers

directions
Closely observe your peers as they perform from the Act I – Finale from Pagliacci. Look for the following elements in
their performance. Be consistent and fair with each group.

(1) What was the single most effective gesture used by the group?

(2) Did the group performing “follow” each line of the text? Did they physically reinforce everything they were saying?

(3) Did the performers make eye contact with each other and/or audience?

(4) Was the voice of the performers used to create variety and emotion in the scene?

(5) Give one suggestion to the group to improve their performance.

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 Pag l i ac c i Ope r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 6: Looking at Pagliacci through different “lenses.”

objective(s)
Students will comprehend the drama of Pagliacci through various literary theories. (It is suggested that this lesson
follow some other preliminary work on the story of Pagliacci.)

material(s)
• PAGLIACCI THROUGH THE LENSES WORKSHEET AND RUBRICS (one copy per student) (see following pages)
• various costumes and props for student presentations (not in Opera Box)

procedure(s)
(1) Break class into smaller groups and assign each group a “lens” in which to analyze Pagliacci.

(2) As a class, read through the PAGLIACCI THROUGH THE LENSES WORKSHEET. Give additional explanation (as
needed) to the class describing the various perspectives.

(3) Assign worksheet and possible class time for work.

(4) Create a space for the student groups to present their work. Students not presenting will serve as an audience
taking notes on each presentation. These notes will be used in the assessment.

assessment(s)
Each student will be assessed individually and as a member of their assigned group. Value given to group
participation and class presentation will follow the PAGLIACCI THROUGH THE LENSES WORKSHEET AND RUBRICS.
Upon the completion of all presentations, each student is to compose a persuasive essay supporting one of the lenses
as superior to the others. All lenses are to be used and cited as supporting material of the argument.

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PAGLIACC I THROUGH LENSES WORKSHEET AND RUBR ICS

Lesson 6 name

directions
Read through each description of the various literary theories or “lenses” used to understand literature. In your small
group, read through your assigned lense and find examples of this perspective in the libretto of Pagliacci. After your
group has collected enough examples in the libretto, create a 10-minute presentation explaining your position. Use a
short example of the libretto to act out (with appropriate costumes and props) to demonstrate your position. During the
other class presentations, take notes on how each lens is represented in Pagliacci. These notes are to be used in a final
persuasive essay supporting one theory. Follow the checklist and rubric to help you complete all the tasks.

Marxist Literary Theory

assumptions
1. The German philosopher Karl Marx argued that the way people think and behave in any society is determined
by basic economic factors.
2. In his view, those groups of people who owned and controlled major industries could exploit the rest of the
population through conditions of employment and by forcing their own values and beliefs onto other social
groups.
3. Marxist criticism applies these arguments to the study of literary texts.
strategies
1. Explore the way different groups of people are represented in texts. Evaluate the level of social realism in the text
– how is society portrayed.
2. Determine the ideological stance of the text-what world view does the text represent.
3. Consider how the text itself is a commodity that reproduces certain social beliefs and practices. Analyze the social
effect of the literary work.
Reader-Response Criticism
assumptions
1. An author’s intentions are not reliably available to readers; all they have is the text.
2. Out of the text, readers actively and personally make meaning.
3. Responding to a text is a process, and descriptions of that process are valuable.
strategies
1. Move through the text in super-slow motion, describing the response of an informed reader at various points.
2. Or describe your own response moving through the text.
3. React to the text as a whole, embracing and expressing the subjective and personal response it engenders.
Postcolonial Literary Theory
assumptions
1. Colonialism is a powerful, destructive historical force that shapes not only the political futures of the countries
involved, but also the identities of colonized and colonizing people.
2. Successful colonialism depends on a process of “othering” the people colonized. That is, the colonized people are
seen as dramatically different from and lesser than the colonizers.

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 3. Because of this, literature written in colonizing cultures often distorts the experiences and realities of colonized
people. Literature written by colonized people often includes attempts to articulate more empowered identities
and reclaim cultures in the face of colonization.
strategies
1. Search the text for references to colonization or current and formerly colonized people. In these references, how
are the colonized people portrayed? How is the process of colonization portrayed?
2. Consider what images of “others” or processes of “othering” are present in the text. How are these “others”
portrayed?
3. Analyze how the text deals with cultural conflicts between the colonizing culture and the colonized or traditional
culture?
Feminist Criticism
assumptions

1. The work doesn’t have an objective status, an autonomy; instead, any reading of it is influenced by the reader’s
own status, which includes gender or attitudes toward gender.
2. Historically the production and reception of literature has been controlled largely by men; it’s important now to insert
a feminist viewpoint in order to bring to our attention neglected works as well as new approaches to old works.
3. Men and women are different: they write differently, read differently and write about their reading differently.
These differences should be valued.
strategies
1. Consider the gender of the author, the characters: what role does gender or sexuality play in this work?
2. Specifically, observe how sexual stereotypes might be reinforced or undermined. Try to see how the work reflects,
or distorts or recuperates the place of women (and men) in society.
3. Imagine yourself as a woman reading the work.

Psychological Criticism
assumptions
1. Creative writing (like dreaming) represents the (disguised) fulfillment of a (repressed) wish or fear.
2. Everyone’s formative history is different in particulars, but there are basic recurrent patterns of development for
most people. These patterns and particulars have lasting effects.
3. In reading literature, we can make educated guesses about what has been repressed and transformed.
strategies
1. Attempt to apply a developmental concept to the work (or the author or the characters). For example: the Oedipal
complex, anal retentiveness, castration anxiety, gender confusion.
2. Relate the work to psychologically significant events in the author’s life.
3. Consider how repressed material maybe expressed in the work’s pattern of imagery or symbols.

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Biographical, Historical, New Historical Criticism
assumptions

1. Meaning is contextual.
2. The context for a literary work includes information about the author, his or her historical moment and the systems
of meaning available at the time of writing.
3. Interpretation of the work should be based on an understanding of its context.
strategies
1. Research the author’s life, and relate that information to the work.
2. Research the author’s time (the political history, intellectual history, economic history, etc.) and relate that
information to the work.
3. Research the systems of meaning available to the author and relate those systems to the work.

checklist

! Individually read the Pagliacci libretto. Make citations in the text when you find examples of your theory.

! In your small group, discuss your findings.

! Prepare a 10-minute presentation* that includes the following:

• An explanation of the purpose of your lens in general
• A thorough analysis of how Pagliacci can be seen through your lens including at least 5 quotations
found in the libretto supporting your theory.
• An explanation of how the imagery is used to explicate/illuminate your lens’s interpretation.
• Identify a small portion of one or two scenes from Pagliacci which demonstrate how the lens can be
used to interpret the action/characters. Assign the roles to the groups members to be acted out during the
presentation. Use appropriate costumes/props for the presentation.
• An explanation of which themes are highlighted through the use of your lens
*
Follow the PRESENTATION RUBRIC for parameters of the presentation.

! Take notes on the other presentations. Highlight how each lens can be identified in the libretto.
! Write a persuasive essay supporting one theory as the best way to describe the opera Pagliacci. Use your notes from
the presentations to cite examples either for or against your position. Follow the ESSAY RUBRIC for parameters for
your writing.

opera box lesson plans 24

PRE SENTATION RUBRIC

4 – above standards 3 – meets standards 2 – approaching 1 – below standards

c at e gor y
standards

Almost always listens Often listens to, shares

Rarely listens to, shares
to, shares with and Usually listens to, with and supports the
with and supports the
c ol l a b or at i o n supports the efforts of shares with and efforts of others in the
efforts of others in the
wi t h p e e r s others in the group. supports the efforts of group but sometimes is
group. Often is not a
Tries to keep people others in the group. not a good team
good team member.
working well together. member.

Student seems pretty The student is

Student is completely Student does not seem
prepared but might somewhat prepared,
p r e pa r e dn e s s prepared and has at all prepared to
have needed a couple but it is clear that
obviously rehearsed. present.
more rehearsals. rehearsal was lacking.

Speaks clearly and Speaks clearly and Speaks clearly and

Often mumbles or can
distinctly all (100- distinctly all (100- distinctly most (94-
not be understood OR
sp e a ks c l e a r ly 95%) the time, and 95%) the time, but 85%) of the time.
mispronounces more
mispronounces no mispronounces one Mispronounces no more
than one word.
words. word. than one word.

Student uses several

props (could include Student uses 1 prop
The student uses no
costumes) that show that shows considerable Student uses 1 prop
props or the props
p r op s considerable work/creativity and that makes the
chosen detract from the
work/creativity and that make the presentation better.
presentation.
that make the presentation better.
presentation better.

Stays on topic all Stays on topic most Stays on topic some (89 – It was hard to tell what
stay s on t op ic
(100%) of the time. (99 – 90%) of the time. 75%) of the time. the topic was.

Sometimes does not

Listens intently. Does Listens intently but has Sometimes does not
l i st e n s t o ot he r appear to be listening
not make distracting one distracting noise or appear to be listening
p r e se n tat i ons and has distracting
noises or movements. movement. but is not distracting.
noises or movements.

sc or e

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ESSAY RUBRIC

4 – above standards 3 – meets standards 2 – approaching 1 – below standards

c at e gor y
standards

The position statement The position statement

A position statement is
provides a clear, strong provides a clear
p osi t i on present, but does not There is no position
statement of the statement of the
stat e m e n t make the author’s statement.
author’s position on the author’s position on the
position clear.
topic. topic.

All of the evidence and Most of the evidence and At least one of the pieces
examples are specific, examples are specific, of evidence and examples
Evidence and examples
relevant and explanations relevant and explanations is relevant and has an
e v i de n c e a n d are NOT relevant
are given that show how are given that show how explanation that shows
e xa m p l e s AND/OR are not
each piece of evidence each piece of evidence how that piece of
explained.
supports the author's supports the author's evidence supports the
position. position. author's position.

All supportive facts and Almost all supportive Most supportive facts Most supportive facts
a c c ur a c y statistics are reported facts and statistics are and statistics are and statistics were
accurately. reported accurately. reported accurately. inaccurately reported.

Author makes 1 – 2 Author makes 3 – 4 Author makes more

Author makes no errors
errors in grammar or errors in grammar or than 4 errors in
gr a m m a r a n d in grammar or spelling
spelling that distract spelling that distract grammar or spelling
sp e l l i n g that distract the reader
the reader from the the reader from the that distract the reader
from the content.
content. content. from the content.

Author makes a few Author makes several

Author makes no errors Author makes 1 – 2
errors in capitalization errors in capitalization
in capitalization or errors in capitalization
c a p i ta l i z at i on and/or punctuation that and/or punctuation that
punctuation, so the or punctuation, but the
a n d p un c t uatio n catch the reader's catch the reader's
essay is exceptionally essay is still easy to
attention and interrupt attention and interrupt
easy to read. read.
the flow. the flow.

sc or e

opera box lesson plans 26

 P ag l i ac c i Ope r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 7: Leoncavallo’s Musical Choices

objective(s)
Student will actively listen to three selections from Pagliacci and will compare and contract musical characteristics
used in each selection.

material(s)
• Pagliacci CD
• Pagliacci libretto
• LEONCAVALLO’S MUSICAL CHOICES WORKSHEET (one copy per student) (see following page)

procedure(s)
(1) Give each student a copy of the LEONCAVALLO’S MUSICAL CHOICES WORKSHEET and the copy of the text for the
three arias used in this lesson. Read through directions with the class.
(2) Play the cantabile, “Un tal gioco,” for the class. Students are to follow along with the text. At the end of the
selection, stop and let the students fill in the related boxes. Inform students that they be able to write more
responses after they listen to each aria. Repeat this step for ballatella, “Hui … Hui … Stridono lassù,” and the
arioso, “Vesti la giubba.”

(3) After completing the listening portion, have a class discussion to compare and contrast the three arias. Invite
students to share their responses written on the worksheet.
– What do you learn about the character from the aria?
– Does the accompaniment reinforce the text of the aria?
– Describe each aria in one word.
– Describe the color of each voice.
Keep in mind that the answers in many cases can be interpreted in numerous ways. Use your best judgment when accepting
responses.

assessment(s)
Assign value to the responses given in class and on the worksheet (for example, one point per response). See the
TEACHER’S KEY for suggested responses and points for discussion.

opera box lesson plans 27

 L E O N C A V A L L O ’S M U S I C A L C H O I C E S

Lesson 7 name

TEACHER’S KEY
directions
Listen to these three different arias from Act I of Pagliacci. Identify the musical elements and describe the characteristics used in
each piece. After listening to all three selections, compare and contrast elements between them. Write your responses in the chart
below. You will have time to write after each selection. Point value will be given for each response given and participation in the
class discussion following the listening portion.

cantabile ballatella arioso

scene “Un tal gioco” “Hui … Hui … Stridono lassù” “Tutto è disposto …”
(pp. 49 – 51)* (pp. 71– 78) (pp. 130 – 133)

character Canio Nedda Canio

vocal range tenor soprano tenor

tempo adagio molto vivace adagio

con grande espressione

meter 3/4 time 3/8 time 2/4 time

dynamics p pp–f mf

A-B-A like form. Very expressive, as though

Happy, joyous major key. Canio is trying to convey great
Simple song-like melody. pain and sadness. He sobs at
Fast, one beat per bar rhythm.
the end to make sure no one
musical Solid, secure major key starts misses the point.
Orchestral accompaniment
characteristics the arioso, but moves to more
characterizes the birds that Slow, rubato tempo.
(a minimum of three unstable harmony as Canio
Nedda is singing about.
responses is required) imagines a possible future. Very large vocal range.
Harmony becomes darker when
Orchestra changes motive as Rhythm is a slow two-beats-
the text is about “storms” and
Canio sings about Nedda to-a-measure pattern
“wind.”
betraying him in real life. throughout.

*
page numbers refer to the Schirmer vocal score

opera box lesson plans 28

L E O N C A V A L L O ’S M U S I C A L C H O I C E S

Lesson 7 name

WORKSHEET
directions
Listen to these three different arias from Act I of Pagliacci. Identify the musical elements and describe the characteristics used in
each piece. After listening to all three selections, compare and contrast elements between them. Write your responses in the chart
below. You will have time to write after each selection. Point value will be given for each response given and participation in the
class discussion following the listening portion.

Cantabile Ballatella arioso

scene
“Un tal gioco” “Hui … Hui … Stridono lassù” “Tutto è disposto …”

character Canio Nedda Canio

vocal range

tempo

meter

dynamics

musical
characteristics
(a minimum of three
responses is required)

opera box lesson plans 29

 P ag l i ac c i Ope r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 8: Understanding the libretto

objective(s)
Students will learn about the characteristics of an opera libretto.

material(s)
• LIBRETTO Pagliacci (pp. 44–45) (one copy per student)
• DVD Pagliacci (Bartoli/Dara DECCA DVD)

procedure(s)
(1) Give a copy to each student of the enitre Pagliacci Act II libretto. From the reading, they are to prepare themselves to
discuss the merits of the text. Discussion questions:
– Is the libretto an effective piece of poetry?
– How “real” are the characters and situations?
– Do you feel that something is missing? What?
*
This reading could be given as an assignment prior to the lesson.
(2) Ask the students suggest what to include or exclude to make the story more complete or satisfying. Depending on
time, they could rewrite part or all of the scene.
(3) Show the excerpt of the Pagliacci DVD that was read in class and discuss the merits of the drama. Discussion questions:
– Do the students think that the story with the music is more or less effective?
– Is the drama more or less effective with the addition text that they wrote?
– Does the music “fill in” for the missing text?
Convey to the students that opera composers are very much concerned with the audience’s ability to understand the text.
They are similar to a pop singer, playwright or movie director in that fashion. But, composing in this art form requires
adjustments to the text that another art form may not need to deal with. For example, singing something generally takes
longer than to speak it, or when you are dealing the very large voice ranges as in opera, there is a point at which the diction
is lost. Plus, in opera, you have the use of the orchestra. There can be much “said” instrumentally that does not need to be
sung on stage. These examples don’t mean that opera is any more or any less of an art form – it’s just what opera is.

assessment(s)
Option 1 – Students are to write an essay arguing the merits of an opera libretto. They should one of two positions: either
an opera libretto can stand on its own, or that it is only part of the whole and needs the music to be complete. Value should
be placed on the quality of the essay. See UNDERSTANDING THE LIBRETTO RUBRIC on following page.
Option 2 – Students are to compose music to the libretto text and the additional text that they wrote. For the sake of
time, suggest that they only set a small part from the scene. This can be done in groups with classmates performing the
various roles. They are to perform their compositions for the rest of the class.

additional c omment(s)
The Option 2 assessment doesn’t need to be only for music students. On the contrary, encourage non-music students to
attempt this project!

opera box lesson plans 30

UNDERSTANDING THE LIBRETTO RUBRIC

Lesson 8 name

directions
(1) Read all or part of the excerpt of Pagliacci libretto. Notice the flow and pace of the text and make notes to be able
to answer the following questions:
– Is the libretto an effective piece of poetry?
– How “real” are the characters and situations?
– Do you feel that something is missing? What?
(2) Rewrite part of the libretto to make it seem more complete. Highlight your additions.
(3) Watch the DVD of the same excerpt from Pagliacci and prepare to answer the following questions:
– Do the students think that the story with the music is more or less effective?
– Is the drama more or less effective with the addition text that they wrote?
– Does the music “fill in” for the missing text?
(4) option one
You are to write an essay arguing the merits of an opera libretto. You should take one of two positions: either an
opera libretto can stand on its own, or that it is only part of the whole and needs the music to be complete. Value
will be given based on the quality of the essay. See UNDERSTANDING THE LIBRETTO RUBRIC for grading criteria.
option two
You are to compose music to a portion of the libretto AND the additional text that you wrote. You may use other
classmates as performers and/or as musicians. You are to perform your new composition for the rest of the class.
Remember that your composition needs to still convey the story and drama to your audience. Your additional text
is to be an “enhancement” of the original. See UNDERSTANDING THE LIBRETTO RUBRIC for grading criteria.

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UNDERSTANDING THE LIBRETTO RUBRIC

Lesson 8 name

directions
option one – Compose a persuasive essay
You are to write a persuasive essay taking one of two positions: “an opera libretto can stand on its own” or “an opera
libretto is only part of a whole and it needs music to be complete.” The essay should contain reasoned arguments (based
on your classroom experience) and good grammar.

points 3 2 1

Excellent! Zero Good. 3–5 mistakes Poor. 6 or more

grammar mistakes spelling in spelling and mistakes in spelling
and syntax. syntax. and syntax.

Great! You have

Good. You used 2 Poor. You barely
used 4 or more solid
supporting or 3 statements used 1 statement
statements
statements supporting your supporting your
supporting your
position. position.
position.

Wonderful! Your
effectiveness Good. Your position Poor. Your position
position is argued
of your is convincing and is not argued with
with great
position logical. any conviction.
conviction.

total points

opera box lesson plans 32

option two – Compose a new piece of opera including your additional text
You are to compose a new section of Pagliacci and include your original text. Your new piece should still convey the
story and drama, but be enhanced with your new text. Use classmates as performers and/or musicians. You will perform
your new creation in front of the class. Hint: Be creative! Think “outside the box.” Use props and other things around
you to create opera.

points 3 2 1

Highly unique – Not unique – no use

Unique – uses some
uses props and other of props or other
creativity props to enhance the
items to enhance the items to enhance
story.
story. story.

Very clear – Clear – audience Unclear – audience

cl arity of audience understood understood most of didn’t understand
text all text, audience the text, audience most of the text,
not distracted. rarely distracted. distracting.

effectiveness Very effective – Effective – audience Ineffective –

of the audience engaged in was engaged in the audience was not
performance a strong story. story. engaged.

total points

opera box lesson plans 33

 P ag l i ac c i Ope r a B ox
lesson plan

title of lesson

Lesson 9: Interpretations of “Vesti la giubba”

objective(s)
Students will learn to compare and contrast musical elements from two recordings of the same piece.

material(s)
• Pagliacci DVD/CD (two recordings will be needed)
• INTERPRETATIONS OF “VESTI LA GIUBBA” WORKSHEET (see following page) – 2 copies per student
• * Text of “Vesti la giuba” and “Un tal gioco” from libretto
• * Music of “Vesti la giubba” and “Un tal gioco”

procedure(s)
(1) Play “Vesti la giubba” for the class (*see additional comment(s) below). Students are to write down five facts
and five opinions of the performance on the INTERPRETATIONS OF “VESTI LA GIUBBA” WORKSHEET (see following
page). You may need to prepare your students for this lesson by defining fact and opinion especially when
analyzing music. Ask students if they think there will be a noticeable difference between this recording and the
next.
(2) Play the other recording of “Vesti la giubba for the class. Again, students are to write down five facts and five
opinions of this performance.
(3) As a class discuss the similarities and differences between the two recordings. Suggested topics for discussion:
– determine the artistic merits of the two performances
– personal preferences between the two
– why there are differences (the singers are performing the same written music)
– which recording is more dramatic, musical, authentic, etc.

assessment(s)
Play both performances of “Un tal gioco.” Students are to create a list of five facts and five opinions for each
performance. Give the students another copy of the handout for the assessment. Students are then to write a
persuasive essay describing the merits of one performance over the other. Their two lists of facts and opinions should
be used in the essay.

additional c omment(s)
*
Depending on the musical level (and musical memory) of your students, a variation of this lesson could be to
include a copy of the text from the libretto, vocal score or full score. This may help students focus on the music and
notice the subtle details between the performances.

opera box lesson plans 34

INTERPRETATIONS OF “VESTI LA GIUBBA” WORKSHEET
Lesson 9 name

directions
Write down five facts and five opinions after you listen to the first performance of “Vesti la giubba.” Follow the same
procedure after listening to the second performance. Remember that facts are objective. For example, a fact is “one plus
one equals two.” However, opinions are subjective, such as “I liked the first performance because it went fast.”

first performance second performance

fa ct opinion fact opinion

1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5

opera box lesson plans 35

 Create your own Opera Box Lesson Plan and send it to us.

Op e r a B ox L e s s o n P la n

name (s) school

phone/email

title of lesson class and grade level

please include any original materials, if p ossibl e.

objective(s)

material(s)

procedure(s)

assessment(s)

additional c omment(s)

opera box lesson plans 36

 PAGLIACCI
MUSIC AND LIBRETTO BY RUGGERO LEONCAVALLO
BASED ON ACTUAL EVENTS

WORLD PREMIERE AT THE TEATRO DAL VERME, MILAN

MAY 21, 1892

SUNG IN ITALIAN WITH ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS

CAST OF CHARACTERS

CANIO, LEADER OF THE PLAYERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .TENOR

NEDDA, CANIO’S WIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .SOPRANO
SILVIO, A VILLAGER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .BARITONE
TONIO, ONE OF THE PLAYERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .BARITONE
BEPPE, ONE OF THE PLAYERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .TENOR
TWO VILLAGERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .TENOR, BARITONE

VILLAGERS, PEASANTS

SETTING: NEAR MONTALTO IN CALABRIA, LATE 19 TH

CENTURY

S ynops is and Mu sical E x cerp ts

p r o lo g u e
Before the performance begins, Tonio addresses the audience directly: Look beyond the costumes and makeup – the
drama you are about to experience is a tale of truth, both in the ecstasy of love and the brutality of rage.
(1) si può? si può? … e voi piuttosto (tonio)

? b b b c U‰ . œ ˙ œJ ‰ ‰ . œ ˙ œ œ . œ œ œJ ˙ œ œ3 œJ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ Œ Œ
bb R R J‰ J R J J J J R R
E vo - i, piut - to - sto che le no - stre po - ve - re gab - ba - ne d'i - stri - o - ni,
My friends, con - si - der not the gay at - tire we must a - dopt, since we are ac - tors,

act i
A traveling troupe of actors is heartily welcomed by the villagers. Canio encourages them to attend their show that
evening, and villagers invite the players for a drink. Tonio lingers and is jibed as a result – he is really staying behind
to woo Nedda, as in the commedia dell’arte play they will soon act out. Canio adopts a serious tone. Perhaps on the stage,
Pagliaccio might resign himself to his fate if he were to discover Columbine with another man, but if Canio were to
catch his wife in an indiscretion, the outcome would be very different.
Left alone, Nedda carefully considers Canio’s words. It is as if he could read her very thoughts – indeed she longs for
freedom and has taken on a lover, Silvio.

synopsis and musical excerpts 37

(2) stridono l assù (nedda)
#### # 3 œ œ œ j œ. œ ‰ j
& # 8 J œ œ. nœ œ
Stri - do - no las - sù, li - be - ra -

#### # ‰ n œj j œ
Hear their joy - ous cry, sing - ing so

& # œ. œ ‰ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œJ J
J J J J
men - te lan - cia - ti a vol, a vol co - me

# ## # œ j œ œ n œJ n œJ nœ .
gai - ly! Birds on the wing, how grace - ful - ly

& # # J œ J œ. œ
J
‰ œ
J
œ.
J
frec - ce, gli au - gel. Di - sfi - da - no le nu -

#### # nœ nœ . nœ
light as they fly! They soar high - er and high -

& # œ œ nœ œ ‰ ∑
J J
bi e'l sol co - cen - te,
er to seek the bright sun,

Nedda is surprised by the sudden appearance of Tonio, who quickly confesses his secret desire for her.

>œ . œ œ
(3) se ben che difforme (tonio)

U œ œ œ. œ œ. œ œ œ œ.
? b b b 98 Œ J J J R œ œJ J J J ‰ J J œ œ œ . œ œ œJ
bb J R J J J
So ben che dif - for - me, con - tor - to son i - o; che de - sto sol - tan - to lo

. œ œ. rit. - U-
? b b ∫ œ œr œr œ . œj ‰ œJ œJ œJ . œR œ œ œJ œJ œJ J
I know I am ug - ly, my bo - dy re - pul - sive; I know that con - tempt is my

œ œ n œ- œJ œJ œ . œ
bbb J J
scher - no e l'or - ror. Ep - pu - reha'l pen - sie - ro un so-gno, un de - si - o, e un pal - pi - to il cor!
lot in this world. Yet I, too, can dream, I feel a pas - sion - ate long - ing, de - sire fills my heart!

She cruelly repels his advances, equating him with the half-witted commedia character he plays.
Tonio exits in a fury and in comes Silvio, overflowing with affection and concern. The troupe shall soon be off, and he
will no longer be able to hold Nedda in his arms. He encourages her to run away with him that very evening after the
play has concluded. Nedda hesitates – but only for a moment – then agrees to the plan.
(4) e allor perchè (silvio, then nedda)

œ. œ œ
Andante appassionato

? b b 98 œJ Jœ . œR œ œJ œ . œ œ œ œ . œ ‰ œ œJ œJ œ œ œ. œ
J
œ œ
œœ
J J J œ ‰
J
E al - lor per - chè, di', tu m'hai stre - ga - to se vuoi la - sciar - mi sen - za pie - tà?!
Why did you charm me with your beau - ty, On - ly to leave me weep-ing so soon?

œ œ. œ œ œ œ œJ œJ œ œ œJ œ œJ ˙. œ
? b b # œ œJ J œ J J #œ œ . œ
affrett. rall.

J J J ‰ J J J J ‰ ‰
Quel ba - cio tuo per - chè me l'hai da - to fra spa- smiar-den - ti di vo - lut - tà?!
Why did you grant me mo- ments of rap - ture, mo- ments of love and su - preme de - light?

synopsis and musical excerpts 38

Tonio has led Canio back to witness the secret tryst from a distance. Silvio disappears unrecognized, but Canio has heard
enough to berate his wife, demanding to know the name of her secret lover and punctuating his threats with the blade
of a knife.
Beppe happens upon the scene in time to break off Canio’s attack. He demands that everyone steady their emotions as
the show is about to begin. Canio laments his situation – he must put on the costume of Pagliaccio and make people
laugh while inside he is ripped apart.
(5) vesti la giubba (canio)
Adagio
declamando con dolore
# œ #œ . r œ- j
& 24 J œ œ œ
J
œ œ
R R #œ . œ
r œ œ
Ve - sti la giub - ba e la fac - cia in - fa - ri - na.

# j
On with
r ^
your cos - tume, and your face bright

˙
- ly pain
>œ -
œ.
ted.
œ
& ‰ œj œ . œ œ œ œJ
portando
œ œ œ
J
≈ œ
R J J J J R
La gen - te pa - ga e ri - der vuo - le qua. E se Ar - lec -

# nœ . # œ- œ- œ- n œ- œ- >œ r œ
Your pub - lic pays you, and they must be a - mused. Though Co - lum -

œ œ j œ œ J
& J J J J J œ.
chin t'in - vo - la Co - lom - bi - na, ri - di, Pa - gliac - cio...
bine and Har - le - quin be - tray you, Laugh, clown, be mer - ry

act ii
The villagers gather excitedly for the evening’s entertainment. The curtain rises with the four players in character:
Nedda as Columbine, Beppe as Harlequin, Canio as Pagliaccio and Tonio as Taddeo, prepared to act out the classic tale
of the cuckolded man. Assured by the servant Taddeo that Pagliaccio is away, Columbine awaits the appearance of her
true love, Harlequin. He serenades her from afar.

œ œ œj œ œ œJ œ
(6) o colombina (beppe)
˙. œ ˙.
& 43 œ œ
J œJ œJ J J J J J
œ œ
O Co - lom - bi - na, il te - ne - ro fi - doAr - lec - chin è a te vi -

œ- .
O Col - um - bine, your faith - ful Har - le - quin is near, faith - ful and

&
˙. œ ‰ Œ
J Œ ∑ œ œ œJ
J J
œ- . œ œj œJ
J
cin! Di te chia - man - do, e so - spi -
true! See, I stand a - lone and sigh with

j j
& œJ # œj # œ œ œJ œ
J
œ ˙ ˙.
j
œ ‰ Œ
Œ
ran - do a - spet - ta il po - ve - rin!
long - ing as I wait for you!

Taddeo takes this moment to pour out his true feelings to her, but she heartlessly brushes him off and as soon as
Harlequin arrives, Taddeo is ordered away. The lovers dine together and agree to drug Pagliaccio so that they can be
together forever. They are interrupted by Taddeo, who warns that Pagliaccio is making an unexpected return. Harlequin
rushes out, and Columbine/Nedda’s parting words mimic exactly what she had said to Silvio earlier: “Till tonight, and
I shall be yours forever.”

synopsis and musical excerpts 39

Pagliaccio observes the supper dishes and Columbine’s guilty demeanor. He demands to know her lover’s name, slipping
out of his portrayal of Pagliaccio and into the reality of Canio’s world.
(7) no! pagliaccio non son (canio)
b ˙ j œ œ.. œ ˙
& b bbbb c Œ ‰ œJ ˙ œ. œ w Œ œ œ R
No! Pa - gliac - cio non son; se il vi - so è pal - li - do,

b b b b Œ œ œ . œJ ˙ œ œj œj œj w
No! Co - me - dian I'm not! And if my face is white,

b
& b œ ‰ œJ ˙ ˙ Ó
J
è di ver - go - gna, e sma - nia di ven - det - ta!
it is for hor - ror, for shame at my dis - hon - or!

Nedda is at first carefree, then defiant – if deemed unworthy, she demands to be set free. Again the lines between the
comedy and reality are blurred, and blinded by rage over her constant denials, Canio stabs Nedda in cold blood. In her
cry for help she blurts out Silvio’s name, but as he rushes to her side, Canio murders him as well. As in the Prologue,
Tonio again addresses the audience with the final line: La commedia è finita! – The drama is over.

synopsis and musical excerpts 40

 Pagliacci
F low C h a r t
key and details

Scene
The terms and page numbers used to identify each section are from the G. Schirmer vocal score.
Musical Description
The terms used here are the tempo markings in the score. The KEY given is decided by the tonality at the beginning of the
scene. Leoncavallo does shift tonality and change keys which reflects his compositional style. Significant changes in tonality
are noted.
Orchestration
Comments given here are general in nature and are intended to give the listener some insight into the use of the orchestra.
This is another element Leoncavallo uses to tell the story. Descriptions are not necessarily quotes from Leoncavallo, but they
do suggest our understanding of the orchestra at that time.

Theme
Identified here are significant melodies used throughout the opera. The names of the themes are based on the commonly
found citations from standard scholarly books about Leoncavallo which can be found in the Opera Box.
There are also non-character themes that are noted throughout the opera.

Drama
This is the basic story line. Main characters’ names are given in shorthand.
DURING THE OPERA: D U R I N G T H E P L AY :
C = Canio, head of a troupe of strolling players C/P = Canio as Pagliaccio
N = Nedda, his wife N/C = Nedda as Columbine
T = Tonio, a member of the troupe T/T = Tonio as Taddeo
B = Beppe, a member of the troupe B/H = Beppe as Harlequin
S = Silvio, a villager

Related Information
These comments are interesting facts about Leoncavallo and Pagliacci in a larger context, beyond the work itself. The cita-
flow chart

tions are from a book entitled Italian Opera in Transition, 1871–1893 by Jay Nicolaisen. It is published by UMI Research Press
(ml1733.n5)
41
 Pagliacci
F low C h a r t
prologue; act i (vs pp 2–53)

Scene Prologue VS PP 2–7 VS PP 7–15 Act I – VS PP 16–53

Musical 1 Vivace ( =88) [PP 2–3] 5 Largamente [P 7] 8 Marziale ( =108) [PP 16–39]
Description KEY: C major KEY: A minor KEY: B minor
2 Largo assai ( =44) [P 4] 6 Andantino sostenuto [P 8] 9 Vivo ( =112) [PP 39–44]
3 Cantabile sostenuto assai ( =54) [P 4] KEY: A major KEY: G major
4 Vivace come prima ( =88) [P 4–7] 7 Un po’meno presto che nell’Intro ( =80) 10 Sempre vivace ( =54) [PP 44–48]
KEY: E minor [PP 9–15] 11 Cantabile ( =88) [P 49–53]

Orchestration 2 “Ridi, Pagliaccio” theme is heard The opening scene, played by trumpet,
only in the French horns. drums and cymbals, gives a circus band-
like quality (very appropriate to create
realistic feeling to the drama).

2 7 love theme [p 12] 11 N’s infidelity [p 50]

Themes “Ridi, Pagliaccio” theme [P 4]
2 7 “Ridi, Pagliaccio” theme [p 12] 11 C’s jealously [p 51]
Love theme [P 4]

Drama 5 T enters and gives the Prologue. He 8 The crowd sees the players coming.
asks the audience to not fear for their They welcome the Pagliacci.
suffering. The author has painted a 9 C describes the story they will per-
picture of real life, love, hate and form that evening.
grief. That’s the plan, now, let’s hear 10 A villager invites C and T for a drink
at the tavern. T stays behind so he can
observe N.
11 C says this is a joke. He loves his wife.

Related What T says should be considered the voice of the composer, Leoncavallo. These words
Information describe the nature of operatic composition at the time in which this opera was creat-
flow chart

ed, namely verismo. The composer is asking the question, “Where does art end and life
begin?”
42
 Pagliacci
F low C h a r t
prologue; act i (vs pp 53–133)

Scene Act I – VS PP 53–78 VS PP 79–117 VS PP 117–133

Musical Scene and Chorus of the Bells Scene and Duet Scene and Finale
12 Meno ( =160) [PP 53–67] 14 Andante mosso [PP 79–91] 17 Largo [PP 117–123]
Description
KEY: C major KEY: shifting KEY: shifting
Scene Two 15 Appassionato ( =88) [PP 92–109] 18 Più mosso [PP 123–130]
13 Andante con moto ( =88) [PP 68–71]
KEY: C major–D major KEY: shifting to D-FLAT/G-FLAT KEY: shifting
Ballatella [PP 71–78] 16 Andante appassionato ( =54) 19 Arioso [PP 130–133]
KEY: F-SHARP major KEY: B-FLAT/D-FLAT [PP 110–117] KEY: E minor

Orchestration 12 Church bells are used to call parishioners 15 Love theme is sung by N. [p 112] 18 Clarinets in tri-tones over Fate theme
to Mass (another realistic touch). 16 N and S finally sing together “united.” [pp 127–128]
13 Violin tremolos, flutes and harp color
[p 115]
N’s words about birds. [PP 70–71]

13 C’s jealously theme (cellos) [p 14 N/C-T/A theme [p 83] 17 Fate theme [pp 117, 120–121]
Themes 68]
13 Love theme (violins) [p 68] 14 Fate theme [p 91] 17 Love theme [pp 118, 120]
15 Love theme [pp 92, 95, 109, 112, 116] 17 C’s jealousy [pp 120, 123]
15 Fate theme [pp 108–109] 18 C’s jealousy [pp 123]
18 Fate theme [pp 127–128]
19 “Ridi, Pagliaccio” theme [pp 132–133]

Drama 12 The church service is about to start. 14 T has been watching N. He says he loves 17 T holds back C and plans to surprise
The bells are ringing. her. She laughs at him. T tires to kiss N, them. S and N plan to meet at midnight
13 N is scared of T finding out about her but she hits him. T exits. after the show. C chases S. T laughs at N.
secret. She then sings of her love for S. 15 S enters and greets N. He says he came C returns and asks N to name her lover.
incognito. They sing of what just hap- She refuses.
18 C pulls a knife on N. He is about to stab
pened with T, their love for each other her, but B enters and stops him. They
and running away. T returns and sees the prepare for the show.
lovers. 19 C sings that since he’s a clown, he must
16 N and S continue singing of their love
make the people laugh even though he
for each other. has a broken heart. This arioso is one of
the most famous melodies of this opera.
It’s a staple in many tenors’ repertoire.
flow chart

Related 12 This section is arguably the weakest part “ Musically the entire duet is as strongly unified a scene as one will find in late 19th-centu-
Information of the opera. It provides no movement in ry Italian opera. It’s tonally rounded in D flat with extended excursions only in the most
the story and structurally is only fair. closely related keys, while the love theme provides an explicit motivic unity.”
(Nicolaisen, p 251)
43
 Pagliacci
F low C h a r t
intermezzo; act ii (vs pp 134–189)

Scene Intermezzo – VS PP 134–136 Act II – VS PP 137–178 VS PP 179–189

Musical 20 Sostenuto assai ( =50) [PP 134–135] Scene One 25 Andantino sostenuto e grazioso
22 Marziale deciso ( =112) [PP 137–162]
Description KEY: B minor Tempo di Gavotta ( =56) [PP 180–183]
21 Cantabile ( =58) [PP 135–136] KEY: A major
KEY: E major
KEY: E major Scene Two – The Play
23 Tempo di Minuetto ( =69) [PP 163–170] Scene and Duet (Finale)
26 Larghetto affettuoso ( =88) [PP 183–189]
KEY: C major
Comic Scene KEY: E-FLAT major
24 Moderato e sostenuto [pp 171–178]

Orchestration 22 Act II opens with the same trumpet and

drum theme. The chorus, instead of
announcing the arrival of the actors,
announces the beginning of the play.
24 Love theme is heard in the cellos as a
counterpoint to the vocal line.
20 24 N’s infidelity theme [p 172] 25 This melody will return as N/C tries to
Themes “Ridi, Pagliaccio” theme [p 135–136]
24 N/C-T/T theme [p 176] return to the play after C/P becomes
24 Love theme [p 177] angered. [p 180]
26 Love theme [p 183]
26 C’s jealousy [p 184]

Drama 22 B plays a trumpet and T hits a drum. 25 N/C and B/H prepare to eat. B/H gives
Audience prepares for the show. S a bottle to N/C to give to her husband
enters without C seeing him. that will make him sleepy so they can
23 N/C is waiting for her husband. B/H escape. T/T enters yelling C/P is com-
serenades N/C. ing. B/H exits.
26 C/P hears N/C use the same words that
24 T/T enters and says that he loves only
she used with her lover. C/P confronts
N/C. She asks for the food and tells
N/C about the extra place setting. She
him to leave. N/C signals out the win- says it was T/T. He enters and sup-
dow. T/T continues to speak of his love ports N/C. C/P wants to know the
for her. N/C and B/H gaze at each other. name of N/C’s lover.
flow chart

Related
Information
44
 Pagliacci
F low C h a r t
act ii (vs pp 189–206)

Scene Act II – VS PP 189–206

Musical 27 Allegro moderato ( =144) [p. 189–198]

Description KEY: E-FLAT
minor
28 Movimento di Gavotta come nella Commedia [p 198–206]
KEY: E-FLAT major

Orchestration

28 Movimento di Gavotta theme from [p 180] returns as

Themes
N/C tries to continue with the play. [P 198]
28 Love theme [p 200–202]
28 “Ridi, Pagliaccio” theme [P 206]

Drama 27 C/P says he’s not a clown and that his face is white
from shame. The audience senses that he’s not acting.
N/C suggests that he send her away since she is so
vile. C/P wants her to stay until she reveals her lover’s
name.
28 N/C continues to say that the other person was T/T.
C/P doesn’t believe it. The audience continues to see
that they are not acting. N/C tries to escape but is
stabbed by C/P. He then stabs S.
flow chart

Related
Information
45
R U G G E R O L E O N C AVA L L O
b Naples, April 23, 1857; d Montecatini, August 9, 1919

R uggero Leoncavallo was born to a household of comfortable

means. Though the family originally was from Naples, his father’s
career as a magistrate led them to other cities (including Montalto,
which has some bearing on Pagliacci). Leoncavallo studied music at the
Neapolitan Conservatory, then at Bologna University. It was there that
he met Richard Wagner, who was in town for that city’s premiere of
Rienzi, and the encounter had significant repercussions on the younger
composer’s future works. He soon produced his first opera, Chatterton,
set to text he had written himself.
After brief stints in Egypt and Paris (where he met a number of
influential figures and lived la vie bohémienne), Leoncavallo settled down
in Milan. He intended to create an epic work, an Italian “Ring Cycle,”
titled Crespusculum. The first installment, I Medici, was submitted to
the publishing house of Ricordi, which paid for the score but was in no
hurry to produce the work; instead they asked Leoncavallo to work on
Puccini’s libretto for Manon Lescaut. He would be one of five to attempt
to satisfy the troublesome young maestro.
Victor Maurel, an acquaintance from Paris (and Verdi’s first Iago and
Falstaff), was instrumental in making the Ricordi contacts. In return
Leoncavallo wrote Pagliacci for him to perform and provided an
extended prologue for his character Tonio. Somewhat indignant about I Medici, Leoncavallo offered Pagliacci to another
publisher, Sonzogno, who snatched it up immediately and reaped the rewards. Sonzogno also purchased I Medici from
Casa Ricordi and produced it the following year.
Leoncavallo’s next work was an adaptation of Murger’s Scènes de la
vie de bohème for the operatic stage. This led to one of the more
heated rivalries of the late 19th century, for Puccini announced he
also was planning to produce an opera based on Henry Murger’s
book, an intention he claimed to have had for several months. A
contest soon ensued with the two composers airing their
differences in the Italian newspapers. Of course Puccini’s La
bohème would later earn its place in posterity.
The composer is noted for a third work, Zazà, which was also
well-received. The popularity of Leoncavallo’s operas in
Germany led to a commission from the Kaiser. Der Roland von
Berlin was the result, achieving nearly 40 performances.
Following its premiere, Leoncavallo’s career seemed to wane. He
tried his luck at operetta (La jeunesse de Figaro), followed by a
return to verismo (Il piccolo Marat and Zingari), then a string of
additional operettas. Toward the end of his life he endeavored to
treat subjects of a more serious nature, but Edipo re and Prometeo
lay incomplete at the time of his death in 1919.

leoncavallo biography 46
S taged Works by Ruggero Leoncava llo

Chatterton (composed 1876) Rome, Teatro Argentina, March 10, 1896

melodramma in 4 acts; libretto by the composer
after Alfred de Vigny

Pagliacci Milan, Teatro Dal Verme, May 21, 1892

dramma in prologue and 2 acts; libretto by the composer

I Medici Milan, Teatro Dal Verme, November 9, 1893

azione storica in 4 acts; libretto by the composer
intended to be part of a trilogy entitled Crepusculum (parts 2 and 3 incomplete)

La bohème Venice, Teatro la Fenice, May 6, 1897

commedia lirica in 4 acts; libretto by the composer
after Scènes de la vie de bohème by Henri Murger

Zazà Milan, Teatro Lirico, November 10, 1900

commedia lirica in 4 acts; libretto by the composer
after Pierre Berton and Charles Simon

Der Roland von Berlin Berlin, Städtische Oper, December 13, 1904
historisches Drama in 4 acts; libretto by the composer
after Willibald Alexis

La jeunesse de Figaro ?New York, November, 1906

opera buffa in 3 acts; libretto by the composer
after Les premières armes de Figaro by Victorien Sardou and Maurice Vaucaire

Maià Rome, Teatro Costanzi, January 15, 1910

dramma lirico in 3 acts; libretto by A. Nessi
after P. de Choudens

Malbruk Rome, Teatro Nazionale, January 19, 1910

fantasia comica medioevale in 3 acts; libretto by A. Nessi
after Boccaccio

La reginetta delle rose Rome, Teatro Costanzi, and Naples, Politeama Giacosa, June 24, 1912
operetta in 3 acts; libretto by Giovacchino Forzano

Zingari London, Hippodrome, September 16, 1912

dramma lirico in 2 acts; libretto by E. Cavicchioli and G. Emanuel
after Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin

Are You There? London, Prince of Wales Theatre, November, 1913

farce in 3 acts; libretto by A. de Courville and E. Wallace

synopsis and musical excerpts 47

La candidata Rome, Teatro Nazionale, and Turin, Politeama Chiarella, February 6, 1915
operetta in 3 acts; libretto by Giovacchino Forzano

Goffredo Mameli Genoa, Teatro Carlo Felice, April 27, 1916

azione storica in 2 acts; libretto by the composer and G. Belvederi

Prestami tua moglie Montecatini, Casino, September 2, 1916

operetta in 3 acts; libretto by E. Corradi

A chi la giarrettiera? Rome, Teatro Adriano, October 16, 1919

operetta in 3 acts; libretto by the composer

Edipo re Chicago, Opera, December 13, 1920

grand opera in 1 act; libretto by Giovacchino Forzano
after Sophocles; completed by G. Pennacchio

Il primo bacio Montecatini, Salone di Cura, April 29, 1923

operetta in 1 act; libretto by L. Bonelli

La maschera nuda Naples, Politeama, June 26, 1925

operetta in 3 acts; libretto by L. Bonelli and F. Paolieri
completed by S. Allegra

catalogue of leoncavallo operas 48

Background Notes – Pagl iacci

U nlike many of his contemporaries (including

Puccini), Ruggero Leoncavallo was a man of
letters and in touch with the avant-garde trends of
the day, including Italy’s giovane scuola. This “young
school” of writers was guided by the philosophy
that the author’s hand should not be apparent to
the reader. Events should come about naturally, a
“slice of life,” with no editorial comment. The
darker side of existence seemed to have greater
appeal, and their resultant plots were often single-
minded and fast-paced, accelerating toward an
inevitably brutal conclusion. After witnessing the
overwhelming success of Pietro Mascagni’s opera,
Cavalleria rusticana (based on one of these verismo
plays), Leoncavallo was determined to take a stab
at the genre himself.
Pagliacci, however, is not based on a work by the giovane scuola. It is an original plot, or so most thought until one
French playwright, Catulle Mendès, claimed Leoncavallo had plagiarized his play, La femme de Tabarin. Mendès backed
down when it was soon discovered that his play resembled several others, which put himself in jeopardy, but in the
process of sorting it all out the composer was still forced to defend himself. Leoncavallo claimed the source of Pagliacci
was an event from his own life – as a boy in his father’s courtroom he had witnessed the trial of an actor who had
murdered his wife after she had had an affair. In fact, he claimed to have at his disposal the murderer himself, recently
released from prison and prepared to testify on Leoncavallo’s behalf. Still, a close comparison of libretto and play reveal
the composer’s debt to Mendès and others, whose dramas became familiar to him during his Parisian stay, but it was
all within the boundaries of 19th-century artistic license.
What is not commonly known is that the true
facts are not exactly as Leoncavallo had lain
out – the real-life drama was a little closer to
the composer’s heart. Thanks to a little
expert detective work by Matteo Sansone
(Music and Letters, LXX (1989), 342–62), we
now have the real story. The victim, Gaetano
Scavello, was caretaker of young Ruggero.
Scavello leapt to the defense of a young
Montaltan woman who had been insulted by
her lover, Luigi D’Alessandro. Publicly
humiliated, D’Alessandro and his brother
met Scavello as he left the theater one night
and knifed him.
For his personal account and later his opera,
Leoncavallo embellished the details a bit –
the murder happened “right in front of him,”

background notes 49
the murderer was a commedia dell’arte actor who had found
a love note from Scavello in his wife’s belongings, and the
wife was also killed. The exact date of the double
homicide was moved from March 5, 1865, to August 15,
a holy festival day, to give credence as to why the
traveling commedia troupe might be in the small town of
Montalto.
Though Pagliacci was written for a famous baritone,
Victor Maurel, it is really a tenor’s opera. The role of
Canio and his aria “Vesti la giubba” was quickly
apprehended and exploited by leading singers of the day.
The singularity of the tenor’s plight dominates the opera
and pushes to the very end – in fact early Canios went as
far as appropriating the final line, “La commedia è finita”
from Tonio, and this practice was eventually published in
the piano-vocal score. However, Tonio, by uttering the
final line, completes the dramatic framework initiated in
the Prologue, drawing to a close the play-within-a-play-
within-a-play. In modern interpretations of the opera,
directors commonly respect the composer’s original
intent.

background notes 50
Commedia del l’arte

Of Italian origin, commedia dell’arte

evolved during the 16th century from
improvisatory scenes played at county
fairs and marketplaces into a
somewhat codified art form involving
stock characters with predictable
behavior and costume. The use of
masks (derived in part from the
custom of more frequent commedia
dell’arte performances during
Carnival) further obscures the identity
of the actual person and reinforces the
character “type.” First brought to
France by Catherine de’ Medici during
the reign of her son, Charles ix,
commedia dell’arte underwent a
revival in 18th-century France.
The operatic genre has been lightly
influenced by commedia dell’arte. The
characters in the Rossini’s Il barbiere di Minnesota Opera’s production of The Adventures of Pinocchio
featuring Rosaura, Arlecchino and Pantalone
Siviglia (The Barber of Seville) and Mozart’s Le nozze di Figaro

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE OWE THEIR TRADITION TO THE COMMEDIA DELL’ARTE.

(The Marriage of Figaro) are derived from these stock characters:
the prima donna in love (Isabella – Rosina (the Countess); her
virtuous maid, who is also a confidante (Columbina – Susanna);
the crafty valet, left as a foundling but thinks he is the son of a

THE OCCASIONAL APPERANCE OF CLOWNS IN THE TRAGEDIES OF

noble (Arlecchino – Figaro); the enamored young man in pursuit
of the prima donna (Lindoro, the Count’s assumed name in The
Barber of Seville, and in a younger incarnation, Cherubino in this
opera); the doddering, stingy older man in search of a young
bride (Il dottore – Dr. Bartolo as he was in Barber); the slander-
wielding, shifty go-between (Brighella/Scapino – Don Basilio).
Even Don Curzio’s stammering can be found in the tradition of
the stuttering Tartaglia. Equally important is the pace of the
action. The slapstick comedy of characters hiding behind chairs
and inside closets, jumping out windows and receiving blows
meant for others are all descended from the commedia dell’arte
(the puppet show Punch and Judy is a modern descendant).
Commedia dell’arte was in decline by the 18th century, but an
Italian playwright, Carlo Goldoni hoped to bring it new life by
eliminating much of the buffoonery and introducing new
realism, with the actors conforming to predetermined text
instead of improvisation, and requiring the largely middle-class
Minnesota Opera’s production of Ariadne auf Naxos
featuring Harlequin, Scaramuccio, Truffaldino and
Brighella

commedia dell’arte 51
 audience to face its own vices and
virtues. A contemporary rival, Carlo
Gozzi, preferred a more traditional
approach – though also forcing his
characters to adhere to specific lines, he
interwove the traditional masked
characters into his own world of fantasy
and fable. Gozzi believed he could
attract large audiences with frivolously
titled, unrealistic plots.
Gozzi’s plays were exceedingly popular,
requiring Goldoni to leave his beloved
Venice, where he had also been a
successful opera buffa librettist, and seek
his fortune elsewhere. Though the
latter would achieve greater posterity in
history, Gozzi’s star continued to rise,
albeit outside of Italy. With the onset of
Romanticism, his dramas were of
Minnesota Opera’s production of Casanova’s Homecoming
featuring Pulcinella, Tartaglia and the Spanish Captain particular interest to the German leg of
that movement. Schiller would make a
translation/adaptation of Turandot to be directed by Goethe (Schiller’s
version would later be translated back into Italian by Andrea Maffei, Verdi’s CHARACTERS OF THE
good friend and sometimes collaborator). Gozzi’s dark-edged fantasy also COMMEDIA DELL’ARTE
ARLECCHINO
fueled the imagination of E.T.A. Hoffmann, who was not only a writer but
also a composer of some merit, as well as the similarly morose American poet – HARLEQUIN, TRUFFALDINO, TRIVELINO
BRIGHELLA
Edgar Allen Poe, who referred to Gozzi’s Il corvo when he wrote The Raven.
Wagner adapted La donna serpente to become his early opera Die Feen, and – THE INTRIGUER
PANTALONE
Puccini’s first opera, Le villi, owns a debt of gratitude to the playwright as
– PANTALOON
well. Act II OF Leoncavallo’s I pagliacci’s features a “play-within-a-play” with
IL DOTTORE
four of the stock characters – Pagliaccio, Arlecchino, Taddeo and Colombina
PULCINELLA
– in a well-served scenario, the cheating spouse.
– IL SITONNO, BIRRICHINO, POLICHINELLE,

Interest in Gozzi would continue into the 20th century, with a legendary PUNCHINELLO-PUNCH

production of Turandot by Max Reinhardt (Berlin, 1911), Prokofiev’s The IL CAPITANO

Love for Three Oranges (Chicago, 1921) and – GIANGURGOLO, IL VAPPO

Henze’s König Hirsch (based on Il re cervo SCARAMUCCIA, SCARAMOUCHE, PASQUINO,

(The Stag King); Berlin, 1956). Turandot CRISPIN

became the most frequently adapted of PEDROLINO

Gozzi’s fiables, set five times during the – GIGLIO, GILLES, PAGLIACCIO, PIERROT

19th century, then by Busoni in 1917 and TARTAGLIA (THE STUTTERER)

Puccini in 1926. More recently, the 21st GLI INNAMORATI (THE LOVERS)

century witnessed two more operas with – FIORINETTA, ISABELLA, ROSAURA, SILVIA,
CELIA
commedia scenes and characters:
Dominick Argento’s Casanova’s – FLAVIO, ORAZIO, SILVIO, LEANDRO, LELIO,
VIRGINIO
Homecoming (premiered in 1985 by
THE SOUBRETTE
Minnesota Opera and revived in 2010)
– SERVETTA, FRANTESCA, COLOMBINA,
and Jonathan Dove’s The Adventures of
SPINETTA
Pinocchio (premiered in America by
LA RUFFIANA
Minnesota Opera in 2009).
– THE GOSSIP
Minnesota Opera’s production of
Harrison Birtwistle’s Punch and Judy

commedia dell’arte 52
The Many Fa c e s of Ve r i s m o

V erismo is one of those operatic terms

that can lead to confused
interpretations. One might mention it in the
same breath as works by Leoncavallo,
Mascagni, Giordano, Cilea and Puccini with
regard to subject matter, brevity of
compositional style and shocking dramatic
impact, but to the purist, verismo is a very
specific intellectual ideal.

Realism and naturalism dominated artistic

thought from the middle to the latter part of
the 19th century, marking a departure from the
formal emphasis of Classicism and fantastic
imagination of Romanticism. France seemed
to be the forerunner of the new genre –
already by 1845 Henry Murger had begun
writing his Scènes de la vie de bohème, a truthful portrayal of his life as a starving artist. In 1848 Alexandre Dumas fils
wrote La dame aux camélias, detailing his personal affair with the notorious courtesan Marie Duplessis – this would
become Verdi’s La traviata five years later. Visual artists Jean-François Millet, Gustave Courbet and Édouard Manet
broke with the official Academy’s predilection for the heroic and the mythic by painting ordinary people in their daily
milieu, paving the way for the Impressionists, who were realist in choice of topic and point of view.

Inspired by this trend in realism and Bohemianism in France, during the 1860s the artistic avant-garde of Milan
became known as the Scapigliatura. Taking their name from an 1858 novel, La Scapigliatura e il 6 Febbraio by Cletto
Arrighi, the “disheveled ones” counted among their numbers Emilio Praga, Camillo and Arrigo Boito, Iginio Ugo
Tarchetti, Carlo Dossi, Tranquillo Cremona and Franco Faccio. In response to the chaotic aftermath of the
Risorgimento, the scapigliati revolted against established bourgeois values and subjugated Victorian sexuality, taking
their cue from Charles Baudelaire’s highly
sensational poems Les fleurs du mal and Gustave
Flaubert’s scandalous novel Madame Bovary (both
published in 1857). Their high-minded
approach translated into a slap in the face of
Alessandro Manzoni, one of Italy’s most
popular writers of the 19th century and in music,
Giuseppe Verdi, its foremost composer (Arrigo
Boito’s infamous comments debasing Italy’s
stagnant cultural life dates from this period and
would be remembered by Verdi for years to
come – they were only able to mend the fence
years later when Boito was engaged to write the
libretti for Verdi’s final works, Otello and Falstaff;
brother Camillo would eventually design Verdi’s
final legacy, the Casa di riposo, a rest home for
retired musicians). The works of the scapigliati

many faces of versimo 53

would impact the operatic world through Boito’s Mefistofele (1868, to his own text) and Faccio’s I profughi fiamminghi
(1863, to a text by Praga) and Amleto (1865, to text adapted by Boito), as well as inspiring verismo opera later in the
century. Scapigliatura writings, tended to explore the darker side of the human psyche and lent themselves to later fin-
de-siècle decadent literature. Several of its members led dissolute lives, subject to drinking, amorality and short
mortality – Praga died at age 36, Tarchetti at age 28.

The next generation, the giovane scuola, whose members included Giovanni Verga, Luigi Capuana and Federico de
Roberto, emphasized a naturalist writing style in which the author’s personal style should not be conspicuous and which
featured contemporary stories and settings, the very “truth” verismo’s literal translation would seem to indicate. Devoid
of any political message (unlike their French counterparts), the Italians focused on country life and elemental passions.
Cavalleria rusticana, an opera based on one Verga’s stories that involved a peasant village racked by jealousy and murder,
was an instant hit when it premiered in 1890, drawing attention from Verdi as “a new genre … without pointless
longueurs.” It was almost by accident – its composer, Pietro Mascagni, had submitted the opera to Edoardo
Sonzogno’s competition sponsoring the composition of one-act operas, and concision was a key requisite. Eager for
success, other composers quickly followed suit. Ruggero Leoncavallo, who had spent his early adulthood in Paris and
was also familiar with the naturalist trend,
premiered Pagliacci two years later. The two
operas frequently appear as a double bill.

Giacomo Puccini would also tag along,

albeit in a different direction. Though
both he and Leoncavallo would create
operas after Murger’s Scènes, Puccini’s
subsequent work, Tosca, was decidedly set
in the Napoleonic past. Yet he still drew
from the verismo style’s base passions –
jealousy, torture, suicide – as well as its
characteristic musical shorthand. The
composer also began to meticulously
research his subjects for realistic accents:
the morning bells of Tosca’s Rome,
authentic Japanese melodies for Madame
Butterfly, American popular tunes for La
fanciulla del West. In the latter two works, he
caught up with David Belasco, then a leading proponent and innovator of naturalist theater. Then there are all the
possibilities that never made it to the stage. While looking at Verga’s La lupa, Puccini consulted with the author and
visited the countryside to get a sense of rustic local color. And while at the same time considering Butterfly as a potential
opera, he also seriously explored the adaptation of Zola’s La faute de l’Abbé Mouret, a typically sordid novel suitable for
verist interpretation.

It is interesting that Puccini only composed one opera, Il tabarro, which meets the absolute criteria set forth by Pagliacci
and Cavalleria. This brings us to the term as it continues to befuddle musicologists, who employ the word inconsistently.
All of these composers wrote works with more traditional themes – Leoncavallo’s I Medici, Giordano’s Andrea Chénier,
Cilea’s Adriana Lecouvreur and the later works by Mascagni (who would eventually turn his back on the style) – which
don’t have quite the same sensational impetus and hardly feature a primary tenet of verismo, a whiff of lowborn
criminality fueled by common people reacting violently to their irrepressible emotions. These works are often lumped
with the others by nature of musical economy and period of composition, yet in its strictest sense true verismo remains
isolated to only a handful of works, of which Leoncavallo and Mascagni’s peasant dramas best exemplify.

many faces of versimo 54

Wo r l d E v e nts in 1892
• Claude Monet begins
his tory and pol itics his series of
• An office is opened on Ellis Island to cope with the paintings on the
flood of immigrants to the United States. Rouen Cathedral.
• Grover Cleveland is re-elected president, defeating • Henri Toulouse-
Benjamin Harrison Lautrec paints At the
Moulin Rouge.
• Russia signs a military convention with France.
• Paul Cézanne paints The
• The Congress of Italian Workers splits into two Card Players.
factions, the socialists and the anarchists.
• Georges Seurat begins his painting Place de la Concorde,
• Russia is devastated by a severe famine, which began Winter.
last year.
• Anton Bruckner premieres his Symphony No. 8 in
• Count Alfred von Schlieffen, the chief of the German Vienna.
general staff, devises a plan for offensive military
action to invade France and to ward off a subsequent • Antonín Dvořák becomes director of the New York
Russian advance on the eastern front. National Conservatory of Music.
• Jose Marti founds the Cuban Revolutionary Party • Jules Massenet’s opera Werther premieres in Paris.

2
while in exile in New York City. • Alfredo Catalani’s opera La Wally premieres in Milan.
• William Ewart Gladstone becomes Prime Minister of • Alberto Franchetti’s Cristoforo Colombo premieres in
Great Britain. Genoa for the anniversary of the explorer’s discovery of
• A pan-Slav Conference is held at Cracow. the Americas.
• Josip Broz Tito, Yugoslavian statesman, is born. • Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov’s Mlada premieres in St.
Petersburg.
• Iron and steel workers strike in the United States.
• Pyotr Il’yich Tchaikovsky’s Iolanta premieres in St.
• The first iron ore is shipped from the Mesabi Range Petersburg in a double-bill with his new ballet The
of Minnesota.
9
l iterature, art and m u sic,
Nutcracker.
• French composer Arthur Honegger is born in Le
• Poet Walt Whitman dies. Havre.
• Alfred, Lord Tennyson, poet laureate since 1850, • French composer Édouard Lalo dies in Paris.
dies. • Gabriel Fauré begins to compose his song cycle La
• The play Pelléas and Mélisande by Maurice bonne chanson, inspired by and eventually dedicated to
Maeterlinck receives its premiere in Belgium. the singer Emma Bardac, who would become Claude
8
Debussy’s second wife.
• George Bernard Shaw writes Mrs. Warren’s Profession.
• French composer Darius Milhaud is born in Aix-en-
• Rudyard Kipling writes Barrack-Room Ballads. Provence.
• Émile Zola writes La Débâcle.
daily life
• Oscar Wilde writes Lady Windermere’s Fan.
• A railway from Cape Colony through the Orange Free
• Henrik Ibsen writes The Master Builder. State to Johannesburg is completed.
• George John Romanes publishes Darwin and after • The German engineer Rudolf Diesel patents the first
1

Darwin. internal combustion engine.

• The playwright Gerhardt Hauptmann premieres his • Vogue magazine begins publication.
play Die Weber, a dramatization of the Silesian
weavers’ revolt of 1844. • Thomson-Houston Electric and Edison General
Electric merge to form the General Electric Company.

world events in 1892 55

H is tory of Opera

In the beginning …

jacopo peri 1561–1633

c laudio monteverd i 1567–1643
Although often considered an Italian innovation, opera had its debut in
Ancient Greece, where drama frequently incorporated singing, declamation and
dance to tell a narrative tale. Ecclesiastical music dramas of the Middle Ages
were also important precursors. But the operatic art form familiar to us today
has its roots in Florence, between 1580 and 1589, where a group of musicians,
poets and scholars explored the possibility of reviving tragic drama of the
ancients.
The circle was known as the camerata and consisted of writers, theorists and
composers, including giulio caccini, ottavio rinuccini and vincenzo A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
galilei (father of the famed astronomer). Their efforts exacted musical com- 1971 production of Monteverdi’s
L’incoronazione di Poppea
positions that took special care to accentuate the dramatic inflection of their
chosen text, to evoke its precise emotional shading and to find the ideal marriage between words and music. jacopo
peri, a rival of Caccini and a collaborator with Rinuccini, produced the first known (but no longer existing) opera,
Dafne, in 1597.
The Camerata met at the home of the nobleman giovanni de’ bardi . Thus, no sooner had opera had made its first
appearance than it became a court activity, which fit the social and political conditions of the day. As a result of Bardi’s
influence, these composers were hired by the Grand Duke of Tuscany Ferdinand i, who gave them their first wide expo-
sure. When his daughter, Marie de’ Medici, married Henry iv of France, Peri’s Euridice was produced at the ceremony,
and Italian opera gained its first international premiere. Even though Euridice was a simply staged production accom-
panied by a small group of strings and flute, in 1600 this type of musical drama was considered revolutionary.
claudio monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607) is the most significant opera of this period, more so than those works of the
Florentines. The boldness of his harmonies and the richness of his orchestration dramatically developed the art form,
and this work, along with L’incoronazione di Poppea (1642) are still popular pieces performed today.
Opera in Venice

f r ances co cavall i 1602–1676

a n tonio ces ti 1623–1669
The new art form quickly spread to other Italian cities. By 1636, the first public opera house was opened in Venice and
opera became quite popular among the people. Le nozze di Teti e di Pele, the first of francesco cavalli ’s thirty-plus
operas for the Venetian stage, premiered two years later. Competing with Monteverdi and antonio cesti (who took
a post in Innsbruck after producing only two works for Venice), Cavalli quickly rose to the top.
At the same time, Italian stage designers were fast improving their techniques and were able to produce stupendous
special effects, a happy coincidence for the new operatic art form. The use of the proscenium arch allowed the spectator
to view the stage from a narrower angle, thus producing a better illusion of perspective. The proscenium also hid elab-
orate flying apparatus, and allowed for quick and seamless scene changes with drops from the top and flaps from the
side wings. Spectacular stage effects became a speciality of French opera, and with the inclusion of ballet, became the
part of established style of France by the 18th century.

history of opera 56
North of Italy, Hamburg composer reinhard
keiser (1694 – 1739) became the director of
one of the first public opera houses in Germany.
He often set libretti by Venetian librettists.

Baroque Opera in France, England

and Germany

jean- baptis te lul ly 1632–1687

henry purcel l 1658/59–1695
g eorge frideric handel 1685–1759 A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
c h ris toph w illibald gl u ck 1714–1 7 8 7 2008 production of Keiser’s The Fortunes of King Croesus

In 1646, Giovanni Battista Lulli arrived in France from Florence and tried to establish Italian opera in the French Court.
He was unsuccessful because the reigning monarch, Louis xiv, preferred dance. Nonetheless, jean-baptiste lully ,
as he became known, rose in royal favor by composing ballets for the king and eventually gained control of the Académie
Royale de Musique, the official musical institution of France. Through Lully’s influence in this important position, and
by way of his own compositions, a distinctive French operatic form began to emerge and thrive on its own.
The Italian and French forms of opera were slow to catch on among the English, who preferred spoken theater. A com-
promise was reached in a form referred to as semi-opera , featuring spoken dialogue alternated with musical masques
(which often included dance). henry purcell ’s The Fairy Queen (1692) is one popular example from this period.
Purcell’s first opera, Dido and Aeneas (1689), is his
only opera in the Italian style and continues to be
occasionally revived in modern times.
A major player in the early part of the 18th century
was george frideric handel , who began his
career in Hamburg. As early as 1711, Handel
enjoyed success in England and would remain
there for the next forty years. During that time, he
wrote 35 operas (many in the Italian style), most of
which focused on historical, classical
or romantic subjects. His inventive
musical style began to set new
standards for the art form,
and his works redefined
A scene from The Minnesota Opera’s
the dramatic potential of
1994 production of Handel’s Julius Caesar opera as a vital and vivid
experience.
Another German, christoph willibald gluck , arrived in England on the heels of
Handel’s last London operas, and later moving to Vienna, he began to see what he found to be flaws in
the conventional Italian opera of the day. Singers had taken control of the productions, demanding solo
arias and sometimes adding their own pieces to show off their vocal technique. Operas were turning into
a collection of individual showpieces at the sacrifice of dramatic integrity. Although Gluck wrote some
operas which shared these flaws, one work, Orfeo ed Euridice (1762), reasserted the primacy of drama and music

Costume sketch for Minnesota Opera’s

2010 production of Gluck’s Orfeo ed Euridice

history of opera 57
 by removing the da capo (repeated and embellished) part of the aria, by using
chorus and instrumental solos only to reinforce the dramatic action, and by not
allowing the singers to insert their own music. Gluck completed his career in Paris,
where he became a master of French opera’s serious form, the tragédie lyrique .
During the 18th century, opera began to fall into two distinct categories: opera
seria and opera buffa . Opera seria (serious opera) focused on historical, reli-
gious or Greco-Roman subjects. The glorification of saints, kings and gods went
hand-in-hand with the grandiose baroque style and the spectacular stage effects of
court opera. Librettist Pietro Metastasio provided 28 libretti that continued to
serve composers again and again well into the 19th century. Opera buffa (comic
opera) had its roots with the popular audience, each country specializing in its own
distinct form. In France, charles-simon favart ’s operas of the 1740s parodied
the serious tragédie lyriques of Lully (the Opéra-Comique, the Paris theater for
comic opera, would later be named after him). In Naples, Italy, the intermezzi
(short comic works inserted in between acts of a serious opera), of giovanni bat-
tista pergolesi paved the way to the development of opera buffa in the latter
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s half of the 18th century. His masterpiece, La serva padrona (1733), is considered a
2009 production of Argento’s Casanova’s milestone in the development
Homcoming [which included a scene from
Metastasio’s opera seria Demofoonte (1733)] of comic opera.

Opera during the Classical Period

g ius eppe s arti 1729–1802

f ranz j os eph hayd n 1732–1809
g iovanni paisiel lo 1740–1816
d omenico cimaro sa 1749–1801
a ntonio s alieri 1750–1825
v icente mart in y so ler 1754–1806
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 1996 production of
wolfgang amadeu s m oz art 1756–1 7 9 1 Mozart’s Don Giovanni

Two composers are invariably linked to the Classical Period – franz joseph haydn and wolfgang amadeus
mozart . Of the former, few of his operas are produced today even though he wrote over 25, most of which were cre-
ated and performed for his employer, Prince Nikolaus Esterházy. Mozart’s operas, however, remain in repertory as some
of the most frequently produced works. Of the five most favorite – The
Abduction from the Seraglio (1782), The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don
Giovanni (1787), Così fan tutte (1790), The Magic Flute (1791) – two are
singspiels (a popular German form, replacing sung recitative with
spoken dialogue), two opera buffas and one opera “semi-seria.” Two
opera serias (the form Mozart preferred, incidently) frame his adult
career – Idomeneo (1781) was his first mature opera and La clemenza di
Tito (1791) was his last commission.
Lesser composers of this period include antonio salieri (born in
Legnago, settling later in Vienna), who served the court of Emperor
Joseph ii. Through the emperor’s influence with his sister, Marie
Antoinette, Salieri made headway in Paris as well, establishing himself
as a worthy successor of Gluck in the serious vein of his tragédie
lyriques. Returning to Vienna in 1784, Salieri found himself in strict
Artist rendering of Minnesota Opera’s
2008 production of Mozart’s
The Abduction from the Seraglio
history of opera 58
competition with other leading composers of the day, giovanni paisiello and vincente martín y soler . These
two composers were known partly from their brief service to Catherine the Great of Russia, along with several other
advanced Italian composers including giusepp e sarti and domenico cimarosa .

After the Revolution – French Grand Opera

l uigi cherubini 1760–1842

f e rdinando paer 1771–1839
g a s pare s pon tini 1774–1851
daniel-françoi s -es p ri t aub e r 1 7 8 2–1871
g iacomo mey erbeer 1791–1864
In the decades following the French revolution, french grand
opera developed extensively, moving from a private entertain-
ment for royalty to an art form eagerly consumed by the upward-
ly mobile bourgeoisie. Opera in France at the turn of the 19th cen-
tury was dominated by expatriate Italian composers. First and
most notable was luigi cherubini, who established residence
Paris Opéra – Palais Garnier (completed in 1875; still in use)
in Paris in 1785. Eventually rising to the position of director of the The old Opéra on the Salle de la Petelier, birthplace of
national conservatory, he virtually ceased composing operas in French Grand Opera, burned down in 1873
1813. The most lasting work in his oeuvre is Médée of 1797.
ferdinando paer came to prominence during the first empire of Napoleon i – he was engaged as the Emperor’s
maître de chapelle in 1807 and later became the director of the Opéra-Comique. Just before Napoleon’s abdication, Paer
assumed directorship of the Théâtre Italien, a post he held until it was yielded to Rossini in 1824. None of his many
operas survive in the modern repertory, although the libretto he wrote for one, Leonora (1804), served to inspire Ludwig
van Beethoven’s only opera, Fidelio (1805). gaspare spontini was another Italian who moved to Paris and eventual-
ly ran the Théâtre Italien, a theater devoted to producing
Italian works in their native language. Most popular among
his repertoire were La Vestale (1807) and Fernand Cortez
(1809).
French grand opera came into its own through the efforts of
two composers: da n i e l - f r a n ç o i s - e s p r i t a u b e r and
giacomo meyerbeer . Collaborating with Eugène Scribe
(whose plays would later serve as inspiration for a number of
Verdi operas), Auber produced La muette de Portici (1828), the
first definite grand opéra of this period, which proved extreme-
ly popular with French audiences. Characteristic of the genre
was a five-act framework that incorporated spectacular stage
effects, large crowd scenes and a ballet. A specific, mannered
formula for the drama’s unfolding was also inherent in the art
form.
Meyerbeer brought grand opera to fruition first with Robert le
diable (1831), then with Les Huguenots (1836), and with these
Today’s Opéra National de Paris works, also established a close relationship with Scribe. Two
at the Place de la Bastille (completed in 1989) later works of note include La prophète (1849) and L’Africaine
(1865), also cast in the grand opera schema.

history of opera 59
Early 19th-century Italy – The Bel Canto composers
Promotional material for
g ioachino rossini 1792–1868 Minnesota Opera’s
g aetano doniz etti 1797–1848 2001 production of Bellini’s
The Capulets and the
v incenzo bellini 1801–1835 Montagues
Back in Italy, opera saw the development of a distinctive style known as bel canto .
Bel canto (literally “beautiful singing”) was characterized by the smooth emission of
tone, beauty of timbre and elegance of phrasing. Music associated with this genre con-
tained many trills , roulades and other embellishments that showed off the par-
ticular singer’s technique.
Traditionally, a bel canto aria
begins with a slow, song-like
cantabile section followed by
an intermediate mezzo section
with a slightly quicker tempo. It ends with a dazzling cabaletta ,
the fastest section, where the singer shows off his or her talents.
Often these were improvised upon, or replaced with “suitcase” arias
of the singers’ own choosing, much to the consternation of the com-
poser.
gioachino rossini was the first and perhaps best known of the
three composers associated with this style. In his early years,
between 1813 and 1820, Rossini composed rapidly, producing two
or three operas a year. The pace slowed after he moved to France in
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 1824 – there he produced
2000 production of Rossini’s Semiramide
five works for the Paris
Opéra, several of which show tendencies of the French grand opera style. William
Tell was his last opera – Rossini retired at age 37 with 39 more years to live.
gaetano donizetti and vincenzo bellini were two other Italian Bel
Canto composers who premiered operas in both Paris and Italy. A tendency that
began with Rossini and continued into their works was the practice of accom-
panied recitatives. Opera to this point had been organized in a very specific man-
ner with more elongated “numbers”
(arias, duets, ensembles) alternated
with recitative (essentially dialogue
set to music, intended to move the
action along). In Mozart’s day, these
recitative would be played by a
harpsichord or fortepiano (some-
times doubled with cellos and bass-
es) and was known as recitativo
s e c c o . As Rossini’s style pro-
gressed, the orchestra took over
playing the recitatives which
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
became known as r e c i tat i v o 2004 production of Donizetti’s Lucrezia Borgia
Set model for Minnesota Opera’s accompagnato . The practice con-
2010 production of Donizetti’s Roberto Devereux tinued into Verdi’s day.

history of opera 60
Three Masters of Opera

g ius eppe verd i 1813–1901

r ichard wagn er 1813–1883
g iacomo pucc ini 1858–1924

giuseppe verdi ’s roots began in bel canto but the composer

transformed the Italian style into a more fluid, less structured
form. With a legacy of 26 operas, Verdi is never out of the
repertory and four of these (Rigoletto, 1851; Il trovatore, 1853;
La traviata, 1853; Aida, 1871) are some of the most familiar of
the art form.
Verdi’s contemporary, richard wagner , is also considered
one of the greats. Taking the idea of “fluidity” one step further, A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
1998 production of Verdi’s Aida
Wagner developed his operas into freely flowing music-dra-
mas united by melodic motifs that become associated with persons, places and things. Taking the grandeur of French opera
one step further, he crafted his own libretti out of Nordic legends and created spectacular operatic moments. Wagner also
greatly expanded the orchestra and developed his own particular brass instruments for greater impact. A Wagnerian singer
is one with great stamina – they
must sing over a large orchestra
in an opera that can be up to
four hours long.
Italian opera’s successor to Verdi
turned out to be g i a c o m o
puccini . With a gift of popu-
lar melody and musical econo-
my, his operas La bohème (1896),
Tosca (1900) and Madame
Set model for Minnesota Opera’s Butterfly (1904) remain at the
1992 production of Wagner’s The Flying Dutchman top of the standard repertory.

Costume sketch for Minnesota Opera’s

1994 production of Verdi’s
Il trovatore

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

2004 production of Puccini’s Madame Butterfly A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
2002 production of Verdi’s Don Carlos

history of opera 61
Later French Opera

hector berlioz 1803–1869

c h arles - françois gouno d 1818–18 9 3
jacques offenbach 1819–1880
e douard lalo 1823–1892
c a mille s aint-saëns 1835–1921
l éo delibes 1836–1891
g eorges bize t 1838–1875
ju les mas s enet 1842–1912
g u s tave charp entier 1860–1956

The grand opera schema continued into the latter half of A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
2009 production of Bizet’s Les pêcheurs de perles
the 19 century in such works as hector berlioz ’s Les
th

Troyens (composed 1856 – 58), and charles-françois gounod ’s Faust (1859) and Roméo et Juliette (1867). An ele-
ment of realism began to slip into the French repertoire, seen in works by georges bizet (Carmen, 1875) and gus-
tave charpentier (Louise, 1897). jacques offenbach revolutionized the art of comic operetta in such works as
Orphée aux enfers (1858), La belle Hélène (1864) and La Périchole (1868). Other composers of this period include camille
saint-saëns (Samson et Dalila, 1877), edouard lalo (Le
Roi d’Ys, 1875) and j u l e s m a s s e n e t (Manon, 1884;
Werther, 1892; Cendrillon, 1899).

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

2009 production of Gounod’s Faust

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

Verismo in Late 19 -century Italy
th 2008 production of Gounod’s Roméo et Juliette

r uggero leon cavall o 1857–1919

p ietro mas cagni 1863–1945
u mberto giordano 1867–1948

A realist vein began to penetrate Italian opera toward the end of the 19th century, influenced in part by naturalism in
French literature of the period and by the writings of an Italian literary circle, the scapigliatura . Translated as the
“dishevelled ones,” the Scapigliatura displayed their distaste for bourgeois society in works of gritty realism, often bor-
dering on the morbid and the macabre. Nearly all the members of the group (lead by giovanni verga ) led tragic
lives ending in early death by alcoholism and suicide.

history of opera 62
Operas to come out of the resulting verismo school include
pietro mascagni ’s Cavalleria rusticana (1890), ruggero
leoncavallo ’s Pagliacci (1892) and umberto giordano ’s
Mala vita (1892). Other works are attributed to this movement
by nature of their rapid action with passionate tension and vio-
lence quickly alternating with moments of great sentimentality.

Opera in Russia

m ikhail ivanovich g linka 1804–18 5 7

p yotr il’ yich tchaiko vsk y 1840–18 9 3
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
n ikolay andreyevich rim sk y-ko rsa ko v 1 8 4 4 – 1 9 0 8 2001 production of Leoncavallo’s Ipagliacci
m odes t petrovich m uso rgsk y 1839 – 1 8 8 1
sergei prokof iev 1891–1953
d mitri s hos t oko vich 1906–1975
Opera was introduced in Russia during the succession of powerful czarinas that culminated in the reign of Catherine
the Great (ruled 1762 – 1796). She employed a number of important Italian composers (see above) and established St.
Petersburg as a major city for the production of new opera, later to be elevated to the same par as London, Paris and
Vienna by her descendent, Nicholas i (ruled 1825 – 1855). Of native Russian
composers, the first to come to prominence was mikhail glinka with A Life for
the Tsar (1836), and later, Ruslan and Lyudmila (1842). pyotr tchaikovsky,
now known more for his ballets and symphonies, was a prolific composer of opera.
His best works include Eugene Onegin (1879), Mazepa (1884) and The Queen of
Spades (1890). Other Russian composers of the latter 19th century include niko-
lay rimsky-korsakov (The Snow Maiden, 1882; The Tsar’s Bride, 1899; The
Golden Cockerel, 1909) and modest musorgsky (Boris Godunov, 1874).

Russian opera continued into the 20th century with works by sergei prokofiev
composed The Love for Three Oranges (1921) and The Gambler (1929), among oth-
ers. His crowning achievement, written toward the end of his life, was War and
Peace (1948), based on the novel by Leo Tolstoy. dmitri shostokovich ’s most
notable work is Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (1934). Both artists suffered
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
1978 production of Prokofiev’s censure from the Soviet government.
The Love for Three Oranges

Into the 20th Century

c laude debussy 1862–1918
r ichard s trau ss 1864–1949
pa ul dukas 1 8 6 5 – 1 9 3 5
a rnold s choenberg 1874–1951
i g or s travinsky 1882–1971
a lban berg 1885–1935
darius milhaud 1 8 9 2 – 1 9 7 4
pa ul hindemi t h 1 8 9 5 – 1 9 6 3
k urt w eill 1900–1950
b enj amin britten 1913–1976
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
1996 production of Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande

history of opera 63
 c l a u d e d e b u s s y ’s impressionist score for Pelléas et
Mélisande (1902) paved the way for the radical changes in
20th-century opera. Also based on a Symbolist text by
Maurice Maeterlinck was paul dukas ’ Ariane et Barbe-
Bleue (1907), an opera about the notorious Bluebeard and
his six wives. But causing the most sensation was richard
strauss ’ Salome (1905), which pushed both tonality and
the demands on the singers to the limits. He followed that
opera with an even more progressive work, Elektra (1909),
drawn from the Greek tragedy by Sophocles.
Important innovations were taking place in Vienna.
arnold schoenberg made a complete break with
tonality in his staged monodrama Erwartung (1909), giv-
ing all twelve tones of the chromatic scale equal impor-
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
2010 production of Strauss’ Salome
tance. He codified this approach in his twelve-tone
system where a theme is created with a row of notes using
all twelve notes of the chromatic scale. This “row” can be played in transposition, in reverse, upside-down, or in any
combination of the three. Schoenberg also evolved a particular style of singing, sprechstimme , an intoned speech
halfway between singing and speaking.
Sprechstimme was well suited to the expressionist nature of operas being produced at this time. Schoenberg’s student,
alban berg , employed it in Wozzeck (1925) and used the serialized twelve-tone method in his opera Lulu (1937).
Another avant-garde composer, paul hindemi th , created a series of expressionist one-act operas that shocked audi-
ences of the day: Murder, Hope of Women (1921), Das Nusch-Nuschi (1921) and Sancta Susanna (1922). Two later operas
include one based on a short story by E.T.A. Hoffmann (Cardillac, 1926) and a satire on modern social behavior (News of
the Day, 1929). At about the same kurt weill was causing an uproar with his new works: The Threepenny Opera (1928),
The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny (1930) and Der Silbersee (1933). The up-and-coming Nazi party did not favor
his works, and he was forced to leave the country, eventually to settle in America.
In Paris, Russian igor stravinsky was shocking
audiences and causing riots with his ballet music. His
early operas include The Nightingale (1914) and Mavra
(1922). Oedipus Rex (1927) is representative of his first
neoclassical works, using forms from the 18th century
with modern tonality and orchestration. His later (and
longest) opera, The Rake’s Progress (1951), is a culmina-
tion of this neoclassical style. French composer dari us
milhaud was extremely prolific in all genres of music.
In opera, he produced the one-act Le pauvre matelot
(1927) and a large-scale work in the tradition of grand
opera, Christophe Columbe (1930). Later in his life he
composed La mère coupable (1966), based on the
Beaumarchais Figaro trilogy (which includes The Barber
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
of Seville and The Marriage of Figaro). 1999 production of Britten’s The Turn of the Screw

In England, benjamin britten emerged as one of Britain’s foremost composers of opera since Henry Purcell. Out of
his 16 original works for the stage the most popular include Peter Grimes (1945), Billy Budd (1951), Gloriana (1953)
and The Turn of the Screw (1954).

history of opera 64
20th- and 21st-century American Composers of Opera

v irgil thoms on 1896–1989

george antheil 1900–1959
s amuel barbe r 1910–1981
gian carlo menotti 1911–2007
c arlis le floyd 1926–
dominick argento 1927–
c onrad s us a 1935–
p hilip glas s 1937–
john corigliano 1938–
john adams 1947–

Paris in the 20s served to inspire the next generation of A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
composers, several of which were expatriates from 1998 American premiere of Antheil’s Transatlantic
America. g e o r g e a n t h e i l was the first American
composer to have an opera premiered in Europe – his work, Transatlantic, was written in France but premiered in Frankfurt
in 1930. Compatriot virgil thomson studied with famed teacher Nadia Boulanger and later produced Four Saints in
Three Acts (1934) and The Mother of Us All (1947), both to texts by Gertrude Stein. samuel barber stayed on American
soil, studying at the newly founded Curtis Institute in 1935. He went on to compose Vanessa (1958), and to open the new
Metropolitan Opera House at Lincoln Center, Antony and Cleopatra (1966).

On Vanessa, Barber collaborated with another composer, gian carlo menotti , who wrote the libretto. Also the author
of 25 libretti for his own operas, Menotti is best known for The Medium (1946), The Consul (1950), Amahl and the Night
Visitors (1951) and The Saint of Bleecker Street (1954). Another American composing at about the same time was carlisle
f l o y d , who favored American themes and literature. His
most important works include Susannah (1955), Wuthering
Heights (1958), The Passion of Jonathan Wade (1962) and Of
Mice and Men (1970).

During the sixties and seventies, the minnesota opera

was the site of many world premieres of lasting significance:
c o n r a d s u s a ’s Transformations (1973) and Black River
(1975), and d o m i n i c k a r g e n t o ’s The Masque of Angels
(1964), Postcard from Morocco (1971), The Voyage of Edgar Allen
Poe (1976), Miss Havisham’s Wedding Night (1981) and
Casanova’s Homecoming (1985; revived in 2009). Other
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
Argento works of merit include Miss Havisham’s Fire (1979)
1989 production of Glass’ The Juniper Tree and The Aspern Papers (1988).

Other composers currently at the fore include philip glass, john corigliano and john adams. The Minimalist music
of Philip Glass has won popular acclaim among even non-opera-going audiences – his oeuvre includes Einstein on the Beach
(1976), Ahknaten (1984), and most recently, The Voyage (1992), commissioned by the Metropolitan Opera to
commemorate the 500th anniversary of Columbus’ discovery of America. The Met also commissioned The Ghosts of
Versailles from john corigliano in 1991 – like Milhaud’s opera of 1966, its text involves Beaumarchais’ third part
of the Figaro trilogy with the playwright himself appearing as the lover of 18th-century Queen of France Marie-

history of opera 65
 Antoinette. john adams ’ focus on contemporary
events lead him to compose Nixon in China (1987)
and The Death of Klinghoffer (1991).

Opera continues to be a living and vital art form in

the revival of many of these works as well as the
commissioning of new pieces. Among world pre-
mieres in the last two decades include t o b i a s
p i c k e r ’s Emmeline (1996) by Santa Fe Opera,
daniel catán ’s Florencia en el Amazonas (1996)
by Houston Grand Opera, m y r o n f i n k ’s The
Conquistador (1997) presented by San Diego
Opera, anthony davis’ Amistad (1997) presented
by Lyric Opera of Chicago and Central Park (1999)
by Glimmerglass Opera, a trilogy of short operas
set by three composers. Recent seasons included
A scene from Minnesota Opera’s
such
2005 production of Adams’ Nixon in China n e w
works
as poul ruders ’ The Handmaid’s Tale (Royal Danish Opera; 2000), bright
sheng’s Madame Mao (Santa Fe Opera; 2003), D A N I E L C AT Á N ’ S Salsipuedes
(Houston Grand Opera; 2004), R I C H A R D D A N I E L P O U R ’s Margaret Garner
(Michigan Opera Theatre; 2005), ricky ian gordon’s The Grapes of Wrath
(Minnesota Opera; 2007), j o nat h a n d o v e ’ s The Adventures of Pinocchio
(Opera North, Leeds; 2008), H O WA R D S H O R E ’s The Fly (Los Angeles Opera;
2009), jake heggie’s Moby Dick (Dallas Opera; 2010), kevin puts ’ Silent
Night (Minnesota Opera; 2011) and D O U G L A S J . C U O M O and J O H N PAT R I C K
S H A N L E Y ’s Doubt (Minnesota Opera; 2013).

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

2003 American premiere of Ruders’
The Handmaid’s Tale

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s Pulitzer Prize-winning

2011 world premiere of Puts’ Silent Night

Costume sketch for Minnesota Opera’s

2009 American premiere of Dove’s The Adventures of Pinocchio

history of opera 66
H is tory of the Minneso ta Op era

Minnesota Opera combines a culture of creativity and fiscal responsibility to produce opera
and opera education programs that expand the art form, nurture artists, enrich audiences
and contribute to the vitality of the community.

Minnesota Opera’s roots were planted in 1963 when the Walker Art Center
commissioned Dominick Argento to compose an opera (The Masque of Angels) for
its performing arts program, Center Opera. Center Opera focused on the
composition and performance of new works by American composers, and, under
the influence of the Walker Art Center, emphasized visual design. The company
grew steadily, and in 1969 became an independent entity, changing its name in
1971 to The Minnesota Opera.
Throughout the first 12 years of its history, The Minnesota Opera was known as a progressive, “alternative” opera
production company, a complement to the traditional orientation of the annual Metropolitan Opera tour and the
productions of the St. Paul Opera. In 1976, The Minnesota Opera merged with the St. Paul Opera, adding a focus on
traditional repertory to its program of contemporary opera.
In January 1985, The Minnesota Opera entered a new era with the opening of
the Ordway Center for the Performing Arts in St. Paul, one of the nation’s most
respected performance halls. Today, the company presents its entire season at the
Ordway.
In September 1990, the company moved its scenic and costume shops, rehearsal
facilities and administrative offices to the 51,000 square-feet Minnesota Opera
Center, which comprises three renovated warehouses on the Mississippi
riverfront in Minneapolis. Winner of a 1990 Preservation Alliance of Minnesota
Award, the Minnesota Opera Center is one of the finest opera production
Set design for Minnesota Opera’s
1971 production of Dominick Argento’s facilities in the nation and has served to strengthen the company both artistically
Postcard from Morocco and institutionally.
Throughout the 1990s, the company gained a national reputation for its high-quality, innovative productions of standard
repertoire operas like Aida, Carmen and Turandot, which were seen on stages across the nation, and firmly established
Minnesota Opera’s reputation as a lead coproducer in the industry. In that decade, Minnesota Opera also grew
institutionally, launching an artistic development campaign to establish a foundation for the expansion of its season and
increased artistic quality.
In 1997, the company launched its Resident Artist Program to bridge the gap between an artist’s academic training and
their professional life on the world stage. The RAP is acclaimed for its exceptional, intense and individualized training as
well as the elite group of young artists it produces. Alumni
have earned engagements at prestigious houses such as the
Metropolitan Opera, the Salzburg Festival and Covent Garden.
In 2000, Artistic Director Dale Johnson articulated a new
artistic vision for the company inspired by bel canto (“beautiful
singing”), the ideal upon which Italian opera is based. Bel canto
values, which emphasize intense emotional expression
supported by exquisite technique, inform every aspect of the
company’s programs, from repertoire selection, casting and
visual design to education and artist training. As one
manifestation of its philosophy, Minnesota Opera is committed
to producing one work from the early 19th-century Bel Canto
period each season, attracting luminary singers like Bruce Ford,
Vivica Genaux, Brenda Harris and Sumi Jo to its stage. A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 1984 production of
Peter Schickele’s The Abduction of Figaro

history of the minnesota opera 67

Minnesota Opera is also recognized for its progressive and
far-reaching educational programs. Residencies in schools,
opera education classes and pre-performance discussions are
building an audience for tomorrow and enhancing the
enjoyment of audiences today.
Throughout its history, Minnesota Opera has attracted
international attention for its performances of new operas
and innovative productions of masterworks. Among its
most renowned world and American premieres are:
Dominick Argento’s Postcard from Morocco, The Voyage of
Edgar Allan Poe and Casanova’s Homecoming, William Mayer’s
A Death in the Family, Libby Larsen’s Frankenstein, The
Modern Prometheus, Oliver Knussen and Maurice Sendak’s
Where the Wild Things Are, Conrad Susa’s Transformations and
Black River, PDQ Bach’s The Abduction of Figaro, Robert
Moran’s From the Towers of the Moon, Gioachino Rossini’s A scene from Minnesota Opera’s 2000 production of
Armida, Evan Chen’s Bok Choy Variations, George Antheil’s Gioachino Rossini’s Semiramide
Transatlantic, Poul Ruders’ The Handmaid’s Tale, Laurent Petitgirard’s Joseph Merrrick dit Elephant Man, Saverio Mercadante’s
Orazi e Curiazi, Ricky Ian Gordon’s The Grapes of Wrath, Reinhard Keiser’s The Fortunes of King Croesus, Jonathan Dove’s The
Adventures of Pinocchio, Kevin Puts’ Pulitzer Prize-winning Silent Night and Douglas J. Cuomo’s Doubt.
Building on the legacy of its commitment to new work and following the overwhelming success of its commission of The
Grapes of Wrath in 2007, Minnesota Opera launched the New Works Initiative, a landmark program designed to invigorate
the operatic repertoire through the production and dissemination of new commissions and revivals of contemporary
American works. The seven-year, $7 million program includes an international coproduction (The Adventures of Pinocchio,
2009), three revivals (Casanova’s Homecoming in 2010; Wuthering Heights in 2011 and The Dream of Valentino in 2013) and
three commissions (Silent Night in 2011; Doubt in 2013 and The Manchurian Candidate in 2015).
On the Minnesota Opera stage, talented national and internationally known artists are brought together to create
productions of the highest artistic integrity, emphasizing the balance and total integration of theatrical and musical values.
Throughout the past five decades, the company has presented such artists as Tim Albery, Isabel Bayrakdarian, John Lee
Beatty, Harry Bicket, Richard Bonynge, William Burden, John Conklin, Roxana Constantinescu, David Daniels, Bruce
Ford, Elizabeth Futral, Vivica Genaux, Colin Graham, Denyce Graves, Greer Grimsley, Nancy Gustafson, Brenda Harris,
Jason Howard, Judith Howarth, Robert Indiana, Robert Israel, Sumi Jo, Kelly Kaduce, Antony McDonald, Catherine
Malfitano, Daniel Massey, Johanna Meier, Suzanne Mentzer, Erie Mills, Sherrill Milnes, Julia Migenes, Fernando de la
Mora, James Morris, Suzanne Murphy, Maureen O’Flynn, Susanna Phillips, Ashley Putnam, Patricia Racette, James
Robinson, Neil Rosenshein, William Shimell, James Valenti, David Walker and Keith Warner.
Minnesota Opera, now the 13th
largest opera company in the
nation with an annual budget of
$10.2 million (Fiscal Year 2012),
is guided by President and General
Director Kevin Ramch and
Artistic Director Dale Johnson.
Today Minnesota Opera is
enjoying unprecedented stability
and unity of mission, working
toward its vision to create a new,
dynamic opera company model
based upon innovation, world-
class artistic quality and strong
community service.

A scene from Minnesota Opera’s

2001 production of Carl Orff’s Carmina burana

history of the minnesota opera 68

 Minneso ta O pe r a R e pe r t o i r e – 1 9 6 3 – 2 0 1 4

2013–2014 2003–2004
Manon Lescaut (Puccini) Rigoletto (Verdi)
Arabella (Strauss) Lucrezia Borgia (Donizetti)
Macbeth (Verdi) Passion (Sondheim)
The Dream of Valentino (Argento) Die Zauberflöte (Mozart)
Die Zauberflöte (Mozart)
2002–2003
2012–2013 Die lustige Witwe (Lehár)
50th anniversary season Norma (Bellini)
Nabucco (Verdi) Der fliegende Holländer (Wagner)
Anna Bolena (Donizetti) La traviata (Verdi)
§ † Doubt (Cuomo) * The Handmaid’s Tale (Ruders)
Hamlet (Thomas) 2001–2002
Turandot (Puccini) Lucia di Lammermoor (Donizetti)
La clemenza di Tito (Mozart)
2011–2012 La bohème (Puccini)
Così fan tutte (Mozart) Little Women (Adamo)
§ † Silent Night (Puts) Don Carlos (Verdi)
Werther (Massenet)
Lucia di Lammermoor (Donizetti) 2000–2001
Madame Butterfly (Puccini) Turandot (Puccini)
I Capuleti ed i Montecchi (Bellini)
2010–2011 Street Scene (Weill)
Orfeo ed Euridice (Gluck) Il barbiere di Siviglia (Rossini)
La Cenerentola (Rossini) Pagliacci/Carmina burana (Leoncavallo/Orff)
Maria Stuarda (Donizetti) ! The Barber of Seville (Rossini)
La traviata (Verdi)
Wuthering Heights (Herrmann) 1999–2000
Der Rosenkavalier (R. Strauss)
2009–2010 Macbeth (Verdi)
Les pêcheurs de perles (Bizet) Semiramide (Rossini)
Casanova’s Homecoming (Argento) Le nozze di Figaro (Mozart)
Roberto Devereux (Donizetti) ! The Marriage of Figaro (Mozart)
La bohème (Puccini)
Salome (R. Strauss) 1998–1999
Otello (Verdi)
2008–2009 Madama Butterfly (Puccini)
Il trovatore (Verdi) The Turn of the Screw (Britten)
Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Mozart) Faust (Gounod)
Faust (Gounod) ! Madame Butterfly (Puccini)
* The Adventures of Pinocchio (Dove)
Il barbiere di Siviglia (Rossini) 1997–1998
Aida (Verdi)
2007–2008 La Cenerentola (Rossini)
Un ballo in maschera (Verdi) * Transatlantic (Antheil)
L’italiana in Algeri (Rossini) Tosca (Puccini)
Roméo et Juliette (Gounod) ! Cinderella (Rossini, Massenet)
* Croesus (Keiser)
Rusalka (Dvořák) 1996–1997
La traviata (Verdi)
2006–2007 Die Zauberflöte (Mozart)
La donna del lago (Rossini) The Rake’s Progress (Stravinsky)
Les contes d’Hoffmann (Offenbach) Carmen (Bizet)
§ † The Grapes of Wrath (Gordon) ! Carmen (Bizet)
Lakmé (Delibes)
Le nozze di Figaro (Mozart) 1995–1996
La bohème (Puccini)
2005–2006 Don Giovanni (Mozart)
Tosca (Puccini) Pelléas et Mélisande (Debussy)
Don Giovanni (Mozart) Les contes d’Hoffmann (Offenbach)
* Orazi e Curiazi (Mercadante) ! The Bohemians (Puccini)
* Joseph Merrick dit Elephant Man (Petitgirard) 1994–1995
2004–2005 Turandot (Puccini)
Madama Butterfly (Puccini) Il barbiere di Siviglia (Rossini)
§ World Premiere Maria Padilla (Donizetti) Rigoletto (Verdi)
* American Premiere Carmen (Bizet) § † Bok Choy Variations (Chen and Simonson)
† Commissioned by The Minnesota Opera Nixon in China (Adams) ! Figaro’s Revenge (Rossini, Paisiello)
or by The Minnesota Opera Midwest Tour
" Tour production
! Outreach/Education tour
• New Music-Theater Ensemble production

repertoire 69
 1993–1994 1984–1985 1974–1975
Julius Caesar (Handel) * Animalen (Werle) § † Gallimaufry (Minnesota Opera)
* Diary of an African American (Peterson) § † Casanova’s Homecoming (Argento) § Gulliver (Blackwood, Kaplan, Lewin)
Il trovatore (Verdi) The Magic Flute (Mozart) The Magic Flute (Mozart)
§ The Merry Widow and The Hollywood Tycoon (Lehár) " La bohème (Puccini) Albert Herring (Britten)
" Don Giovanni (Mozart) " Meanwhile, back at Cinderella’s (Arlan)
1973–1974
1992–1993 1983–1984 El Capitan (Sousa)
Der fliegende Holländer (Wagner) Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) Transformations (Susa)
* Armida (Rossini) Madama Butterfly (Puccini) Don Giovanni (Mozart)
Madama Butterfly (Puccini) La Cenerentola (Rossini) § † The Newest Opera in the World
The Pirates of Penzance (Gilbert & Sullivan) § The Abduction of Figaro (PDQ Bach) (Minnesota Opera)
" The Boor (Argento)
1991–1992 1972–1973
" Chanticleer (Barab)
Tosca (Puccini) The Threepenny Opera (Weill)
" Don Pasquale (Donizetti)
Les pêcheurs de perles (Bizet) Postcard from Morocco (Argento)
Le nozze di Figaro (Mozart) 1982–1983 The Barber of Seville (Rossini)
§ † From the Towers of the Moon (Moran & La Chiusa) Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) § † Transformations (Susa)
" The Magic Flute (Mozart) Lucia di Lammermoor (Donizetti)
Carousel (Rodgers & Hammerstein) § A Death in the Family (Mayer)
1971–1972
§ † Postcard from Morocco (Argento)
1990–1991 Kiss Me, Kate (Porter) § † The Business of Good Government
Norma (Bellini) " The Barber of Seville (Rossini)
" The Frog Who Became a Prince (Barnes)
(Marshall)
The Aspern Papers (Argento) The Good Soldier Schweik (Kurka)
Carmen (Bizet) " Zetabet (Barnes)
The Marriage of Figaro (Mozart)
Così fan tutte (Mozart) 1981–1982
" Così fan tutte (Mozart) Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) 1970–1971
" Swing on a Star (Winkler) § † Christmas Mummeries & Good Government
The Village Singer (Paulus) (Marshall)
1989–1990 Gianni Schicchi (Puccini) § † Faust Counter Faust (Gessner)
La bohème (Puccini) The Barber of Seville (Rossini) The Coronation of Poppea (Monteverdi)
A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Britten) § Feathertop (Barnes)
§ The Mask of Evil (Mollicone)
The Mother of Us All (Thomson)
Roméo et Juliette (Gounod)
§ † Frankenstein, The Modern Prometheus (Larsen) " Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) 1969–1970
My Fair Lady (Lerner & Loewe) § Rosina (Titus) § † Oedipus and the Sphinx (Marshall)
• § Snow Leopard (Harper & Nieboer) 1980–1981 * Punch and Judy (Birtwistle)
" Madame Butterfly (Puccini)
The Merry Widow (Lehar) * 17 Days and 4 Minutes (Egk)
Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak/Knussen) § † The Wanderer (Paul and Martha Boesing)
Black River (Susa)
1988–1989 Carmen (Bizet) 1968–1969
Don Giovanni (Mozart) A Water Bird Talk (Argento) Così fan tutte (Mozart)
Salome (R. Strauss) § Miss Havisham’s Wedding Night (Argento) § † Horspfal (Stokes)
The Mikado (Gilbert & Sullivan) " The Marriage of Figaro (Mozart) The Wise Woman and the King (Orff)
The Juniper Tree (Glass & Moran) " The Threepenny Opera (Weill)
Show Boat (Kern & Hammerstein) 1967–1968
§ † • Without Colors (Wellman & Shiflett) 1979–1980 The Man in the Moon (Haydn)
§ † • Red Tide (Selig & Sherman) The Abduction from the Seraglio (Mozart)
§ † • Newest Little Opera in the World A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Britten)
(ensemble) The Pirates of Penzance (Gilbert & Sullivan)
La bohème (Puccini) 1966–1967
" Cinderella (Rossini) The Mother of Us All (Thomson)
§ † Rosina (Titus)
" Tintypes (Kyte, Marvin, Pearle) The Sorrows of Orpheus (Milhaud)
" A Christmas Carol (Sandow)
1987–1988 * The Harpies (Blitzstein)
Die Fledermaus (J. Strauss) 1978–1979 Socraties (Satie)
Rigoletto (Verdi) The Love for Three Oranges (Prokofiev) Three Minute Operas (Milhaud)
Rusalka (Dvorak) § The Jealous Cellist (Stokes)
The Passion According to St. Matthew 1965–1966
• Cowboy Lips (Greene & Madsen) The Abduction from the Seraglio (Mozart)
§ † • Fly Away All (Hutchinson & Shank)
(J.S. Bach)
La traviata (Verdi) The Good Soldier Schweik (Kurka)
• Book of Days (Monk)
Oklahoma! (Rodgers & Hammerstein) The Consul (Menotti) 1964–1965
" Viva la Mamma (Donizetti)
" Carmen (Bizet) The Rape of Lucretia (Britten)
" Jargonauts, Ahoy! (McKeel) 1977–1978 The Wise Woman and the King (Orff)
1986–1987 * Christopher Columbus (Offenbach) 1963–1964
Les pêcheurs de perles (Bizet) The Mother of Us All (Thomson) § † The Masque of Angels (Argento)
The Postman Always Rings Twice (Paulus) The Marriage of Figaro (Mozart) The Masque of Venus and Adonis (Blow)
Ariadne auf Naxos (R. Strauss) § Claudia Legare (Ward)
Albert Herring (Britten)
South Pacific (Rodgers & Hammerstein) 1976–1977
" Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck) The Bartered Bride (Smetana)
§ † " Jargonauts, Ahoy! (McKeel) The Passion According to St. Matthew
1985–1986 (J.S. Bach)
* Where the Wild Things Are/Higglety Pigglety Pop! (Knussen/Sendak) Candide (Bernstein) § World Premiere

La traviata (Verdi) Mahagonny (Weill) * American Premiere

† Commissioned by The Minnesota Opera
L’elisir d’amore (Donizetti) 1975–1976 or by The Minnesota Opera Midwest Tour

The King and I (Rodgers & Hammerstein) § † Black River (Susa) " Tour production

§ † Opera Tomorrow El Capitan (Sousa) ! Outreach/Education tour

" The Fantasticks (Schmidt) Così fan tutte (Mozart) • New Music-Theater Ensemble production

" The Magic Flute (Mozart) § † The Voyage of Edgar Allan Poe (Argento)
§ † " The Music Shop (Wargo)

repertoire 70
The Standard R e p e r t or y

eighteenth century nineteenth century (continued)

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 1756–1791 Jacques Offenbach 1819–1880
The Abduction from the Seraglio 1782 Les contes d’Hoffmann 1881
The Marriage of Figaro 1786
Don Giovanni 1787 Georges Bizet 1838–1875
Così fan tutte 1790 Carmen 1875
The Magic Flute 1791 Modest Musorgsky 1839–1881
Boris Godunov 1874
nineteenth century
Ludwig van Beethoven 1770–1827 Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky 1840–1893
Fidelio 1805 Eugene Onegin 1879

Gioachino Rossini 1792–1868 Engelbert Humperdinck 1854–1921

The Barber of Seville 1816 Hänsel und Gretel 1893
La Cenerentola 1817 Ruggero Leoncavallo 1857–1919
Gaetano Donizetti 1797–1848 Pagliacci 1892
The Elixir of Love 1832 Pietro Mascagni 1863–1945
Lucia di Lammermoor 1835 Cavalleria rusticana 1890
Don Pasquale 1843
twentieth century
Vincenzo Bellini 1801–1835
Norma 1831 Giacomo Puccini 1858–1924
Manon Lescaut 1893
Richard Wagner 1813–1883 La bohème 1896
The Flying Dutchman 1843 Tosca 1900
Tannhäuser 1845 Madama Butterfly 1904
Lohengrin 1850 Turandot 1926
Tristan und Isolde 1865
Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg 1868 Claude Debussy 1862–1918
The Ring Cycle 1876 Pelléas et Mélisande 1902
—Das Rheingold, Die Walküre, Siegfried and Götterdämmerung
Richard Strauss 1864–1949
Parsifal 1882
Salome 1905
Giuseppe Verdi 1813–1901 Elektra 1909
Rigoletto 1851 Der Rosenkavalier 1911
Il trovatore 1853 Ariadne auf Naxos 1912
La traviata 1853
Alban Berg 1885–1935
La forza del destino 1862
Wozzeck 1925
Don Carlos 1867
Lulu 1937
Aida 1871
Otello 1887 Benjamin Britten 1913–1976
Falstaff 1893 Peter Grimes 1945
Albert Herring 1947
Charles-François Gounod 1818–1893
Billy Budd 1951
Faust 1859
The Turn of the Screw 1954
Roméo et Juliette 1867

the standard repertory 71

 The E l e m e nt s of Op e r a

Often called “all the arts in one” opera includes the Aristotelian elements of drama: theme, spectacle, plot, diction, movement and music. A production is truly
successful only when these components work together. Many individuals are engaged to accomplish this purpose.

in th e beg inning
A subject is selected by a compos-
t h e o pe r a c o m pa n y a d m i n i s t r at i o n
er . It may be mythical, biblical,
historical, literary or based on cur- An opera company’s artistic The company’s marketing
rent events. A librettist is director agrees to stage the department sells tickets and the
employed to adapt the story into work. In many cases, an opera has development department raises
poetic verse and the composer then already been written and staged funds through donations to cover
writes the music (or score). many times. the costs of the production. The
finance department controls
costs and balances the production’s
budget. The education depart-
ment prepares the audience for
what they are going to see on
cas t ing stage.
The opera company’s artistic
director selects performers from sets and costumes
auditions. These performers are A design team is assembled con-
divided into principals, compri- sisting of a stage director , set rehearsal
marios (singers in secondary roles), designer and costume design-
choristers, and players for the The production goes into rehearsal. Principals, choristers
er . They agree on a visual concept
orchestra . Often in a produc- and the orchestra often rehearse separately until the director
for the opera and sets and cos-
tion, supernumeraries are begins staging. The conductor of the orchestra attends stag-
tumes are created.
employed (people who act but do ing rehearsals which are accompanied by a répétiteur , or
not sing). Sometimes the opera has rehearsal pianist. The orchestra joins the singers for the first
a ballet which requires dancers, time at the sitzprobe . During tech week, sets and lighting
or a banda which requires orches- are put into place at the theater. Several dress rehearsals
elements of opera

tra members to play on stage. (with the performers in costume and the orchestra in the pit)
occur before the first performance of the opera. Sometimes
these rehearsals are attended by a select audience.
72
 the premiere stagehands move scenery and props
The first presentation of the opera to the general public is known as the premiere. Long before the curtain and handle lighting. dressers help
goes up, preparations are being made. the cast into their often elaborate
costumes.
6:00 pm Continuity
stagehands (1) set the scenery for the first act of the production.
6:15 pm Makeup calls principals sing the major roles.
principals and comprimarios (2) begin to arrive at the theater to be put into costume by comprimarios sing minor named
dressers, then are wigged by the wigmaster (1a) and made up with theatrical makeup. roles. choristers make up the rest of
6:30 pm House opens the singing cast and are prepared by
Opera patrons are admitted to the auditorium (4) and seated by ushers (5). The house manager (6) the chorusmaster.
oversees the activities in the front of the house, including the ushers and concession sales. The box
office manager (7) takes care of any last minute ticket purchases. Patrons may remain in the
lobby (8) to attend an informational session of Opera Insights, led by the Opera’s music staff. The conductor leads the orchestra.
The stage director instructs the cast
6:45 pm Notes
where to move onstage. He or she
The stage director may give last minute instructions to the cast before the performance begins.
generally stays only for the premiere.
7:00 pm Warm-ups
principals and comprimarios (2) warm-up in their dressing rooms.
7:15 pm Chorus and orchestra warm-ups The orchestra rehearses several
The chorus (10), who have already put on their costumes, warms up with the chorusmaster. The times independently from the
orchestra warms up in the orchestra pit (11). singers. The first rehearsal during
which singers and orchestra perform
7:25 pm Places
together is called a sitzprobe. The
The production stage manager (12) calls places. Two other stage managers (13) are posted stage
concertmaster is the first violin and
left and stage right to cue the entrances of the singers and choristers.
is responsible for “bowing” the string
7:28 pm Orchestra tune parts so the performers all move their
The principal oboe gives a concert “a” to which the orchestra tunes. The surtitle prompter (15) bows together.
cues the preshow titles. The conductor shakes the concertmaster’s hand and mounts the podium.
7:30 pm Curtain
The house lights goes out, and the flyman (1a) raises the curtain (16). The show begins. The production stage manager
“calls” the show, announcing entrance
8:25 pm Intermission and lighting cues. Two other stage
elements of opera

The audience returns to the lobby (8) for refreshments while the stagehands (1) reset the stage managers assist in getting the cast
(14) for the next act. and chorus on and off the stage. The
10:15 pm Curtain calls surtitle prompter cues the English
The performance ends, and the stage director, designers, conductor and singers get to take translations projected above the stage
a bow for all their hard work. from the control booth.
73
 1

2
BACKSTAGE
BACKSTAGE STAGE (14)

OFFSTAGE
SCENERY

2
13 13

OFFSTAGE
SCENERY
3A

3
WIGS AND
1A
MAKEUP
12
CURTAIN (16) PROP TABLE

ORCHESTRA PIT (7)

CHORUS WARM-UP
AND DRESSING
ROOMS (10)

CONTROL BOOTH (15)

5
5

BOX OFFICE (7)

AUDITORIUM (4)
6 LOBBY (8)
Th e E l em ents of Opera – The Sing ers

The most important part of the opera is the singers. They are categorized into six different voice types.

2 DON CARLOS
t h e s o pr a n o DON CARLOS 1

High-voiced woman. Voted “Most

Likely to Die Before the Curtain
Goes Down.” Putty in the hands
of the tenor, baritone and
occasionally even the mezzo
(especially if she is in pants).
THE CAPULETS AND THE MONTAGUES

1 1 2
2 t h e m e zzo -s o pr a n o
Middle- to lower-voiced woman.
Nobody’s pawn. May hook up
with the baritone , unless she’s
playing a young man, in which
LA CLEMENZA DI TITO
case she usually gets the soprano.

LA BOHÈME
PELLÉAS ET MÉLISANDE t h e c o n t r a lt o t h e t e no r 4
1
Lowest-voiced woman. Usually High-voiced man. Whether
the mother, maid or duenna (an comic or tragic, most often the
older woman charged with misunderstood romantic role.
3 monitoring the virtue of the Often kill themselves; almost
impressionable soprano ). always get the girl.
Generally the contralto calls
herself a mezzo in order to get
more work. 4 LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR

DON CARLOS
the bass and baritone
6
6 Middle- to lowest-voiced man.
Usually the bad guy, the father or
guardian, or the hero’s best friend.
If he hooks up with another singer,
it’s usually a mezzo .

THE MERRY WIDOW LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR

t h e fat la d y
1
There is no fat lady in helmet and
1
horns—that is a myth. It ain’t over till
the curtain goes down for the last time
and everyone around you is clapping.

CLOCKWISE, LEFT TO RIGHT: ÉLISABETH; EBOLI; GIULIETTA, ROMEO; MIMÌ, RODOLFO;

1 - SOPRANO; 2 - MEZZO; 3 - CONTRALTO;
EDGARDO, ENRICO; LUCIA; HANNA; PHILIPPE, GRAND INQUISITOR; GENEVIÈVE;
4 - TENOR; 5 - BARITONE; 6 - BASS
SERVILIA, ANNIO

elements of opera 75
G los s ary of Opera Term s

acoustics The science of sound; qualities which determine hearing facilities in an auditorium, concert
hall, opera house, theater, etc.
act A section of the opera, play, etc. usually followed by an intermission.
area lights Provide general illumination.
aria (air, English and French; ariette, French). A formal song sung by a single vocalist. It may be in
two parts (binary form), or in three parts (see da capo) with the third part almost a repetition
of the first. A short aria is an arietta in Italian, ariette or petit air in French.
arioso Adjectival description of a passage less formal and complete than a fully written aria, but
sounding like one. Much recitative has arioso, or songlike, passages.
azione teatrale (It.: ‘theatrical action’, ‘theatrical plot’). A species of Serenata that, unlike many works in this
genre, contained a definite plot and envisioned some form of staging.
atonality Lack of a definite tonal focus, all sharps and flats being applied in the score when necessary.
With no key and therefore no sense of finality, such music sounds odd to the conservative ear,
but with practice the listener can find pleasure in it.
artistic director The person responsible for the artistic concept of the opera – the overall look and “feel” of the
production.
backdrop A large, painted surface at the rear of the stage, associated with old-fashioned stage settings,
two-dimensional, but often striving with painted shadows and perspective to suggest a third
dimension.
backstage The area of the stage not visible to the audience, usually where the dressing rooms are located.
ballad opera A play with many songs; the number has ranged from fifteen to seventy-five. In the early
eighteenth century its music was drawn from popular folk song or quite sophisticated songs
appropriated from successful operas.
banda A group of musicians who perform onstage or slightly offstage.
baritone The male singing voice which is higher than a bass but lower than a tenor.
baroque A style of art and music characteristic in particular of the Louis xiv period in France and the
Charles II period and after in England. Baroque pictorial art is associated with theatrical
energy and much decoration but nevertheless respects classical principles. The music theater
of the Baroque, highly pictorial, developed the opera seria, with comic intermezzi between the
acts.
bass The lowest male singing voice.
bel canto Although meaning simply “beautiful song,” the term is usually applied to the school of
singing prevalent in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Baroque and Romantic) which
gave much attention to vocal purity, control, and dexterity in ornamentation.
bravo (a) (i) An acknowledgement of a good performance shouted during moments of applause (the ending
is determined by the gender and the number of performers).
bravura Implying brilliance and dexterity (bravura singing, a bravura aria, etc.). Intended for display
and the technical execution of difficult passages.

glossary of opera terms 76

cabaletta A fast, contrasting short aria sung at the close of or shortly following a slower aria (called a
cantabile, often for vocal effect only but sometimes dramatically motivated.
cadence A resting place or close of a passage of music, clearly establishing tonality.
cadenza An elaborate passage near the end of an aria, which shows off the singer’s vocal ability.
camerata A group of musicians, poets and scholars who met in Florence in 1600 and created opera.
cantilena Originally a little song, but now generally referring to smooth cantabile (It: ‘singable,’ or
‘singing’) passages.
cavatina Originally an aria without a repeated section. Later used casually in place of aria.
chorus A group of singers (called choristers) who portray townspeople, guests or other unnamed
characters; also refers to the music written for these people.
chorus master Person who prepares the chorus musically (which includes rehearsing and directing them).
claque A group attending performances in the larger opera houses and paid by leading singers to
encourage and direct applause (a member of which is a claqueur).
coloratura A voice that can sing music with many rapid notes, or the music written for such a voice.
commedia dell’arte Masked comedy or improvised Italian comedy of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
centuries. A popular theatrical form with a sketched-out plot and stock characters, a pair of
lovers without masks surrounded by comedians—Arlecchino, Brighella, Pantalone, Dottore,
etc. Some of Mozart’s and Rossini’s operas retain the vestiges of these characters. Strauss,
Busoni, and other recent composers have deliberately used them.
comprimario A small singing role, often a servant or other minor character.
conductor The person who supervises all musical detail, rehearsals and leads the orchestra and advises the
artistic director about the hiring of singers and musical staff (also called the music director).
contralto The lowest female singing voice.
countertenor The highest natural male voice, not a castrato. True male altos may be heard in choirs. The
term falsettist is sometimes used but disputed.
cyclorama A curved curtain or wall enclosing the playing area of the stage and hiding the work areas
behind it.
da c ap o (It: ‘from the top, or back to the beginning’). A familiar direction in music. A da capo aria of the
Baroque period repeats the first part of the aria, with different embellishments, after the
singing of a contrasting second part.
designer The person who creates the lighting, costumes or sets.
diaphragm The muscle which separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It is used by singers
for breath control and it allows them to “project” their voices to the back of the auditorium.
director The person who instructs the singer/actors in their movements on stage and in the
interpretation of their roles.
downstage The front of the stage nearest the audience.
drame lyrique (It: dramma lirico). Modern term for opera, not necessarily of a lyrical character. The English
term “lyrical drama” is used in the same way.

glossary of opera terms 77

dramma per musica A term that refers to text expressly written to be set by a composer and by extension also to
the composition. The term was the one most commonly used for serious Italian opera in the
eighteenth century (as opposed to the modern term opera seria, with which it is in effect
interchangeable).
duet Music written for two people to play or sing together.
embellishment Decoration or ornament. A grace-note addition to the vocal line (also instrumental) of any
kind, a four-note turn, or a trill.
ensemble Three or more people singing at the same time, or the music written for such a group.
fa l se tto The falsetto voice is of high pitch and produced by the vibrations of only one part of the vocal
folds. The normal male voice sounds strained and effeminate in falsetto, but a natural alto or
high tenor can produce effective vocal sound by this method. It is a singing mannerism to
produce high tenor notes in falsetto.
festa teatrale (It.: ‘theatrical celebration’). A title applied to a dramatic work. Feste teatrali fall into two quite
distinct classes: opera and serenatas.
finale The last musical number of an opera, or of an act of an opera.
fioritura (It: ‘flowering’, ‘flourish’; plural fioriture). When a composition for the voice contains decorative
writing such as scales, arpeggios, trills and gruppetti (the groups of notes sometimes known
in English as ‘turns’), it is described as ‘florid’ and the decorations themselves will be described
collectively as ‘fioritura’. It is a more accurate term than ‘coloratura’, which is frequently used
as an alternative.
flats Stretched canvas and wood panels on which scenery is painted.
flies The space above a stage where scenery is “flown” when not in use. A counterweight system
simplifies raising and lowering flats, larger set pieces, and back drops.
full dress rehearsal The final rehearsal before opening night with all singers present in full costume.
grand opera Traditionally, a serious epic or historical work in four or five acts which makes extensive use
of the chorus and also includes a ballet. Also contains magnificent special effects.
grid Gridiron. Framework from which lines are hung and battens attached for the “flying” of
scenery. The grid is situated high in the flies just beneath the ceiling of the fly loft.
handlung für musik (Ger: ‘action in music’). Term used by Wagner to describe the libretto for Lohengrin and Tristan
und Isolde; it has occasionally been used since.
interlude A short piece of instrumental music played between scenes or acts to fill in delays brought
about by scenery changes.
intermezzo An instrumental interlude played between acts, or short two-act comic opera played between
the acts of an opera seria.
leitmotiv A recurring musical figure used to identify a person, event or idea.
legato A smooth, flowing line. In vocal music it demands steadiness of emission and a sensitivity to
phrasing.
libretto The words of an opera.

glossary of opera terms 78

masking A scenic frame or device to prevent the audience from seeing into the wings of the stage. Door
and window openings are usually masked, often with realistic backings.
masque An entertainment popular in the late sixteenth century and throughout the seventeenth. A
form of “total theater,” it combined music, scenic splendor, poetry, and some drama. Milton’s
Comus, with music by Henry Lawes, is the most celebrated.
melodrama A basically serious play, frequently using comedy for relief, it only outwardly resembles
tragedy. The conflicts and calamities are more interesting in themselves than are the
characters, who tend to be stereotyped, good and bad. Passion, excitement, and action, often
unmotivated, are emphasized. Intended for undiscriminating audiences, it uses much music
to stimulate the emotions and much scenic effect to please the eye.
mélodrame In addition to being the French word for melodrama, this term refers to a technique, which
became popular during the eighteenth century, of playing orchestral music under or between
the phrases of spoken dialogue.
melodramma Dramma per musica (drama for music) and Melodramma (sung drama) antedate by many years
the term opera, now in general use for works of this kind.
mezza voce Half-voice, with reference to a passage required to be sung softly throughout. A similar term,
messa di voce, has the different meaning of beginning a tone softly, swelling it gradually, and
then softening it again.
mezzo-soprano The middle female singing voice, lower than soprano but higher than contralto.
motive A short musical idea on which a melody is based.
musical play A convenient but inexact designation which has become popular in English-speaking
countries to distinguish the more ambitious works in the popular field of lyric theater from
(a) European operetta or imitations thereof, (b) musical comedy of the vaudevillian sort, and
(c) opera, especially in New York where the form is supposed to belong to the Metropolitan
and the New York City Opera Company and is somewhat provincially considered “poison at
the box office.” David Ewen regards Show Boat, 1927, as the first work of the new genre, the
musical play. By the 1930s, this term had become a catchall.
opera A term now used to cover musical-dramatic pieces of all kinds except musical comedy and
operetta, although comic opera comes very close to these forms. The seventeenth-century
Italian term for opera was Dramma per musica or Melodramma.
opera buffa A precise Italian definition, meaning Italian comic opera of the eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries. Musical numbers are strung along a continuum of dry recitative.
opéra comique French light opera of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Strictly speaking, any theater
piece written with spoken dialogue between the musical numbers (Faust, Carmen, and Manon)
whether a comedy or not. The Paris Opéra Comique is also called the Salle Favart and was
originally the home of all works using spoken dialogue, while the Opéra confined itself to
through-composed works.
opera seria Literally “serious opera.” An opera form of the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries
which uses historical, biblical or mythological subjects with a focus on revenge, danger and
death.

glossary of opera terms 79

operetta A loosely used term, often used interchangeably with comic opera, opéra bouffe, and musical
comedy. In Italian it originally meant “little opera,” a short, light musical work. It has come
to mean a full-length piece on a light subject, with musical numbers and spoken dialogue, and
characterized by ingratiating tunes, decorative dances, colorful settings, social irresponsibility,
a slender dramatic line, and the requirement of at least two well-trained voices.
oratorio A musical-dramatic work originating in the twelfth century, now generally performed, in
contradistinction to opera, without action, costumes, and scenery. They are invariably
associated with sacred subjects.
orchestra pit The sunken area in front of the stage where the orchestra sits.
overture An orchestral introduction to the opera, usually played before the acting begins.
parl ando (It: ‘in speaking style’). An informal and realistic technique occasionally used in Italian opera,
bringing singing close to speaking.
portamento An Italian singing term, asking the voice to glide from one note to another at some distance.
An authentic and effective device, to be distinguished from the mannerism of scooping.
principal A major singing role, or the singer who performs such a role.
proscenium The stage opening, resembling a three-sided picture frame. Immediately behind it and
concealing the acting areas is the curtain. The proscenium arch was originally created in the
1700s to conceal the machinery used to create special stage effects.
quartet Four singers, or the music written for that group.
recitative Musical singing in the rhythm of speech.
recitativo A sung passage with orchestral accompaniment, lacking the formality of an aria, yet more
accompagnato declamatory and agitated than recitativo secco.
recitativo secco Dry recitative. A sung passage so close to everyday speech that although the pitches and time
values are respected, a conversational quality prevails. A keyboard instrument generally
supplies the sketchy accompaniment. Commonly used in Italian opera seria and opera buffa.
repertory A system of stage production in which a number of works are played, virtually in rotation, by
a resident company throughout a season.
répétition French term for “rehearsal.” A répétition générale is a dress rehearsal to which critics and
guests are invited.
revolve Revolving stage. Turntable. A section of the stage floor (permanently established) or a circular
construction on a central pivot which revolves, to change scenery or supply movement of
objects as well as people.
ritornello A short instrumental piece, literally meaning repetition or refrain. In Monteverdi’s works it
usually consists of a few bars played between the verses of a strophic song.
rococo In art, associated with the late Baroque period and the late eighteenth century. In contrast to
the dignity, heaviness, and occasional pomposity of Baroque, Rococo art is playful, lighter in
tone and color, and adorned with scrolls, acorns, and shells.
role The character that a singer portrays.

glossary of opera terms 80

romanticism The movement strongly associated with nineteenth-century Germany, but felt through all
Europe and responsible for far-reaching changes in all forms of art. Rebels against the
establishment (which was founded on a deep respect for the classics), the romanticists opposed
authority and advocated freedom from formal regulations. They encouraged a subjective,
strongly emotional approach as an antidote to classical decorum.
score The music of an opera or other musical work in which the parts for different performers appear
vertically above one another.
scrim A thin curtain, often painted. When lit from behind, one can see through it.
serenata A dramatic cantata, normally celebratory or eulogistic in intent, for two or more singers with
orchestral accompaniment. In dramaturgical respects the serenata most closely resembles the
Baroque oratorio.
sinfonia A symphonic work the precedes an opera (English: overture); a shorter version is referred to as
a prelude.
singspiel A German form of comic opera with spoken dialogue.
sitzprobe A sit-down rehearsal where the performers sing with the orchestra for the first time.
soprano The highest female singing voice.
sprechstimme A form of declamation halfway between speech and song. Instead of exactly notated pitch an
approximation is given. The time, however, is given exactly and the singer is not allowed
absolute license. Notations up and down are also meant to be respected. This style of singing
is found in the works of Schoenberg and Berg.
stage left The left side of the stage from the performer’s perspective as s/he faces the audience.
stage right The right side of the stage from the performer’s perspective as s/he faces the audience.
stretta An accelerated passage at the end of an aria, scene, or act.
tenor The highest male singing voice.
tessitura Literally “texture.” The approximate range of a role or an aria.
through-composed Through-composed opera is a continuous music drama uninterrupted by spoken dialogue or
obviously recognizable recitative.
tragédie lyrique A French term associated mainly with Lully and Rameau. Tragédie lyrique comes somewhat
closer to the spoken play in dramatic expressiveness than does the Italian opera seria of the
same period, which may exceed it in vocal expressiveness.
trill A musical ornament requiring the rapid alternation of two adjacent notes.
trouser role Also called “pants role.” The part of a male character sung by a woman, usually a mezzo-
soprano.
understudy A replacement for a particular role in case of illness or emergency (also called a “cover”).
verismo A type of late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Italian opera that emphasized realistic
subjects.
wandelprobe Musical rehearsal which allows the conductor to hear what the singers sound like when they
perform on the set.
wings The sides of the stage where the performers wait before making their entrances.
Sources: Opera: Dead or Alive, by Ronald E. Mitchell. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970.
New Grove Dictionary of Opera, edited by Stanley Sadie. London: MacMillan Press Limited, 1992.
New York City Opera Education Department, Edmonton Opera

glossary of opera terms 81

G los s ary of Mu sical Term s

adagio Slowly and smoothly. bar A vertical line across the

stave that divides the music
ad libitum As you please; freely. into units.
affectuoso Expressively; tenderly; buffo, buffa Comic.
lovingly.
cadenza A flourish or brilliant part of
agitato Agitated. an aria commonly inserted
just before a finale.
alberti bass Stereotyped figures of
accompaniment, consisting cantabile Songlike; singingly.
of broken chords.
cantata A choral piece generally
allargando Slowing and broadening. containing scriptural
narrative texts.
allegretto Fairly lively; not as fast
as allegro. con brio With spirit.
allegro Lively; fast. continuo A bass part (as for a
keyboard or stringed
a mezzo voce With half the voice. instrument) that was used
especially in baroque
andante Going; moving; at a
ensemble music; it consists
moderate rate.
of a succession of bass notes
andantino Sightly faster than with figures that indicate
andante. the required chords. Also
called figured bass,
animato With spirit; animated. thoroughbass.

appoggiatura An extra or embellishing counterpoint Music consisting of

note preceding a main two or more lines that
melodic note or tone. sound simultaneously.
Usually written as a note of
smaller size, it shares the crescendo Gradually getting
time value of the main note. louder.

arpeggio Producing the tones of a diatonic Relating to a major or minor

chord in succession but not musical scale that comprises
simultaneously. intervals of five whole steps
and two half steps.
assai Very; very much.
diminuendo Gradually getting
a tempo At the preceding rate softer.
of speed.
diminution The presentation of a melody
atonal Music that is not anchored in in halved values so that,
traditional musical tonality; it e.g. the quarter notes become
uses the chromatic scale eighth notes.
impartially, does not use the
diatonic scale and has no dissonance A mingling of discordant
keynote or tonal center. sounds that do not
harmonize within the
diatonic scale.
augmentation The presentation of a
melody in doubled values so dolorosamente Sadly; grievingly.
that, e.g. the quarter notes
become half notes.

glossary of musical terms 82

dominant The fifth tone of the diatonic mosso Moved; agitated; lively.
scale: in the key of C, the
dominant is G. moto Motion; movement.

fermata Pause sign; prolonged obbligato An elaborate

time value of note so accompaniment to a solo or
marked. principal melody that is
usually played by a single
forte Loud. instrument.

fortissimo Very loud. octave A musical interval

embracing eight diatonic
furioso Furious; violent. degrees: therefore, from C1
to C2 is an octave.
giocoso Playfully.
giusto Strict; exact. ornamentation Extra embellishing notes –
appoggiaturas, trills,
glissando A rapid sliding up or down roulades, or cadenzas – that
the scale. enhance a melodic line.

grandioso With grandeur; overture An orchestral introduction

majestically. to an act or the whole opera.
An overture can appear only
grave Slow; heavy; solemn. at the beginning of an
opera.
grazioso Elegantly; gracefully.
lamentoso Mournfully. ossia Or; or else; an alternate
reading.
larghetto Somewhat less slowly
than largo. pentatonic A five-note scale, like the
black notes within an octave
largo Broadly and slowly. on the piano.
legato Smoothly and piacere To please.
connectedly.
piano p Soft.
leggiero Light; airy; graceful.
pianissimo pp Very soft.
lento Slow.
pitch The property of a musical
maestoso Majestic; stately; grand. tone that is determined by
the frequency of the waves
maestro From the Italian “master”: producing it.
a term of respect to
conductors, composers, più More.
directors, and great
musicians. pizzicato For bowed stringed
instruments, an indication
marcato Marked. that the string is to be
plucked with a finger.
mezzo Half; middle; medium.
poco Little.
misterioso With mystery.
polyphony Literally “many voices.” A
moderato Moderately; at a style of musical composition
moderate rate. in which two or more
molto Much; very. independent melodies are
juxtaposed in harmony;
morendo Dying away. counterpoint.

glossary of musical terms 83

polytonal The use of several tonal sostenuto Sustained.
schemes simultaneously.
sotto Under; beneath.
portamento A continuous gliding staccato Detached; separated.
movement from one tone to
another. stringendo Hurried; accelerated.
presto Very fast; lively; quick. strophe Music repeated for each
quaver An eighth note. verse of an aria.

rallentando Gradually slower. syncopation Shifting the beat forward or

back from its usual place in
ritardando Gradually slower. the bar; it is a temporary
ritenuto Held back; slower. displacement of the regular
metrical accent in music
ritornello A short recurrent caused typically by stressing
instrumental passage the weak beat.
between elements of a vocal tacet Silent.
composition.
tempo Rate of speed.
romanza A solo song that is usually
sentimental; it is usually tonality The organization of all the
shorter and less complex tones and harmonies of a
than an aria and rarely deals piece of music in relation to
with terror, rage and anger. a tonic (the first tone of its
scale).
roulade A florid vocal
embellishment sung to one triste Sad.
syllable.
twelve-tone The 12 chromatic tones of
rubato A way of playing or the octave placed in a
singing with regulated chosen fixed order and
rhythmic freedom. constituting with some
permitted permutations and
semitone One half of a whole tone, derivations the melodic and
the smallest distance harmonic material of a serial
between two notes in musical piece. Each note of
Western music. In the key the chromatic scale is used
of C, the notes are E and F, as part of the melody before
and B and C. any other note gets
repeated.
semplice Simply.
veloce Rapid.
sempre Always.
vibrato A “vibration”; a slightly
senza Without.
tremulous effect imparted to
serial music Music based on a series of vocal or instrumental tone
tones in a chosen pattern for added warmth and
without regard for expressiveness by slight and
traditional tonality. rapid variations in pitch.

sforzando With accent. vivace Brisk; lively.

sordino Muted.

glossary of musical terms 84

B i b l i o g r a p h y, D i s c o g r a p h y, Vi d e o g r a p h y

bibliography – pagliacci, verismo and commedia dell’arte

Conrad Dryden Leoncavallo: Life and Works.
Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2007.
Pierre-Louis Duchartre The Italian comedy: the improvisation, scenarios, lives, attributes, portraits and masks of the
illustrious characters of the commedia dell’arte.
New York: Dover Publications, © 1966.
Lynne Lawner Harlequin on the Moon: commedia dell’arte and the visual arts.
New York: H.N. Abrams, 1988.
Alan Mallach The Autumn of Italian Opera: From Verismo to Modernism, 1890–1915.
Boston: Northeastern University Press, © 2007.
Allardyce Nicoll The World of Harlequin: a critical study of the commedia dell’arte.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963.
Jay Nicolaisen Italian Opera In Transition, 1871 – 1893
Ann Arbor (Michigan): University of Michigan Press, © 1980, 1977.
John Rudlin Commedia dell’arte: a handboook for troupes.
and Olly Crick London: Routledge, 2001.
Matteo Sansone The “Verismo” of Ruggero Leoncavallo: A Source Study of “Pagliacci.”
Music and Letters, lxx (1989), 342 – 62.
Kenneth Gustave Schuller Verismo Opera and the Verists.
St. Louis: Dissertation, 1960.

bibliography – opera in general

Dennis Arundell The Critics at the Opera.

New York: Da Capo Press, 1980.
Cyrus H. Biscardi The Storybook of Opera.
New York: Facts on File Publications, 1986.
Milton Cross Complete Stories of the Great Operas.
New York: Doubleday, 1955.
Terence Dwyer Opera in Your School.
London: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Roger Englander Opera: What’s All the Screaming About?
New York: Walker & Co., 1983.
David Ewen Opera: Its Story Told Through the Lives and Works of its Foremost Composers.
New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1972.
John W. Freeman The Metropolitan Opera Stories of the Great Operas.
New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1984.

bibliography, et. al. 85

Jean Grundy Fanelli Opera for Everyone: A historic, social, artistic, literary and musical study.
Oxford: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2004.
Philip Gossett Divas and Scholars: Performing Italian Opera.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
Philip Gossett The New Grove Master of Italian Opera: Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini, Verdi, Puccini.
New York: W.W. Norton Press, 1983.
Donald Jay Grout A Short History of Opera. Third edition.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1988.
Michael Hurd Young Person’s Guide to Opera.
New York: Roy Publishers. Inc., 1968.
George Jellinger History through the Opera Glass.
White Plains (New York): Pro/Am Music Resources, Inc., © 1994.
Alan Kendall The Chronicle of Classical Music.
London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd., 1994.
Peter Kline Enjoying the Arts/Opera.
New York: Richards Rosen Press, Inc., 1977.
Ronald E. Mitchell Opera: Dead or Alive.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970.
Ethan Mordden Opera Anecdotes.
New York: Oxford University Press, © 1985.
Michael Raeburn The Chronicle of Opera.
London: Thames & Hudson, Ltd., 1998.
Jane Rosenberg Sing Me a Story: The Metropolitan Opera’s Book of Opera Stories for Children
(with introduction by Luciano Pavarotti).
New York: Thames & Hudson, Inc., 1989.
Dorothy and The Fabulous World of Opera.
Joseph Samachson New York: Rand McNally and Co., 1962.
Harold C. Schonberg The Lives of the Great Composers.
New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1981 (revised edition).
Henry W. Simon 100 Great Operas and Their Stories.
New York: Doubleday & Co., 1960.
Michael Walsh Who’s Afraid of Opera?
New York: Simon & Schuster, © 1994.
John Warrack and The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera.
Ewan West Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
William Weaver Golden Century of Italian Opera.
New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., 1980.
Herbert Weinstock and The World of Opera.
Wallace Brockway New York: Random House, Inc., 1966.

bibliography, et. al. 86

discography
na xos Gauci, Martinucci, Tumagian, Skovhus, Dvorsky, Smolarik, Hallon; Rahbari
8 .660021 Slovak State Philharmonic Chorus and Czecho-Slovak Radio Symphony
Orchestra (Bratislava)
r c a vi ctor red s eal Domingo, Caballé, Milnes, McDaniel; Santi
5 0 168 London Symphony Orchestra and John Alldis Choir
e m i classi cs Björling, De los Angeles, Warren, Franke, Merrill; Cellini
c d c 7 49503 2 RCA Victor Orchestra and The Robert Shaw Chorale

videography
deutsche grammophon Stratas, Domingo, Pons, Rinaldi, Andreolli
sony Domingo, Troyanos, Stratas, Milnes
deutsche grammophon Pavarotti, Chester, Croft, Pons, Stratas

bibliography, et. al. 87

Acknowledg m ents

We would like to gratefully acknowledge the generous help received in creating this Teacher Guide from these very
busy and talented individuals. Without their comments and ideas, this project would never have gotten off the ground.
Marcia Aubineau (University of St. Thomas, St. Paul)
Sandy Kaslow (Forest Lake Public Schools)
Jane Kolp-Andrews (Valley View Middle School, Edina)
Dr. Doug Orzolek (University of St. Thomas, St. Paul)
David Sander (Dramaturg, Minnesota Opera)
Dan Weinstein (Intern, Minnesota Opera)
The Minnesota Opera’s Education Department is supported through the generous contributions from the following
sponsors:

Gifts of $20,000+
3M
Ameriprise Financial
Comcast
Medtronic Foundation
Travelers
UnitedHealth Group

Gifts of $10,000–$19,999

Anna M. Heilmaier Charitable Foundation

Education Minnesota Foundation
Fred C. and Katherine B. Andersen Foundation
Twin Cities Opera Guild

Gifts of $1,000–$9,999
Allianz Life Insurance of North America
Bobby and Steve’s Auto World Youth Foundation
Cleveland Foundation
Enterprise Rent-a-Car
Harian Boss Foundation for the Arts
The Pentair Foundation
RBC Foundation – USA
Sewell Family Foundation
Target
Ted and Dr. Roberta Mann Foundation
Xcel Energy Foundation

acknowlegements 88