CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
This study reviews the related literature in the following subtitles
 Conceptual Framework
i. Concept of teaching and learning.
ii. Concept of academic performance.
iii. Concept of instructional media.
iv. Concrete materials and mathematics Achievement.
v. Geoboard and achievement in geometry.
vi. Algebra tiles and achievement in algebra.
vii. Challenges that teachers face in accessing instructional materials.
viii. Strategies to minimize the challenges of attaining and using quality instructional
Medias.
 Theoretical Framework
i. Instructional material theories
ii. Sociocultural theory of teaching, learning, and development
 Empirical framework.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Concept of Teaching
Teaching often involves inquiring, listening, providing information, explaining a phenomena,
showing a skill or process, testing understanding and ability, and enabling learning activities
(including note-taking, conversation, assignment writing, simulations, and practice).
According to Nwankwo (2019), teaching is a cordial relationship between a more mature
and a less mature personalities that is intended to further the education of the latter.
According to Oforjebe (2018), teaching is the design and management of a scenario in
which there are gaps and obstacles that a person would want to overcome and from which
he will learn. Teaching is a system of activities including an agent, a goal, and a scenario
with two sets of factors: those over which the agent has no control (class size, classroom
size, physical attributes of pupils, etc.) and those over which he does have influence (way of
asking questions about instruction and ways of structuring information or ideas gleaned).

Learning
The phrases "learning" and "studying" are sometimes used interchangeably in the field of
education. In other words, they are synonymous. Learning is the process of learning new or
altering current knowledge, actions, abilities, beliefs, and preferences. Changes generated
by learning are often permanent, and it is learned to discriminate "lost" material from that
which cannot be regained (Schacter; Gilbert and Wegner, 2017). Learning starts before
birth and continues until death as a result of a person's continuing interactions with their
environment. Numerous disciplines study the nature and processes of learning, including
educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental psychology, and pedagogy
(Karban, R. 2015). In such disciplines, research has led to the discovery of several types of
learning. For instance, learning may happen via habituation, classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, or more sophisticated behaviors such as play, which are only seen in very
intelligent animals (Obiakor M.J, Ezenwagu Abuchi .S, Oguejiofor C.N,2019). Learning may
occur either consciously or unconsciously. A state known as "learned helplessness" may
arise from learning that a traumatic incident cannot be prevented or evaded. Habituation
has been found in humans as early as 32 weeks gestation, demonstrating that the central
nervous system is adequately formed and primed for learning and memory to occur
extremely early in development (Obiakor et al., 2019).

Concept of Academic Performance

Academic performance refers to the degree of a student’s accomplishment in his or her
tasks and studies. The most well-known indicator of measuring academic performance is
grades which reflect the student's score for their subjects and overall tenure (Shehzad &
Aziz, 2019). Narad & Abdullah (2016) conceptualized academic performance as the
knowledge gained by students which is assessed by marks by a teacher and/or educational
goals set by students and teachers to be achieved over a specific period of time. These
goals are measured by using continuous assessment or examinations results. Academic
performance is seen as the knowledge attained or skills, shown in the school subject. It is
the school evaluation of the classroom work on the basis of the grades awarded. Academic
achievement may also refer to a person's strong performance in a given academic arena
(Shehzad & Aziz, 2019). Anselmus (2011) asserted that academic performance is a cardinal
concept in education. The centrality of this concept is derived from the goal of instructions
which is to bring about desire changes in knowledge, skills and attitude of students. For
example, people send their children to school in order to acquire certain competencies their
preference on the attributes of interest provides an indication of the degree of efficiency of
the machinery of education. In the formal school system, students’ academic performance
can be assessed at the main points which give rise to three types of performance
assessment and these are diagnostic, formative and summative evaluation or assessment.
The diagnostic assessment or evaluation take place as the course commences, formative
evaluation are conditions where teachers gives periodic test for example continuous
assessment exercise. While summative tests are used by classroom teachers and external
examination bodies and grades are awarded. The grades of A,B,C,D,E and F are awarded
to students according to students’ performance by their teachers or examiner. The
assessment competence of a teacher includes knowledge and skills which are critical to a
teacher’s role as educator (Evie, 2016). Academic performance is designated by test and
examination scores or marks assigned by the subject teachers. Student performance can
be low, average or high. Performance of students can be affected by several factors, which
can be student related factors, school related factors (teacher) and home related factors
(Kimani, Kara & Njagi, 2013). Students performance is driven by helping teachers construct
learning scenario that are meaningful to individual students, relevant to their circumstances
and cognizant of their prior learning and potential.
The Concept of Instructional Media
Teaching at any level requires that students be exposed to some form of simulation.
Ikerionwu (2000), refers to instructional media as objects or devises that help the teacher to
make learning meaningful to the learners. Instructional Medias, which are educational
inputs, are of vital importance to the teaching of any subject in the school curriculum.
Instructional media refer to objects or devises which help the teacher to make learning
meaningful to the learners, (Ikenionwu, 2000). They are classified into two; visual media
made up of reading and non-reading materials, and audio visual media comprising
electrically operated and none electrically operated materials. These media and resources
include, audio tapes recorders, video tape recorders, slide projectors, still pictures,
programmed instructional film strips, maps, chart, graphs and many more; offer a variety of
learning experience individually or in combination to meet different teaching and learning
experiences. They can be three dimensional, two dimensional real objects and others are
electronic. The “term mathematical instructional resource” is defined as any form of specific
mathematical apparatus (Structured or unstructured), image, ICT game, tool, paper, or
everyday media which could be utilized to provide a mathematical teaching or learning
(Dorine, Et. Al, 2007).
Instructional medias can be improvised,(SMASE Project, 2010). This means that you can
make do with any material or tool as far as such tools can be used to facilitate teaching and
learning in the classroom. Ikwuas and Onwiodiket (2006) stated that improvised Medias,
involve selection and deployment of relevant instructional elements of teaching and learning
processes in absence or shortage of standard teaching and learning Medias, for meaningful
realization of specified educational goals and objectives.

Classification/Types of Instructional Materials

There are many types of instructional materials, as there are many scholars in the field of
educational technology. Instructional materials can be classified based on the time it comes
into play, e.g. old media and new media. It may be classified on the bases of condition and
utilization e.g. mediating media, obligation media, optioned media and criterion media. It can
also be classified on the bases of operational techniques e.g. projected resources, non-
projected resources and transmitted resources. However this study adopted the
classification based on the senses with these materials appeal to e.g. visual resources,
audio-visual resources and audio resources.

Visual Resources
Visual resources are those resources which we can see via our eyes. These are
helpful to visualize the things. Visual aids make learning more permanent since students
use more than one sense. ([Link], 2019). The principle behind the use of visual resources
in teaching is that much more is learned through the sense of sight than any other sense. It
is also argued that mind tends to remember more of what the eyes saw than what the ear
heard. These real objects help to make the lesson real. on the other hand, pictorial
resources and graphic materials such as drawing, cartoons, photographs, charts, tables,
maps, diagrams etc. to a large extent helps to explain topics like the law of diminishing
returns, balance of payment, population distribution, demand and supply etc.

Audio Resources
According to Anzaku (2011), the term audio visual resources is used to refer to those
instructional media that may be used to convey without complete dependence upon verbal
symbols or language. Educational media such as radio, compact disc, cassette, recorder,
the recorder player, tape recorder among others, could be emphasized on by the teacher for
the students to listen to even at home. This emphasis might be based on educative
programmes in radio station by experts which students could listen to and retain this
concept of the message. For instance, programmes that involve arithmetic operations which
a student has to listen to which boost his mental ability and interest in arithmetic operations.

Audio-Visual Resources
 This is a multimedia system which appeals to both sense of sight and hearing
simultaneously. The principle behind the adoption and utilization of these media is the fact
that learners learn better when more senses are involved. According to George and ige
(2022), teachers need to employ a number of activities using audio visual resources to
adequately impact in students and accomplish attainment of stated educational objectives
including the concept that requires critical thinking. Examples of audio- visuals media
include LCD projector, film projector, television, VCD player, Virtual classroom, multimedia,
tape recorders, computers, e.t.c.

Qualities of a good instructional Media

Instructional materials though very important but does not substitute the role of the teacher.
It rather supplements the efforts of the teacher in an attempt to achieve the instructional
objectives. The type of instructional materials used by a teacher depends on the topic
objectives, age and cognitive readiness of the learner. Instructional material must possess
the following qualities or characteristics:
1. Relevance: Good learning materials should be relevant to the topic or subject being
taught, and should align with the learning objectives and goals. (quanswer, 2024)
2. Clarity: Learning materials should be clear and easy to understand, with concise
explanations and instructions that are easy to follow. (quanswer, 2024)
3. Engagement: Learning materials should be engaging and interactive, to keep learners
interested and motivated to continue learning. (quanswer, 2024)
4. Accuracy: Learning materials should be accurate and up-to-date, with correct
information and facts that are supported by evidence. (quanswer, 2024)
5. Variety: Good learning materials should include a variety of formats and resources, such
as text, images, videos, and interactive activities, to cater to different learning styles and
preferences. (quanswer,2024)
6. Accessibility: Learning materials should be easily accessible and available to all
learners, regardless of their location or resources. (quanswer, 2024)
7. Flexibility: Learning materials should be flexible and adaptable, to accommodate
different learning paces and preferences, and to allow for personalized learning
experiences. (quanswer, 2024)
8. Feedback: Good learning materials should provide opportunities for feedback and
assessment, to help learners track their progress and identify areas for improvement.
(quanswer, 2024)
9. Collaboration: Learning materials should encourage collaboration and interaction among
learners, to promote a sense of community and shared learning experiences. (quanswer,
2024)
10. Alignment: Learning materials should be aligned with the curriculum and learning
standards, to ensure that they are relevant and useful for achieving learning goals.
(quanswer, 2024)

Criteria for Selecting Instructional Materials Used In Teaching and Learning

According to Lamar Consolidated Independent School District (2014) instructional material
used in teaching and learning should be selected based on technical quality, readability by
students, availability, accuracy, clarity, absence of gender stereotyping, ethnic bias,
relevance of materials to the topic, appropriateness of the content and presentation relative
to the maturity and comprehension level of the students. Instructional materials should be
appropriate for the age, emotional and social development, and ability level of the students
for whom the materials are selected.
These are the various criteria that needs to be considered before selecting an instructional
media in teaching and learning:

1. Learning objectives: The instructional media should align with the learning objectives of
the lesson or course. lamar consolidated independent school district (LCISD) (2017)
2. Content relevance: The media should be relevant to the content being taught and
enhance student understanding. LCISD (2014)
3. Student engagement: The media should be engaging and capture the attention of
students to enhance learning. LCISD (2014)
4. Accessibility: The media should be accessible to all students, including those with
disabilities. LCISD (2014)
5. Suitability: The media should be appropriate for the age, maturity level, and cultural
background of the students. LCISD (2014)
6. Cost-effectiveness: The media should be cost-effective and fit within the budget
constraints of the educational institution. LCISD (2014)
7. Interactivity: The media should allow for interactive learning experiences that engage
students in active learning. LCISD (2014)
8. Ease of use: The media should be user-friendly and easy for both teachers and students
to use. LCISD (2014)
9. Flexibility: The media should be flexible and adaptable to different teaching styles and
learning environments. LCISD (2014)
10. Pedagogical effectiveness: this refers to the ability of a school or school system to
meet the goals of education. The media should be able to meet up with the instructional
objectives for both teachers and students. LCISD (2014)

Importance of instructional materials used in teaching and learning.

Instructional material has been proved to be very useful material in the classroom. It
introduced some varieties, to the usual classroom procedure where at all time the students
listen to teacher’s voice. George and Robbins (2000) noted that projected, picture, possess
certain inherent characteristics that are definitely advantageous in learning situation.
Instructional materials arouse and sustains the interest of the learners, contributing to the
efficiency, depth, and reality of learning experience which stimulates self-activity. They
facilitate the learning of abstract concept and ideas that help top concretize ideas and
postulates the imagination of the students.
Instructional material (technology) has transformed students from passive recipient of the
knowledge of the teacher to active participants in the knowledge seeking and knowledge-
construction with the teacher often learning new technology programme along with them.
(FME 2010) instructional material helps to transform the system to education from
pedagogical system of anagogical method of teaching and learning.

Concept and significance of mathematics

Concepts are constructed from a series of experience. Piagets’ Stages of intellectual
development are useful guides to the teaching in which he emphasizes concrete operational
materials that facilitate internalization of concepts presented to them. There is therefore a
need to determine the adequacy of teaching and learning resources for mathematics as this
would affect achievement in the subject. Onasanya, (2004) gave various kinds of models
used in educational instructional materials namely; mental models, theoretical models etc.
These types of models are of special pedagogic significance in science and technology
instruction due to the nature of knowledge and knowledge getting process in various
disciplines. Concrete models are material objects which are likenesses of natural or man-
made structures or systems and which are intended to highlight and explain or describe
structures, functional processes and relationships in the original. Huang, L. E and Chang
(2012) mentioned that assessment of students’ mathematical understanding should not be
solely based on their writing of the problems but also on their demonstration and oral
interpretation. Concrete manipulative are concrete objects used as tools that allow students
to experiment and explore mathematical concepts (Burns & Hamm, 2011). When students
employ concrete manipulative in long-term use during early elementary level, they have
greater mathematical achievement than students who have not used concrete manipulative
(Burns & Hamm, 2011). Concrete materials that resemble everyday day items should assist
students in making connecting between abstract mathematical concepts and real world.
Hunt Nipper and Nash (2011) in their study found many perceived benefits on the use of
concrete manipulative. The benefits included trial and error, view mathematic information
visually and kinesthetically break down mathematical concepts and actively engage in the
mathematics lesson (Hunt et al, 2011.) The majority of the studies indicate that mathematics
achievement increases when manipulative are put to good use. Teachers need to know
when, why and how to use manipulative effectively in the classroom as well as opportunities
to observe, first-hand impact of allowing learning through exploration with concrete objects.
Students who use manipulative during mathematics instruction outperform students who do
not (Driscoll, 1981, Sowell, 1989). Mathematics manipulative can both be commercial and
teacher made. The ultimate goal of using manipulative is to help children handle abstract
concepts and symbols that are used to represent these concepts.
In Nigeria, mathematics is well recognized in the school curriculum and all policies
related to education. The national policy on education (FRN, 2014) provisions put
mathematics as a compulsory subject for primary and secondary school children. Lagos
state isn’t left out.

Geo board and achievement in Geometry

The belief that concrete objects aid children in development of abstract concepts have been
widely accepted in academic communities (Mc Neil & Jarvin, 2007) and a number of studies
shave cohobated this idea by showing that use of physical manipulative does positively
affect student performance (Cass & smith, 2003; Martin & Schwartz, 2005). Geometry is an
important part of mathematics curriculum. Geometry thinking includes a strong focus on the
development of careful reasoning and proof, using definitions and established facts (NCTM,
2000). Geometry helps students gain basic skills such as analysis, comparison, and
generalization and is useful in representing and solving problems in other areas of
mathematics in real world situations. Moreover a study in this area is justified because
effective means to address NCTM standards in the area of geometry as well as
measurement are needed. Specifically the geometry standard (NCTM, 2000) calls for
„‟geometry to be learned using concrete models, drawings and dynamics software.‟‟ the
measurement standard requires students to apply appropriate techniques, tools and
formulae to determine measurements. Further mastery of skills noted in this standard is
considered crucial because measurement is employed n many aspects of everyday life.
Geo boards were invented by an English mathematician and pedagogist, Caleb Gattegno
(1911 – 1988). Through using geo boards, students cannot only work towards space and
geometry outcomes but also be engaged in working mathematically (board of studies New
South Wales, 2002).Geo board is versatile and can be used at all levels for teaching and
learning about different areas of mathematics. A multiple baseline studies on the effect of
geo board as a manipulative by Cass M. Cates, D. Smith, M. & Jackon, C (2003) in
conjunction with studies by Cambray-Nunez R. Cruz-Oliva, V. and the Veega- \Ramirez E.
(2007), revealed that learners who were learning difficulties in the area of mathematics
rapidly acquired the problem solving skills, maintained these skills over a two-month period
and transferred the skills to a paper and pencil problem solving format.

Algebra Tiles And Achievement In Algebra

Teaching approaches have evolved and shown clear digression from teacher-centered to
learner centered tendency and of course, the teaching could not be said to be complete
without having mathematics and algebra as its integral part. Algebra is a language where
groups of symbols have specific meanings. Algebra can be difficult to learn because it is
often taught with no recognizable meaning Algebra is taught as an integral part of
mathematics which involves: set theory, number of its operations, algebra geometry and
measurement, matrices and trigonometry to develop reasoning and logical thinking among
learners (Government of Pakistan, 2006). The National Council of teachers of mathematics
(NCTM, 2000) recommended introducing algebra and algebraic reasoning in elementary
and middle grades throughout the courses of mathematics. A number of things contribute
toward effective teaching thus must have proper subject knowledge for teaching (Hill and
Ball, 2004), pedagogical knowledge (murphy 2008), practical knowledge, knowledge of
student thinking etc. Larbi (2011) conducted a study to investigate the effect of algebra tiles
on students‟ performance in algebra. Two intact classes from two Schools were selected for
the study and were assigned experimental and control group. The experimental group was
taught using algebra tile manipulative while the control group received instruction using the
traditional method, a treatment which lasted for three weeks. It was concluded that the use
of manipulative promote students understanding in the learning of mathematics. Findings
from the study showed that there was significant difference between the two groups. The
group that received instruction using algebra tile scored better than the group without the
tiles. It was concluded that the use of manipulative promote student understanding in the
learning of mathematics. In a similar study, al- Absi and Nofal (2010) found statistically
significant differences between two groups in favor of the experimental group, those who
were taught using the algebra tile.

Challenges that Teachers Face in Accessing Instructional Medias

Teachers in junior secondary schools most especially in government schools face some
challenges in accessing instructional materials.(Benin journal of educational studies, volume
27, issue1, 63-69, (2021). One of the big challenges that teachers in secondary schools
face in accessing instructional materials is meagre funds provided by the government to
government secondary schools for purchasing instructional materials. Government
secondary schools depend to the large extent on the government for funding. Very little
support is received from local government and communities around the schools most
especially in rural areas due to poverty. The funds are provided in form of capitation grants.
The capitation grant is aimed at improving the quality of education by making sure that
sufficient leaching and learning material are found at school level. In particular, the
capitation grant is meant to finance the purchase of textbooks and other teaching and
learning materials as well as to fund repairs, administration materials, and examination
expenses (Uwazi, 2010). However, while the number of students who are enrolled in
schools has been increasing each year, education capitation grant has been dropping. Even
without adjusting for inflation, the actual amount of money reaching schools for capitation
grants is clearly much less today compared to what it was between 2002 and 2003.
According to the Education Public Expenditure Tracking Survey of 2004, in the period 2002-
2003 schools received an average of 52,272 naira per student. In 2007/08 however, the
money actually reaching the schools had declined to 40,549 naira per student (URT, 2010).
This amount of money is grossly insufficient to purchase a minimum set of textbooks apart
from other instructional materials which are highly needed by the teachers. According to
Onche (2014), government’s Policy towards efficient provision of these aspects of
educational resources has not been encouraging and has always not been well planned,
monitored, supervised and evaluated with rural schools as the back bench of implication of
these policies. Another challenge that teachers face is the lack of exposure and limited
accessibility to modern instructional facilities. As we are in a new millennium, there is an
increased awareness of the need to use modern scientific approach in teaching and
learning processes in our schools. Majority of teachers who were trained early 1990’s and
backward do not have skills in the field of Information and Communication Technology.
Where there are skilled teachers, other problems naturally include problem of installation,
maintenance, operation, network administration and local technicians to service or repair
these equipment’s and the other facilities. In most of the rural secondary schools, most of
the facilities are non-existent, hence the traditional chalk and duster approach still
dominates in secondary school pedagogy (Obasi, 2008). Lack of sufficient skills and
creativity may hinder teachers to improvise their own instructional materials. Local
governments and communities around community secondary schools are supposed to
provide resources most especially funds to these schools so that teachers can use them to
access instructional materials. But very often this is not the case due to number of reasons.
Some local communities have very narrow tax base. Also the performance of local councils
in the collection of their own revenue have been recorded very poor. Many local authorities
however have found themselves unable to deal with such a rapid increase in expenditure
and their budget deficit increase. Education is one of the sectors, which are mostly affected
by this situation. Poverty is another reason, which may hinder members of the community in
supporting teachers and schools financially so that they can access instructional materials.
Not all schools or teachers have access to the necessary technology and devices to access
instructional media. This can hinder their ability to use and incorporate digital resources into
their teaching. Teachers who work in such areas have more challenges in accessing
instructional materials. Another challenge that teachers face in accessing instructional
materials is lack of clear policy and monitoring mechanisms to ensure that enough funds are
provided to community secondary schools for purchasing instructional materials and also
these funds are used for the intended purpose.
Furthermore, Teachers may face challenges related to copyright and licensing
when using instructional media in their teaching. They must ensure that they have
permission to use and share digital resources legally, which can be a complex and time-
consuming process.

Strategies to Minimize The Challenges Of Attaining And Using Quality Instructional

Medias
There are a number of strategies, which can be used in order to minimize the challenges of
attaining and using quality instructional materials. According to studies done in different
parts of the world including Africa, one of the strategies is improvisation of instructional
materials. According to Abdul Raheem & Al-Rabane (2005), Udosen (2011) and Ibe-Bassey
(2012) some creation of improvised media of low technological materials and resource-
centered learning can enlarge the limited knowledge base of any course of study and enrich
instruction to a guaranteed quality. It can also promote strategies that ensure the integration
of technology in the teaching and learning process of mathematics education. Student
engagement is one way of attaining the use of instructional media. Students are always
curious. Teachers need to design an instructional material that is “eye-catching” and makes
the student to have a rapt attention concerning the content of such instructional media.
Piaget claimed students aren’t just “empty vessels” waiting to be filled. Freire warned
against banking method of education in which students are treated as passive receptors.
Thus limiting their creative and creative thinking especially when it comes when it is
required that as a teacher you need to show you students the various arithmetic operators,
their formulas and how they can put it into practice which is done by active participation in
class through the use of these instructional media to aid teaching and learning of the
students.
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Instructional Material Theories
Instructional material theories assume that there is a direct link between the materials that
the teachers use, and the students’ learning outcomes. These outcomes include higher
abilities to learn, quality strategies to learn and perform classroom activities and positive
attitude towards learning. Further, these theories assume that instructional materials have
the capacity to develop into students the highest order of intellectual skills as they illustrate
clearly, step by step how to follow the rules/principles and elaborate on the concepts, all of
which have positive impact on solving new problems by analyzing the situation and
formulating a plan. ([Link], [Link], [Link],(2007).
According to Gagne et al, instructional material can be used to develop higher learning
abilities to the learners through self-teaching or guided learning. This implies that the
instructional materials mainly comprise “eliciting performance” and “providing feedback on
performance correctness,” in addition to “providing learning guidance” for guided discovery
learning. Many of Gagné’s 9 ideas have broad implications for secondary teachers in
community secondary schools in Rombo district. Many of these ideas have capacity building
undertones with themes of students’ acquisition of critical thinking and problem-solving
skills. However, the theory does not relate to whether or not students can think critically in
what aspects or how they can solve a particular problem by themselves. However, I have
the opinion that the purpose of instructional materials or technology in education is to
stretch students’ imagination and to encourage them to solve problems in their lives.
However, since they are considered to be domain-specific, the ways instructional materials
can start cognitive development is yet to be studied with respect to classroom teaching.
Thus, this study stretches these views.

Sociocultural Theory of Teaching, Learning, and Development

Sociocultural theory of teaching, learning and development is the second theory that framed
this study. Largely inspired by the seminal works of Lev Vygotsky, this theory assumes that
human minds do not develop by virtue of some predetermined cognitive structures that
unfold as one matures. Rather, this theory posits that human’s minds develop as a result of
constant interactions with the social material world. According to Vygotsky, human mind
develop through interaction with materials in the learning process where people learn from
each other and use their experiences to successfully make sense of the materials they
interact with. These experiences are crystallized in 'cultural tools', and the learners have to
master such tools in order to develop specific knowledge and skills in solving specific
problems and, in the process, become competent in specific profession. In the classroom,
these tools can be a picture, a model, or pattern of solving a problem. Most often however,
such tools are combinations of elements of different orders, and human language is the
multi-level tool par excellence, combining culturally evolved arrangements of meanings,
sounds, melody, rules of communication, and so forth. Learning by using such tools is not
something that simply helps the mind to develop. Rather, this kind of learning leads to new,
more elaborated forms of mental functioning. For example, when children master such a
complex cultural tool as human language, this results not only in their ability to talk but leads
to completely new levels of thinking, self-regulation and mentality in general. It is the
specific organization of this tool (e.g., the semantic, pragmatic and syntactic structures of
language) that calls into being and in effect shapes and forms new facets of the child's
mind. Importantly, cultural tools are not merely static 'things' but embodiments of certain
ways of acting in human communities. In other words, they represent the functions and
meanings of things, as discovered in cultural practices: they are "objects-that-can-be used-
for-certain-purposes" in human societies. As such, they can be appropriated by a child only
through acting upon and with them, that is, only in the course of actively reconstructing their
meaning and function. And such reconstruction of cultural tools is initially possible only in
the process of cooperating and interacting with other people who already possess the
knowledge (i.e. the meaning) of a given cultural tool. This short account is presented here to
illustrate the fact that the sociocultural approach, unlike that of instructional materials by
Gagne discussed above, not only allows for a synthesis of teaching, learning, and cognitive
development; it actively calls for it. This theory implies that instructional materials lead to
cognitive development because they mediate learners’ thinking through the tools, and such
mediation constitutes the very cornerstone of mental development
.
2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW
The Extent to which Instructional Medias/Materials Affect Student Performance.
In his study Adeogun (2001) revealed a strong positive link between instructional resources
and academic performance. According to Adeogun, schools that possess more instructional
resources performed better than schools that have less instructional resources. This finding
supported the study by Babayomi (1999) that private schools performed better than public
schools because of the availability and adequacy of teaching and learning resources.
Adeogun (2001) noted that there was a low level of instructional resources available in
public schools and hence commented that public schools had acute shortages of both
teaching and learning resources. He further commented that effective teaching and learning
cannot occur in the classroom environment if essential instructional resources are not
available. This implies that the schools that possess adequate teaching and learning
materials such as textbooks, charts, pictures, real objects for students to see, hear and
experiment with, stand a better chance of performing well in examination than poorly
equipped ones.
Analyzing student performance in junior secondary schools in Lagos State without
the use of instructional media can be challenging, as instructional media plays a crucial role
in enhancing the teaching and learning process. However, we can still make some general
observations about student performance in such schools. Without instructional media,
students may struggle to fully grasp complex concepts and engage actively in the learning
process. Teachers may find it harder to demonstrate abstract ideas or provide real-life
examples to aid understanding. This could result in a lack of motivation and interest among
students, leading to poor performance in assessments and exams.
 Additionally, without instructional media, students may have limited access to
resources and information to supplement their learning. This could hinder their ability to
conduct research, deepen their understanding of topics, and ultimately perform poorly in
academic tasks.
Furthermore, without instructional media, the teaching methods employed by teachers may
be more traditional and less interactive, limiting the opportunities for students to actively
participate in their learning. This lack of engagement could lead to reduced retention of
information.

FIG: EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON TEACHERS’ COMPETENCE IN MATHEMATICS