A

Mini Project Report

On

“THIRD EYE BLIND STICK”

Submitted In partial fulfillment of the
Requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
By
B. Saketh Reddy (21Q61A0450)
Under the esteemed guidance of

[Link]
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

AVANTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt of T.S, Affiliated to JNTUH
ECE & CSE UG Programme are accredited by NBA)
Gunthapally(V), Abdullapurmet(M), [Link]-501512
(2021-2025)
 A
Mini Project Report
On

“THIRD EYE BLIND STICK”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
By
B. Saketh Reddy (21Q61A0450)
Under the esteemed guidance of
[Link]
Assistant Professor
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
HYDERABAD-72

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

AVANTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt of T.S, Affiliated to JNTU (H)
ECE & CSE UG Programme are accredited By NBA)
Gunthapally(V), Abdullapurmet(M), [Link]-501512

(2021-2025)
 AVANTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, Recognized. By Govt. of T.S & Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)
NAAC “A” Accredited Institute
Gunthapally (V), Abdullapurmet(M), RR Dist, Near Ramoji Film City, Hyderabad -501512.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that I have satisfactorily completed the project work entitled

“ THIRD EYE BLIND STICK” in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of the Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering to the
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad for the academic year 2024-2025.

INTERNAL GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

[Link] Dr. S. Kishore Reddy

Assistant professor Associate Professor

PRINCIPAL
Dr.G. Ramachadra Reddy
External Examiner Professor
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who helped and guided me in completing this
project work.

I am immensely thankful to our internal guide [Link] , Assistant Professor for his
valuable guidance and suggestions in each and every stage of this work, which helped us in completing
this project work successfully.

My sincere thanks to the Principal Dr.G. RAMACHANDRA REDDY, Principal of AVIH and to
all my faculty members for having encouraged us in our academic endeavors.

I am grateful to Chairman, Avanthi Group of Institutions Sri. M. SRINIVAS RAO for granting
me the permission for undergoing the practical training through development of this project of this
thesis in college, Hyderabad.

I am thankful to one and all who co-operated us to complete our project successfully.
 AVANTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, Recognized. By Govt. of T.S & Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)
NAAC “A” Accredited Institute
Gunthapally (V), Abdullapurmet(M), RR Dist, Near Ramoji Film City, Hyderabad -501512.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

AFFIDAVIT

` I B. Saketh Reddy bearing the Roll Number 21Q61A0450, in Avanthi Institute of

Engineering and Technology. I solemnly affirm that the thesis entitled “THIRD EYE BLIND
STICK” submitted by me is the result of my own original work carried out under the Guidance of
Mr. E. Nagesh, approved by the university. Furthermore, I confirm that this thesis has not yet been
submitted as a part of another examination process neither in identical nor in similar form in any other
university. If these conditions found anywhere in my thesis at a later stage then university can
withdraw the degree.

(Signature of Candidate)

B. Saketh Reddy (21Q61A0450)

 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the results embodied in this dissertation entitled “THIRD EYE
BLIND STICK” is carried out by me during the year 2024-2025 in partial fulfillment of the
award of [Link] (Electronics and Communication Engineering) from Avanthi Institute of
Engineering and Technology. I have not submitted the same to any other university or organization
for the award of and other degree.

Place: Student name with signature

Date: B. Saketh Reddy (21Q61A0450)

 AVANTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, Recognized. By Govt. of T.S & Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)
NAAC “A” Accredited Institute
Gunthapally (V), Abdullapurmet(M), RR Dist, Near Ramoji Film City, Hyderabad -501512.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Date:

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

I declare that this is entitled “THIRD EYE BLIND STICK” Is my own work conducted
under the supervision of [Link] (Supervisor) in The Department of Electronics and
communication Engineering.

I further declare that to the best of my knowledge, the thesis has not formed the basis for the
award of any degree, diploma, associates ship or fellowship of similar other titles. It has not been
submitted to any other University or Institution for the award of any degree.

Place: Hyderabad Signature of the Scholar

Date: B. Saketh Reddy (21Q61A0450)

 AVANTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, Recognized. By Govt. of T.S & Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad)
NAAC “A” Accredited Institute
Gunthapally (V), Abdullapurmet(M), RR Dist, Near Ramoji Film City, Hyderabad -501512.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE OF SUPERVISOR

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “THIRD EYE BLIND STICK” has been
undertaken and written under my supervision and it describes the original research work carried out by
Mr.B. Saketh Reddy in the Department of Electronics and communication Engineering. To the best
of my knowledge and belief, this work has not been submitted elsewhere for any degree of any other
institution in India or abroad.

Name & Signature of the Supervisor

[Link]
Assistant Professor
 INDEX
Abstract--------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

CHAPTER-1

Introduction:

1.0 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------2

1.1 Problem Statement --------------------------------------------------------------3

1.2 Prolem Scope --------------------------------------------------------------------4

1.3 Proposed solution----------------------------------------------------------------5

1.4 Aim & Objective ----------------------------------------------------------------7

CHAPTER-2

Embedded Systems:

2.1 Introduction to Embedded Systems-------------------------------------------9

2.2 Types of Embedded Systems-------------------------------------------------------10

2.3 Overview of Embedded System Architecture-------------------------------12

2.4 Memory Architecture-----------------------------------------------------------13

2.5 Features of Embedded System-------------------------------------------------17

2.6 Design process-------------------------------------------------------------------17

2.7 Applications of Embedded Systems------------------------------------------19

CHAPTER-3

literature survey:

3.1 Evolution of Assistive Technologies----------------------------------------21

3.2 Sensor Technologies-----------------------------------------------------------21

 3.3 User-Centered Design---------------------------------------------------------21

3.4 Integration with Mobile Devices:--------------------------------------------22

3.5 Challenges and Limitations---------------------------------------------------22

3.6 Future Directions: --------------------------------------------------------------22

CHAPTER-4

Block Diagram

4.0 Block Diagram-------------------------------------------------------------------23

4.1 NodeMCU (ESP8266 )---------------------------------------------------------23

4.2 Arduino---------------------------------------------------------------------------28

4.3 Buzzer-----------------------------------------------------------------------------29

4.4 Ultrasonic Sensor----------------------------------------------------------------30

4.4 BMS Battery----------------------------------------------------------------------34

CHAPTER-5

Arduino:

5.1 Introduction to Arduino UNO--------------------------------------------------35

5.2 History-----------------------------------------------------------------------------36

5.3 General Pin Functions-----------------------------------------------------------38

5.4 Special Pin Functions------------------------------------------------------------39

5.5 Software Development----------------------------------------------------------41

5.6 Programming---------------------------------------------------------------------42
 5.7 Technical Specifications-------------------------------------------------------43

5.8 USB Over Current Protection-------------------------------------------------43

5.9 Physical Characteristics--------------------------------------------------------44

5.10 Applications--------------------------------------------------------------------44

CHAPTER-6

6.1 Source Code---------------------------------------------------------------------45

CHAPTER-7

7.1 Advantages----------------------------------------------------------------------51

7.2 Future Scope--------------------------------------------------------------------52

CHAPTER-8

8.1 Result & Conclusion----------------------------------------------------------53

CHAPTER-9

9.1 Refernce------------------------------------------------------------------------54
 ABSTRACT

The blind Stick is an innovative assistive technology designed to aid visually

impaired individuals in navigating their surroundings more safely and efficiently.
portable device that detects obstacles and announces their distance through a clear,
audible voice alert. Ideal for visually impaired individuals, elderly, or anyone requiring
assistance with navigation

This project integrates ultrasonic sensors, vibration motors, and a micro-

controller to provide real-time obstacle detection and feedback. The system works by
using ultrasonic sensors to detect obstacles in the user’s path. When an obstacle is
detected, the sensors trigger vibration motors embedded in the stick's handle, alerting
the user to the presence and proximity of the obstacle. The stick is designed to offer a
seamless and intuitive experience, ensuring that users can move freely and
independently in various environments. The project aims to improve mobility, enhance
safety, and increase the confidence of visually impaired Individuals in their daily.

1 Dept of ECE
 CHAPTER 1

1.0: Introduction:
Navigating the world independently is a fundamental aspect of personal freedom
and empowerment, yet for individuals with visual impairments, this autonomy can be
significantly compromised. The challenges faced by blind individuals in traversing their
surroundings safely and confidently have long been recognized, prompting ongoing
efforts to develop innovative solutions that enhance mobility and accessibility. Among
these solutions, the smart stick for blind people stands out as a remarkable technological
advancement poised to revolutionize the way visually impaired individuals navigate and
interact with their environment.

The smart stick for blind people represents a convergence of cutting-edge

technologies, blending the principles of sensor fusion, artificial intelligence, and
wearable computing to create a sophisticated aid for mobility and navigation. At its core,
the smart stick is equipped with a myriad of sensors, including ultrasonic, infrared, and
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), which work in tandem to detect obstacles and
hazards in the user's path. These sensors provide real-time feedback about the
surrounding environment, allowing the user to navigate with increased awareness and
confidence.

Fig:1.1. Smart blind stick

2 Dept of ECE
 One of the key features of the smart stick is its integration with intelligent
algorithms and machine learning models, which process the sensor data to identify and
classify objects and obstacles. By leveraging advanced pattern recognition techniques,
the smart stick can distinguish between various objects such as curbs, stairs, obstacles,
and pedestrians, enabling the user to make informed decisions about their route and
surroundings.

In addition to obstacle detection, the smart stick also offers a range of

supplementary functionalities designed to enhance the user experience and promote
independence. For example, integrated GPS (Global Positioning System) and navigation
capabilities provide turn-by-turn directions and route guidance, allowing users to
navigate unfamiliar environments with ease. Furthermore, the smart stick may feature
voice-activated controls, haptic feedback mechanisms, and auditory cues to convey
information and alerts to the user in an intuitive and non-intrusive manner.

The development of the smart stick for blind people represents a significant
advancement in assistive technology, offering a versatile and adaptive solution to the
challenges of mobility and navigation faced by individuals with visual impairments.
Beyond its practical utility, the smart stick embodies a broader ethos of inclusivity and
accessibility, empowering individuals to live more independently and participate more
fully in society. As technology continues to evolve and innovate, the smart stick holds
the promise of further revolutionizing the lives of visually impaired individuals,
opening up new opportunities for exploration, engagement, and empowerment.

1.1: Problem Statement:

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports staggering statistics on global
vision impairment, affecting 40 million people, with 10 million cases being unaddressed.
Mobility presents a critical challenge for these individuals, with obstacles and
inaccessible environments hindering their independence daily. National Federation of
the Blind (NFB) data indicates a significantly higher risk of accidents and injuries
among visually impaired individuals, with approximately 50,000 incidents annually in
the United States alone. Additionally, the American Foundation for the Blind (AFB)

3 Dept of ECE
highlights that 70% of visually impaired individuals encounter physical barriers while
navigating, such as uneven terrain and poorly marked pathways, leading to falls and
collisions. Moreover, the International Disability Alliance (IDA) notes that only 40% of
countries offer accessible public transportation systems, exacerbating mobility
challenges. Consequently, individuals with visual impairments experience social
isolation and dependence, hindering their participation in community life and
employment opportunities. To address these challenges, the development of a smart
blind stick emerges as a promising solution, leveraging sensor technologies and
artificial intelligence to provide real-time feedback and guidance. However, the
effectiveness of smart blind sticks in enhancing mobility and independence requires
thorough evaluation. Thus, the problem statement aims to assess the impact of smart
blind sticks on accident reduction, navigation efficiency improvement, and overall
quality of life enhancement for visually impaired individuals. By addressing this
problem, researchers and developers can advance assistive technologies, empowering
individuals with visual impairments to navigate with autonomy and confidence.

1.2: Problem Scope:

User Needs Assessment: Conduct surveys and interviews with visually impaired
individuals to understand their specific mobility challenges, preferences, and
requirements for a smart blind stick. Identify common obstacles encountered and
desired features to enhance navigation and safety.

Technology Evaluation: Review existing sensor technologies, artificial

intelligence algorithms, and assistive features relevant to smart blind stick development.
Assess their capabilities, reliability, and compatibility for integration into the device.

Market Analysis: Analyze the current market landscape for smart blind sticks,
examining available products, their features, pricing, and user feedback. Identify gaps
in the market and opportunities for innovation.

Regulatory Compliance: Investigate regulatory requirements and standards

applicable to assistive devices for visually impaired individuals. Ensure that the smart
blind stick complies with relevant regulations and safety standards.

4 Dept of ECE
 Stakeholder Engagement: Engage with stakeholders including visually impaired
individuals, rehabilitation professionals, advocacy groups, and manufacturers to gather
insights, feedback, and collaboration opportunities throughout the project.

Prototype Development: Develop a prototype of the smart blind stick

incorporating selected sensor technologies, artificial intelligence algorithms, and
assistive features. Iterate on the design based on feedback from stakeholders and
usability testing.

Evaluation Metrics: Define metrics and criteria for evaluating the performance
and effectiveness of the smart blind stick, including accuracy of obstacle detection, ease
of use, durability, and user satisfaction.

Field Testing: Conduct field testing of the prototype with visually impaired
individuals in real-world environments to assess its usability, reliability, and impact on
mobility and independence. Gather feedback for further refinement.

Scalability and Affordability: Consider scalability and affordability factors in

the design and development process to ensure that the smart blind stick is accessible to a
wide range of users. Explore options for cost-effective manufacturing and distribution.

Long-term Support and Maintenance: Develop plans for long-term support,

maintenance, and updates for the smart blind stick to ensure its continued functionality
and relevance over time. Establish partnerships with relevant stakeholders for ongoing
support and improvement initiatives.

1.3 Proposed Solution:

The proposed solution for the smart blind stick encompasses a comprehensive
integration of sensor technologies and user-friendly design features to enhance mobility,
safety, and independence for visually impaired individuals. The smart blind stick will
consist of the following key components and functionalities:

1. Ultrasonic Sensors: Two ultrasonic sensors will be strategically positioned on

the smart blind stick to detect obstacles and hazards in the user's path. These sensors

5 Dept of ECE
will continuously measure distances to nearby objects and provide real-time feedback
to the user.

2. Buzzer: A buzzer will be incorporated into the smart blind stick to provide
auditory alerts to the user when obstacles are detected. The buzzer will emit different
tones or patterns to convey the proximity and nature of obstacles, enabling the user to
navigate safely.

3. Micro-controller: A micro-controller will serve as the central processing unit of

the smart blind stick, responsible for receiving sensor data, processing it using artificial
intelligence algorithms, and controlling the operation of the buzzer and other
functionalities.

4. Battery Management System (BMS): Two batteries will power the smart blind
stick, and a BMS will be implemented to manage battery charging, discharging, and
protection. This ensures the reliable and efficient operation of the device, with
safeguards against overcharging and over-discharging.

5. User Interface: The smart blind stick will feature a user-friendly interface
designed specifically for visually impaired users. Tactile buttons or switches will
enable intuitive control of the device, allowing users to adjust settings,
activate/deactivate features, and receive status updates.

6. Adjustable Sensitivity: The sensitivity of obstacle detection can be adjusted

based on user preferences and environmental conditions. This flexibility allows users to
customize the device to suit their specific needs and preferences.

7. Compact and Lightweight Design: The smart blind stick will be designed to be
compact, lightweight, and ergonomic, ensuring ease of use and portability for users.
Durable materials will be used to withstand everyday wear and tear.

8. Integration with Mobile Devices: Optionally, the smart blind stick can be
integrated with mobile devices such as smartphones or tablets. This integration enables
additional features such as GPS navigation, voice commands, and connectivity with
navigation apps, enhancing the functionality and versatility of the device.

6 Dept of ECE
 Overall, the proposed solution for the smart blind stick aims to provide visually
impaired individuals with a reliable, effective, and user-friendly tool for navigating their
environment safely and independently. By leveraging sensor technologies, artificial
intelligence, and thoughtful design features, the smart blind stick empowers users to
overcome mobility challenges and navigate with confidence and autonomy.

1.4 Aim and Objectives:

Aim:

The aim of the project is to develop a state-of-the-art smart blind stick that
revolutionizes mobility assistance for visually impaired individuals. By integrating
advanced sensor technologies and user-friendly design features, the smart blind stick
aims to enhance safety, independence, and quality of life for users. The project seeks to
address the specific challenges faced by visually impaired individuals in navigating
their environment, including detecting obstacles, avoiding hazards, and efficiently
reaching their destinations. Through meticulous design, development, and testing, the
project aims to deliver a reliable, effective, and user-friendly solution that empowers
visually impaired individuals to navigate confidently and independently in a variety of
settings. Ultimately, the goal of the project is to contribute to the advancement of
assistive technologies and make a meaningful impact on the lives of visually impaired
individuals by providing them with a powerful tool for enhancing mobility and
autonomy

Objectives:

Obstacle Detection: Develop a smart blind stick capable of accurately detecting

obstacles and hazards in the user's path using ultrasonic sensors.

Real-time Feedback: Provide real-time auditory alerts to the user through a

buzzer integrated into the smart blind stick, conveying information about the proximity
and nature of detected obstacles.

Long-lasting Battery Life: Implement efficient power management strategies and

a Battery Management System (BMS) to ensure long-lasting battery life and reliable
operation of the smart blind stick during extended use.

7 Dept of ECE
 Durability and Portability: Design the smart blind stick to be durable,
lightweight, and portable, capable of withstanding everyday use and providing reliable
assistance to users wherever they go.

8 Dept of ECE
 CHAPTER 2
2.1 Introduction to Embedded Systems:

Embedded

System

Software Hardware

o ALP o Processor
o C o Peripherals
o VB o memory
Etc.,

Figure 2.1: Block diagram of Embedded System

An embedded system is a system which is going to do a predefined specified task

is the embedded system and is even defined as combination of both software and
hardware. A general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices
used to control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant.
"Embedded" reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system. At the other
extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to control the operation

All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of

these computers are however very simple systems as compared with a personal
computer.
The very simplest embedded systems are capable of performing only a single
function or set of functions to meet a single predetermined purpose. In more complex
systems an application program that enables the embedded system to be used for a
particular purpose in a specific application determines the functioning of the embedded
system. The ability to have programs means that the same embedded system can be
used for a variety of different purposes. In some cases a microprocessor may be
designed in such a way that application software for a particular purpose can be added
to the basic software in a second process, after which it is not possible to make further

9 Dept of ECE
changes. The applications software on such processors is sometimes referred to as
firmware.

The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip”),

which may itself be packaged with other chips in a hybrid system or Application
Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a detector or sensor and its
output goes to a switch or activator which (for example) may start or stop the operation
of a machine or, by operating a valve, may control the flow of fuel to an engine. As the
embedded system is the combination of both software and hardware.

Software deals with the languages like ALP, C, and VB etc., and Hardware deals
with Processors, Peripherals, and Memory.

Memory: It is used to store data or address.

Peripherals: These are the external devices connected.

Processor: It is an IC which is used to perform some task.

2.2 Types of Embedded Systems: Embedded systems can be classified into different
types based on performance, functional requirements and performance of the micro-
controller.

Figure 2.2: Types of Embedded System

Embedded systems are classified into four categories based on their performance and
functional requirements:
 Stand alone embedded systems
 Real time embedded systems
 Networked embedded systems
 Mobile embedded systems

10 Dept of ECE
  Small scale embedded systems
 Medium scale embedded systems
 Sophisticated embedded systems

2.2.1 Stand Alone Embedded Systems:

Stand Alone embedded systems do not require a host system like a computer, it
works by itself. It takes the input from the input ports either analog or digital and
processes, calculates and converts the data and gives the resulting data through the
connected device-Which either controls or drives and displays the connected devices.
Examples for the stand alone embedded systems are mp3 players, digital cameras, video
game consoles, microwave ovens and temperature measurement systems.

2.2.2 Real Time Embedded Systems:

A real time embedded system is defined as; a system which gives required output
in a particular time. These types of embedded systems follow the time deadlines for
completion of a task. Real time embedded systems are classified into two types such as
soft and hard real time systems.

2.2.3 Networked embedded systems:

These types of embedded systems are related to a network to access the resources.
The connected network can be LAN, WAN or the internet. The connection can be any
wired or wireless. This type of embedded system is the fastest growing area in
embedded system applications. The embedded web server is a type of system wherein
all embedded devices are connected to a web server and accessed and controlled by a
web browser. Example for the LAN networked embedded system is a home security
system wherein all sensors are connected and run on the protocol TCP/IP.
2.2.4 Mobile Embedded Systems:

Mobile embedded systems are used in portable embedded devices like cell
phones, mobiles, digital cameras, mp3 players and personal digital assistants, etc. The
basic limitation of these devices is the other resources and limitation of memory.

2.2.5 Small Scale Embedded Systems:

11 Dept of ECE
 These types of embedded systems are designed with a single 8 or 16-
bit microcontrollers that may even be activated by a battery. For developing embedded
software for small scale embedded systems, the main programming tools are an editor,
assembler, cross assembler and integrated development environment (IDE).

2.2.6 Medium Scale Embedded Systems:

These types of embedded systems design with a single or 16 or 32 bit micro-

controller, RISC’s or DSP’s. These types of embedded systems have both hardware and
software complexities. For developing embedded software for medium scale embedded
systems, the main programming tools are C, C++, and JAVA, Visual C++, and RTOS,
debugger, source code engineering tool, simulator and IDE.

2.2.7 Sophisticated Embedded Systems:

These types of embedded systems have enormous hardware and software

complexities that may need ASIPs, IPs, PLAs, scalable or configurable processors.
They are used for cutting-edge applications that need hardware and software Co-design
and components which have to assemble in the final system.

2.3 Overview of Embedded system Architecture:

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central

Processing Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the
software is loaded.
Once the software is transferred to the memory chip, the software will continue to
run for a long time you don’t need to reload new software. Now, let us see the details of
the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded system.

Figure 2.3: Embedded System Architecture

12 Dept of ECE
2.3.1 Central Processing Unit:

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following:
micro-controller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processing (DSP). A micro-
controller is a low-cost processor. Its main attraction is that on the chip itself, there will
be many other components such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to-
digital converter etc. So, for small applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as
the number of external components required will be very less. On the other hand,
microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use many external components
with them. DSP is used mainly for applications in which signaling is involved such as
audio and video processing.

2.3.2 Memory:

The memory is categorized as Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory (ROM). The content of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the
chip, where ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the
firmware is stored in the ROM. When power is switched on, the processer reads the
ROM. The program is executed.

2.3.3 Input Devices:

Unlike the desktop, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited
capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the
embedded system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-
you press one key to give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the
digits. Many embedded system used in process control do not have any input device for
user interaction. They take inputs from sensors or transducers produce electrical signals
that are in turn fed to other systems.

2.3.4 Output Devices:

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability.
Some embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the
health status of the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) may also be used to display some important parameters.

2.4 Memory Architecture:

13 Dept of ECE
 There two different type’s memory architectures there are:
1. Harvard Architecture
2. Von-Neumann Architecture

2.4.1 Harvard Architecture:

Computers have separate memory areas for program instructions and data. There
are two or more internal data buses, which allow simultaneous access to both
instructions and data. The CPU fetches program instructions on the program memory
bus.
The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate
storage and signal pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the
Harvard Mark I relay-based computer, which stored instructions on punched tape (24
bits wide) and data in electro-mechanical counters. These early machines had limited
data storage, entirely contained within the central processing unit, and provided no
access to the instruction storage as data. Programs needed to be loaded by an operator,
the processor could not boot itself.

Figure 2.4.1: Harvard Architecture

2.4.2 Modern uses of the Harvard architecture:

The principal advantage of the pure Harvard architecture - simultaneous access to

more than one memory system - has been reduced by modified Harvard processors
using modern CPU cache systems. Relatively pure Harvard architecture machines are
used mostly in applications where tradeoffs, such as the cost and power savings from
omitting caches, outweigh the programming penalties from having distinct code and
data address spaces.

14 Dept of ECE
 Digital signal processors (DSPs) generally execute small, highly-optimized audio
or video processing algorithms. They avoid caches because their behavior must be
extremely reproducible. The difficulties of coping with multiple address spaces are of
secondary concern to speed of execution. As a result, some DSPs have multiple data
memories in distinct address spaces to facilitate SIMD and VLIW processing. Texas
Instruments TMS320 C55x processors, as one example, have multiple parallel data
busses (two write, three read) and one instruction bus.
 Microcontrollers are characterized by having small amounts of program (flash
memory) and data (SRAM) memory, with no cache, and take advantage of the Harvard
architecture to speed processing by concurrent instruction and data access. The separate
storage means the program and data memories can have different bit depths, for
example using 16-bit wide instructions and 8-bit wide data. They also mean that
instruction pre-fetch can be performed in parallel with other activities.
Examples include, the AVR by Atmel Corp, the PIC by Microchip Technology, Inc.
and the ARM Cortex-M3 processor (not all ARM chips have Harvard architecture).
Even in these cases, it is common to have special instructions to access program
memory as data for read-only tables, or for reprogramming.

2.4.3 Von-Neumann Architecture:

A computer has a single, common memory space in which both program

instructions and data are stored. There is a single internal data bus that fetches both
instructions and data. They cannot be performed at the same time
The Von Neumann Architecture is a design model for a stored-program digital
computer that uses a central processing unit (CPU) and a single separate storage
structure ("memory") to hold both instructions and data. It is named after the
mathematician and early computer scientist John von Neumann. Such computers
implement a universal Turing machine and have a sequential architecture.
A stored-program digital computer is one that keeps its programmed
instructions, as well as its data, in read-write, random-access memory (RAM). Stored-
program computers were advancement over the program-controlled computers of the
1940s, such as the Colossus and the ENIAC, which were programmed by setting
switches and inserting patch leads to route data and to control signals between various

15 Dept of ECE
functional units. In the vast majority of modern computers, the same memory is used for
both data and program instructions. The mechanisms for transferring the data and
instructions between the CPU and memory are, however, considerably more complex
than the original von Neumann architecture.
The terms "von Neumann architecture" and "stored-program computer" are
generally used interchangeably, and that usage is followed in this article.

Figure 2.4.3: Schematic of the Von-Neumann Architecture.

2.4.4 Basic Difference between Harvard and Von-Neumann Architecture:

The primary difference between Harvard architecture and the Von-Neumann

architecture is in the Von Neumann architecture data and programs are stored in the
same memory and managed by the same information handling system.
Whereas the Harvard architecture stores data and programs in separate memory
devices and they are handled by different subsystems.
In a computer using the Von-Neumann architecture without cache; the central
processing unit (CPU) can either be reading and instruction or writing/reading data
to/from the memory. Both of these operations cannot occur simultaneously as the data
and instructions use the same system bus.
In a computer using the Von-Neumann architecture without cache; the central
processing unit (CPU) can either be reading and instruction or writing/reading data
to/from the memory. Both of these operations cannot occur simultaneously as the data
and instructions use the same system bus.
In a computer using the Harvard architecture the CPU can both read an
instruction and access data memory at the same time without cache. This means that a
computer with Harvard architecture can potentially be faster for a given circuit

16 Dept of ECE
complexity because data access and instruction fetches do not contend for use of a
single memory pathway.
Today, the vast majority of computers are designed and built using the Von
Neumann architecture template primarily because of the dynamic capabilities and
efficiencies gained in designing, implementing, operating one memory system as
opposed to two. Von Neumann architecture may be somewhat slower than the
contrasting Harvard Architecture for certain specific tasks, but it is much more flexible
and allows for many concepts unavailable to Harvard architecture such as self
programming, word processing and so on.
Harvard architectures are typically only used in either specialized systems or for
very specific uses. It is used in specialized digital signal processing (DSP), typically for
video and audio processing products. It is also used in many small microcontrollers
used in electronics applications such as Advanced RISK Machine (ARM) based
products for many vendors.

2.5 Features of Embedded systems:

 Embedded systems do a very specific task, they cannot be programmed to do

different things.
 Embedded systems have very limited resources, particularly the memory. Generally,
they do not have secondary storage devices such as the CDROM or the floppy disk.
Embedded systems have to work against some deadlines. A specific job has to be
completed within a specific time. In some embedded systems, called real-time systems,
the deadlines are stringent. Missing a deadline may cause a catastrophe- loss of life or
damage to property

 Embedded systems are constrained for power. As many embedded systems

 Operate through a battery, the power consumption has to be very low.
 Some embedded systems have to operate in extreme environmental conditions such
as very high temperatures and humidity.

2.6 Design process:

2.6.1 Specification:

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 Embedded system design is a quantitative job. The pillars of the system design
methodology are the separation between function and architecture is an essential step
from conception to implementation. In recent past, the search and industrial community
has paid significant attention to the topic of hardware-software (HW/SW) code sign and
has tackled the problem of coordinating the design of the parts to be implemented as
software and the parts to be implemented as hardware avoiding the HW/SW integration
problem marred the electronics system industry so long. In any large scale embedded
systems design methodology, concurrency must be considered as a first class citizen at
all levels of abstraction and in both hardware and software. Formal models &
transformations in system design are used so that verification and synthesis can be
applied to advantage in the design methodology. Simulation tools are used for exploring
the design space for validating the functional and timing behaviors of embedded
systems. Hardware can be simulated at different levels such as electrical circuits, logic
gates, RTL, etc., using VHDL description. In some environments software development
tools can be coupled with hardware simulators, while in others 05 the software is
executed on the simulated hardware. The later approach is feasible only for small parts
of embedded systems. Design of an embedded system using Intel’s 80C188EB chip is
shown in the figure. In order to reduce complexity, the design process is divided in four
major steps: specification, system synthesis, and implementation synthesis and
performance evaluation of the prototype.
During this part of the design process, the informal requirements of the
analysis are transformed to formal specification using SDL.

2.6.2 System-Synthesis:

For performing an automatic HW/SW partitioning, the system synthesis step

translates the SDL specification to an internal system model switch contains problem
graph& architecture graph. After system synthesis, the resulting system model is
translated back to SDL.

2.6.3 Implementation-Synthesis:

SDL specification is then translated into conventional implementation languages

such as VHDL for hardware modules and C for software parts of the system.

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2.6.4 Prototyping:

On a prototyping platform, the implementation of the system under

development is executed with the software parts running on multiprocessor unit and the
hardware part running on a FPGA board known as phoenix, prototype hardware for
Embedded Network Interconnect Accelerators

2.7 Applications of embedded systems:

1. Consumer Applications
2. Computer Networking
3. Telecommunications
4. Wireless technologies
5. Security

2.7.1 Consumer Applications:

At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital camera,

digital diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and
air-conditioner, VCO player, video game consoles, video records etc. Today’s high-tech
car has about 20 embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark control, air-
conditioning, navigation etc. Even wristwatches are now becoming embedded systems.
The palmtops are powerful embedded systems using which we can carry out many
general-purpose tasks such as playing games and word processing.

2.7.2 Computer Networking:

Computer Networking products such as Bridges, Routers, Integrated Services

Digital Networks (ISDN) , Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame relay
switches are embedded system which implemented the necessary data communication
protocols. For example, a router interconnects two networks. The networks may be
running different protocol stacks.
The router’s function is to obtain the data packets from incoming pores, analyze
the packets and send them towards the destination after doing necessary protocol
conversion. Most networking equipments, other than the end systems (desktop
computers) we use to access the networks, are embedded systems.

2.7.3 Telecommunications:

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 In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be categorized as
subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key
telephones, ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web camera are embedded systems. The
network equipment includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet Assembler
Dissembler (PADs),

satellite modems etc… IP phone, IP gateway, IP gatekeeper etc… are the latest
embedded systems that are provide very low-cost voice communication over the
Internet.

2.7.4 Wireless Technologies:

Advances in mobile communication are paving way for many interesting

applications using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of the
last decade of the 20th century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides
voice communication while we are on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and the
palmtops can now be used to access multimedia services over the internet. Mobile
communication infrastructure such as base station controllers, mobile switching centers
are also powerful embedded systems.

2.7.5 Security:

Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to
protect our homes and offices, and also the information we transmit and store.
Developing embedded systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative
businesses now-a-days. Security devices at homes, offices, airports etc… for
authentication and verification are embedded systems. Encryption devices are nearly 99
percent of the processors that are manufactured end up in embedded systems.

20 Dept of ECE
 CHAPTER 3
Literature Survey

Assistive technologies for visually impaired individuals have seen significant

advancements in recent years, with smart blind sticks emerging as a promising
solution to enhance mobility, safety, and independence. A comprehensive literature
review reveals insights from various published papers that highlight the evolution,
challenges, and potential of smart blind sticks.

Evolution of Assistive Technologies: Early research in the field of assistive

technologies focused on developing basic aids such as white canes and tactile maps
to assist visually impaired individuals in navigation. However, with the advent of
sensor technologies and artificial intelligence, researchers began exploring more
sophisticated solutions, leading to the development of smart blind sticks.

Sensor Technologies: A significant body of literature explores the role of

sensor technologies, such as ultrasonic sensors, infrared sensors, and LIDAR (Light
Detection and Ranging), in smart blind sticks. Studies have investigated the accuracy,
reliability, and effectiveness of different sensor configurations for obstacle detection
and environment mapping, with LIDAR emerging as a promising choice due to its
high precision and range.

User-Centered Design: Human-computer interaction and user-centered design

principles are central to the development of effective smart blind sticks. Literature
emphasizes the importance of involving visually impaired individuals in the design
and evaluation process to ensure that the devices meet their needs, preferences, and
usability requirements. User studies and feedback sessions provide valuable insights
for refining the design and functionality of smart blind sticks.

Integration with Mobile Devices: Many research papers explore the

integration of smart blind sticks with mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
By leveraging the computational power and connectivity of mobile devices, smart
blind sticks can offer additional features such as GPS navigation, voice commands,
and connectivity with navigation apps. These integration's enhance the functionality

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and versatility of smart blind sticks, allowing users to access a wider range of tools
and resources.

Challenges and Limitations: Despite their potential, smart blind sticks face
several challenges and limitations. Issues such as accuracy, reliability, power
consumption, and affordability remain areas of concern. Additionally, ensuring
compatibility with existing infrastructure and addressing privacy and security
concerns are important considerations in the development and deployment of smart
blind sticks.

Future Directions: Machine learning and artificial intelligence play a crucial

role in enhancing the capabilities of smart blind sticks. Research papers delve into the
development and optimization of AI algorithms for object recognition, scene
understanding, and navigation assistance. These algorithms enable smart blind sticks
to classify obstacles, predict their movements, and provide proactive guidance to users.

The literature suggests several avenues for future research and development of smart
blind sticks. These include exploring novel sensor technologies, refining AI
algorithms for real-time processing and decision-making, enhancing user interfaces
for intuitive interaction, and addressing social and ethical implications. Collaborative
efforts between researchers, industry partners, and end-users are essential for driving
innovation and advancing the field of assistive technologies for visually impaired
individuals.

In conclusion, the literature on smart blind sticks reflects a growing interest

and investment in leveraging technology to improve the lives of visually impaired
individuals. While challenges remain, ongoing research and innovation hold promise
for the continued development of smart blind sticks as effective tools for enhancing
mobility, safety, and independence.

22 Dept of ECE
 CHAPTER 4

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig:4.1. Block diagram for Smart Blind Stick for Blind people

4.1 NodeMCU (ESP8266 )

The NodeMCU ESP8266 is a powerful and versatile platform designed for

Internet of Things (IOT) development. It is a cost-effective Wi-Fi microchip known for
its capability to enable wireless communication in IOT applications. NodeMCU, on the
other hand, is an open-source firmware and development kit that simplifies the process
of prototyping and programming the ESP8266, built-in Wi-Fi connectivity, the
NodeMCU ESP8266 allows devices to wireless connection to the internet, making it
suitable for a wide range of IOT projects. One notable feature is its support for the LUA
scripting language, providing a high-level programming environment for developers.
Additionally, it is compatible with the Arduino IDE, allowing those familiar with
Arduino to use the NodeMCU platform. Equipped with General Purpose Input/Output
(GPIO) pins, the ESP8266 facilitates interfacing with various electronic components,
making it ideal for applications such as home automation and sensor networks. It has
garnered significant community support, resulting in an extensive collection of libraries

23 Dept of ECE
and documentation, making it a popular choice for rapid IOT prototyping and
development.

Figure 4.2 NodeMCU 2D View

NodeMCU Specification:

The NodeMCU development board is based on the ESP8266 micro-controller,

and different versions of NodeMCU boards may have slight variations in specifications.
As of my knowledge cutoff in January 2022, here are the general specifications for the
NodeMCU ESP8266 development board:

1. Microcontroller: ESP8266 Wi-Fi microcontroller with 32-bit architecture.

2. Processor: Tensilica L106 32-bit microcontroller.

3. Clock Frequency: Typically operates at 80 MHz.

4. Flash Memory:

● Built-in Flash memory for program storage.

● Common configurations include 4MB or 16MB of Flash memory.

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 5. RAM: Typically equipped with 80 KB of RAM.

6. Wireless Connectivity:

● Integrated Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n) for wireless communication.

● Supports Station, Soft Access Point, and Soft Access Point+ Station modes.

7. GPIO Pins: Multiple General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) pins for interfacing
with sensors, actuators, and other electronic components.

8. Analog Pins: Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) pins for reading analog sensor
values.

9. USB-to-Serial Converter: Built-in USB-to-Serial converter for programming and

debugging.

10. Operating Voltage: Typically operates at 3.3V (Note: It is crucial to connect

external components accordingly to avoid damage).

11. Programming Interface: Programmable using the Arduino IDE, LUA scripting
language, or other compatible frameworks.

12. Voltage Regulator: Onboard voltage regulator for stable operation.

13. Reset Button: Reset button for restarting the board.

14. Dimensions: Standard NodeMCU boards often have dimensions around 49mm x
24mm.

15. Power Consumption: Low power consumption, making it suitable for battery-
operated applications.

16. Community Support: Active community support with extensive documentation

and libraries.

25 Dept of ECE
 Figure 4.3: NodeMCU Parts

The NodeMCU ESP8266 development board typically has GPIO (General

Purpose Input/Output) pins that can be used for various purposes, including interfacing
with sensors, actuators, and other electronic components. Below is a common pin out
configuration for the NodeMCU development board

Figure 4.4: NodeMCU ESP8266 Pinout

ADC | A0 | GPIO16

EN | Enable | GPIO14

D0 | GPIO16 | GPIO12

26 Dept of ECE
 D1 | GPIO5 | GPIO13

D2 | GPIO4 | GPIO15

D3 | GPIO0 | GPIO2

D4 | GPIO2 | GPIO9

D5 | GPIO14 | GPIO10

D6 | GPIO12 | GPIO3

D7 | GPIO13 | GPIO1

D8 | GPIO15 | TX (GPIO1)

D9 | GPIO3 (RX) | RX (GPIO3)

D10 | GPIO1 (TX) | D11 (MOSI)

D11 | MOSI | D12 (MISO)

D12 | MISO | D13 (SCK

ADC: Analog-to-Digital Converter pin for reading analog sensor values.

EN (Enable): Enable pin.

D0-D8: Digital GPIO pins.

D9 (RX) and D10 (TX): Serial communication pins for programming and debugging.

D11 (MOSI), D12 (MISO), D13 (SCK): Pins used for SPI communication.

D14 (SDA) and D15 (SCL): Pins used for I2C communication.

It's important to note that GPIO pins labeled as "D" (Digital) are typically used
for general-purpose digital input/output. Additionally, GPIO pins labeled as "A"
(Analog) can be used as analog inputs with the ADC. GPIO pins 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11
have additional functions, so it's advised to refer to the specific NodeMCU
documentation for detailed information on pin functionality and capabilities.

27 Dept of ECE
4.2 Arduino

Arduino is an open-source hardware and software company, project, and user

community that designs and manufactures single-board
microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building digital devices. Its hardware
products are licensed under a CC BY-SA license, while software is licensed under
the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or the GNU General Public
License (GPL),[1] permitting the manufacture of Arduino boards and software
distribution by anyone. Arduino boards are available commercially from the official
website or through authorized distributors.

Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The

boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be
interfaced to various expansion boards ('shields') or breadboards (for prototyping) and
other circuits. The boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal
Serial Bus (USB) on some models, which are also used for loading programs. The
micro-controllers can be programmed using the C and C++ programming languages,
using a standard API which is also known as the Arduino language, inspired by
the Processing language and used with a modified version of the Processing IDE. In
addition to using traditional compiler toolchains, the Arduino project provides

28 Dept of ECE
an integrated development environment (IDE) and a command line tool developed
in Go.

4.3 Buzzer

It's a simple device that converts electrical signals into sound waves, producing a
buzzing or beeping sound. Buzzers are widely used in various applications for providing
audible notifications, alerts, alarms, and indications. Here's some information about
buzzers.

Figure 4.6 Buzzer

Working Principle:

The working principle of a buzzer involves converting electrical energy into

mechanical vibrations and then into sound waves. Here's a simplified explanation of
how it works, Mechanical Activation: In mechanical and magnetic buzzers, an electrical
current causes a mechanical component (diaphragm or reed) to vibrate.

Sound Production: The vibrations of the mechanical component create pressure

waves in the surrounding air, generating sound waves that we hear as a buzzing or
beeping sound.

Piezoelectric Activation: In piezoelectric buzzers, an electrical signal is applied to a

piezoelectric crystal. The crystal changes shape when subjected to the electric field,
creating vibrations that produce sound waves.

29 Dept of ECE
 Control and Sound Output: Buzzers can be controlled through voltage input,
frequency modulation, or pulse width modulation (PWM). The pitch and volume of the
sound generated can often be adjusted by varying the input parameters.

In summary, buzzers are versatile audio signaling devices used to provide audible
alerts and notifications in various applications. They come in different types and
configurations, allowing them to be tailored to specific needs and requirements

Connection:

Buzzers are rated to 5V, and the GPIO only delivers 3.3V.

Specifications:

Model Name/Number- AR083-5V-ACT-BUZZ

Size- 1 x 1 x 1 cm

Voltage- 5 V

Power Source- DC

4.4 Ultrasonic Sensor

An ultrasonic sensor is a device that emits ultrasonic sound waves and detects
their reflection to determine the distance to an object or surface. These sensors are
commonly used in various applications, including distance measurement, object
detection, and obstacle [Link] operation of an ultrasonic sensor is based on the
principle of sound wave propagation. The sensor emits a high-frequency sound wave,
typically in the ultrasonic range (above 20 kHz), and then listens for the echo reflected
off nearby objects. By measuring the time it takes for the sound wave to travel to the
object and back, the sensor can calculate the distance to the object using the speed of
sound in [Link] sensors consist of a transducer, which generates the sound waves,
and a receiver, which detects the reflected waves. The transducer typically contains one
or more piezoelectric elements that convert electrical energy into mechanical vibrations
to produce the sound waves. When the sound waves encounter an object, they are
reflected back to the sensor and detected by the [Link] of the key advantages of
ultrasonic sensors is their ability to work in various environmental conditions, including

30 Dept of ECE
darkness, dust, and fog, where optical sensors may struggle. They also offer non-contact
operation, making them suitable for applications where contact with the object is not
feasible or [Link] sensors are used in a wide range of industries and
applications, including robotics, automotive parking assistance systems, industrial
automation, and medical devices. Their versatility, accuracy, and reliability make them
essential components in many sensing and detection systems.

Figure 4.5: Ultrasonic Sensor

Features of Ultra Sonic Sensors:

Ultrasonic sensors offer a variety of features that make them valuable for a wide
range of applications. Some of the key features include:

Distance Measurement: Ultrasonic sensors can accurately measure distances to objects

or surfaces using the time-of-flight principle, making them ideal for applications
requiring precise distance sensing.

Non-Contact Operation: These sensors operate without physical contact with the
object being measured, making them suitable for applications where contact may not be
feasible or desirable.

Wide Detection Range: Ultrasonic sensors can detect objects at distances ranging from
a few centimeters to several meters, providing flexibility for various sensing
requirements.

31 Dept of ECE
High Accuracy: Ultrasonic sensors offer high accuracy in distance measurement,
enabling precise positioning and control in applications such as robotics, automation,
and level sensing.

Fast Response Time: These sensors provide rapid detection and response to changes in
distance, making them suitable for dynamic environments and real-time control systems.

Environmental Adaptability: Ultrasonic sensors can operate effectively in various

environmental conditions, including darkness, dust, fog, and harsh weather conditions,
making them versatile for indoor and outdoor applications.

Adjustable Sensing Parameters: Many ultrasonic sensors allow users to adjust

parameters such as detection range, sensitivity, and output characteristics to suit specific
application requirements.

Multiple Output Options: Ultrasonic sensors typically offer various output options,
including analog voltage, digital pulse, and serial communication interfaces, providing
flexibility for interfacing with different control systems.

Compact and Lightweight Design: These sensors are often compact and lightweight,
making them easy to integrate into different devices and systems without adding
significant bulk or weight.

Cost-Effective Solution: Ultrasonic sensors offer a cost-effective sensing solution

compared to other technologies, providing reliable performance at a relatively low cost.

Overall, the features of ultrasonic sensors make them well-suited for a wide range
of applications, including industrial automation, robotics, automotive, security systems,
and more. Their versatility, accuracy, and reliability make them essential components in
modern sensing and control systems.

Principle of Ultrasonic Measurement:

The principle of ultrasonic measurement is based on the propagation of sound

waves through a medium, typically air, and the measurement of the time it takes for
these waves to travel to an object and back to the sensor. Ultrasonic sensors emit high-
frequency sound waves, usually in the ultrasonic range (above 20 kHz), and then detect

32 Dept of ECE
the echo reflected off nearby [Link] process of ultrasonic measurement involves
several key steps:

1. Sound Wave Generation: The ultrasonic sensor emits a burst of ultrasonic sound
waves, usually through a transducer composed of piezoelectric elements. When an
electrical signal is applied to the transducer, it vibrates, producing sound waves in the
ultrasonic frequency range.

2. Wave Propagation: The emitted sound waves travel through the air until they
encounter an object in their path. The speed of sound in air is known, allowing the
sensor to calculate the distance to the object based on the time it takes for the sound
waves to travel to the object and back.

3. Reflection and Echo Detection: When the sound waves encounter an object, they
are partially reflected back towards the sensor. The sensor's receiver detects these
reflected waves, known as echoes, and measures the time delay between the emission of
the sound wave and the reception of the echo.

4. Distance Calculation: Using the known speed of sound in air and the measured time
delay, the sensor calculates the distance to the object using the formula:

Distance = (Speed of Sound × Time Delay) / 2

Since the sound waves travel to the object and back, the distance is halved to account
for the round-trip travel time.

5. Output Generation: The calculated distance information is then processed and

converted into a usable output, such as an analog voltage, digital pulse, or serial
communication signal, depending on the sensor's configuration.

By continuously emitting sound waves and measuring the time delay of the
echoes, ultrasonic sensors can accurately determine the distance to objects in their
detection range. This principle of ultrasonic measurement is widely used in various
applications, including distance sensing, object detection, and obstacle avoidance in
robotics, automation, and automotive systems.

4.5 BMS Battery

33 Dept of ECE
 A Battery management system (BMS) is any electronic system that manages
a rechargeable battery (cell or battery pack) by facilitating the safe usage and a long life
of the battery in practical scenarios while monitoring and estimating its various states
(such as state of health and state of charge), calculating secondary data, reporting that
data, controlling its environment, authenticating or balancing it.

Battery management system (BMS) is technology dedicated to the oversight of a battery

pack, which is an assembly of battery cells, electrically organized in a row x column
matrix configuration to enable delivery of targeted range of voltage and current for a
duration of time against expected load scenarios.

34 Dept of ECE
 CHAPTER-5
ARDUINO

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO ARDUINO UNO:

Arduino is a computer hardware and software company, project, and user

community that designs and manufactures microcontroller kits for building digital
devices and interactive objects that can sense and control objects in the physical world.
The project's products are distributed as open-source hardware and software, which are
licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or the GNU General
Public License (GPL), permitting the manufacture of Arduino boards and software
distribution by anyone. Arduino boards are available commercially in pre-assembled
form, or as do-it-yourself kits.

Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The

boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be
interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The boards feature
serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some
models, which are also used for loading programs from personal computers. The
micro-controllers are typically programmed using a dialect of features from the
programming languages C and C++. In addition to using traditional compiler tool
chains, the Arduino project provides an integrated development environment (IDE)
based on the Processing language project.`

The Arduino project started in 2005 as a program for students at the Interaction
Design Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for
novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their
environment using sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices intended
for beginner hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats, and motion detectors.

The name Arduino comes from a bar in Ivrea, Italy, where some of the
founders of the project used to meet. The bar was named after Arduino of Ivrea, who
was the margrave of the March of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014.

35 Dept of ECE
5.2 HISTORY:

The origin of the Arduino project started at the Interaction Design Institute
Ivrea (IDII) in Ivrea, Italy. At that time, the students used a BASIC Stamp
microcontroller at a cost of $100, a considerable expense for many students. In 2004,
Colombian student Hernando Barragan created the development platform wiring as a
Master's thesis project at IDII, under the supervision of Massimo Banzi and Casey
Reas, who are known for work on the Processing language.

The project goal was to create simple, low cost tools for creating digital projects
by non-engineers. The wiring platform consisted of a printed circuit board (PCB)
with an ATmega168 microcontroller, an IDE based on Processing and library
functions to easily program the microcontroller.

In 2005, Massimo Banzi , with David Mells , another IDII student, and David
Cuartielles, added support for the cheaper ATmega8 microcontroller to Wiring. But
instead of continuing the work on Wiring, they copied the Wiring source code and
renamed it as a separate project,called Arduino.

The initial Arduino core team consisted of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles,
Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis, but Barragán was not invited to
participate.

36 Dept of ECE
 Figure 5.1: Arduino Uno Overview diagram

Following the completion of the Wiring platform, lighter and less-expensive

versions were distributed in the open-source community. Adafruit Industries, a New
York City supplier of Arduino boards, parts, and assemblies, estimated in mid-2011
that over 300,000 officials Arduino had been commercially produced, and in 2013 that
700,000 official boards were in users' hands.

37 Dept of ECE
5.3 GENERAL PIN FUNCTIONS:

Figure 5.2: Arduino Uno Description Diagram

 LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH
value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power
source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power
source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the
power jack, access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board
can be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V), the USB
connector (5V),
o Or the VIN pin of the board (7-20V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins
bypasses the regulator, and can damage the board.
 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current
draw is 50 mA.
 GND: Ground pins.
 IOREF: This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with
which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the
IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage
translators on the outputs to work with the 5V or 3.3V.

38 Dept of ECE
  Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the
board.
5.4 SPECIAL PIN FUNCTIONS:

Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 Analog pins on the Uno can be used as an input
or output, using pin Mode (), digital Write (), and digital Read () functions. They
operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as recommended operating
condition and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50k ohm.
A maximum of 40mA is the value that must not be exceeded on any I/O pin to avoid
permanent damage to the microcontroller. The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0
through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By
default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper
end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.

In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

 Serial / UART: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit
(TX) TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the
ATmega8U2 USB- to-TTL Serial chip.
 External Interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an
interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation): 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11 Can provide 8-bit
PWM output with the analog Write() function.
 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK).
These pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.
 TWI (Two Wire Interface) / I²C: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support
TWI communication using the Wire library.
 AREF (Analog Reference): Reference voltage for the analog inputs.
Arduino is open-source hardware. The hardware reference designs are
distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and are
available on the Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of the
hardware are also available. The source code for the IDE is released under the GNU

39 Dept of ECE
General Public License, version Nevertheless, an official Bill of Materials of Arduino
boards has never been released by Arduino staff.

Although the hardware and software designs are freely available under copy left
licenses, the developers have requested that the name Arduino be exclusive to the
official product and not be used for derived works without permission. The official
policy document on use of the Arduino name emphasizes that the project is open to
incorporating work by others into the official product. Several Arduino-compatible
products commercially released have avoided the project name by using various names
ending in Arduino.

An Arduino board consists of an Atmel 8-, 16- or 32-bit AVR microcontroller

(ATmega8, ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, ATmega2560), but other
makers' microcontrollers have been used since 2015. The boards use single-row pins or
female headers that facilitate connections for programming and incorporation into
other circuits. These may connect with add-on modules termed shields. Multiple, and
possibly stacked shields may be individually addressable via an I²C serial bus. Most
boards include a 5 V linear regulator and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic
resonator. Some designs, such as the Lily Pad, run at 8 MHz and dispense with the
onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.

Arduino microcontrollers are pre-programmed with a boot loader that simplifies

uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory. The default bootloader of the
Arduino UNO is the optiboot bootloader. Boards are loaded with program code via a
serial connection to another computer. Some serial Arduino boards contain a level
shifter circuit to convert between RS-232 logic levels and transistor–transistor logic
(TTL) level signals. Current Arduino boards are programmed via Universal Serial Bus
(USB), implemented using USB- to-serial adapter chips such as the FTDI FT232.
Some boards, such as later-model Uno boards, substitute the FTDI chip with a separate
AVR chip containing USB-to-serial

Firmware in which is reprogrammable via, its own ICSP header. Other variants,
such as the Arduino Mini and the unofficial Board Uno, use a detachable USB-to-
serial adapter board or cable, Bluetooth or other methods, when used with traditional

40 Dept of ECE
microcontroller tools instead of the Arduino IDE; standard AVR in-system
programming (ISP) programming is used.

The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use by
other circuits. The Diecimila, Duemilanove, and current Uno provide 14 digital I/O
pins, six of which can produce pulse-width modulated signals, and six analog inputs,
which can also be used as six digital I/O pins. These pins are on the top of the board,
via female 0.1-inch (2.54 mm) headers. Several plug-in application shields are also
commercially available. The Arduino Nano, and Arduino-compatible Bare Bones
Board and Boarduino boards may provide male header pins on the underside of
the board that can plug into solder less breadboards.

Many Arduino-compatible and Arduino-derived boards exist. Some are

functionally equivalent to an Arduino and can be used interchangeably. Many enhance
the basic Arduino by adding output drivers, often for use in school-level education, to
simplify making buggies and small robots. Others are electrically equivalent but
change the form factor, sometimes retaining compatibility with shields, sometimes not.
Some variants use different processors, of varying compatibility.

5.5 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT:

A program for Arduino may be written in any programming language for a

compiler that produces binary machine code for the target processor. Atmel provides a
development environment for their microcontrollers, AVR Studio and the newer Atmel
Studio.

The Arduino project provides the Arduino integrated development

environment (IDE), which is a cross-platform application written in the programming
language Java. It originated from the IDE for the languages Processing and Wiring. It
includes a code editor with features such as text cutting and pasting, searching and
replacing text, automatic indenting, brace matching, and syntax highlighting, and
provides simple one- click mechanisms to compile and upload programs to an Arduino
board. It also contains a message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for
common functions and a hierarchy of operation menus.

41 Dept of ECE
 A program written with the IDE for Arduino is called a sketch. Sketches are
saved on the development computer as text files with the file extension Arduino
Software (IDE)

1.0 saved sketches with the extension.

The Arduino IDE supports the languages C and C++ using special rules of code
structuring. The Arduino IDE supplies a software library from the Wiring project, which
provides many common input and output procedures. User-written code only requires
two basic functions, for starting the sketch and the main program loop, that are
compiled and linked with a program stub main() into an executable cyclic executive
program with the GNU toolchain, also included with the IDE distribution. The
Arduino IDE employs the program to convert the executable code into a text file in
hexadecimal encoding that is loaded into the Arduino board by a loader program in the
board's firmware.

5.6 PROGRAMMING:

The Arduino UNO can be programmed with the (Arduino Software (IDE)).
Select "Arduino Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller
on your board). For details, see the reference and tutorials. The ATmega328 on the
Arduino Uno comes pre-programmed with a boot loader that allows you to upload new
code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using
the original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).You can also bypass the boot
loader and program the microcontroller through the ICSP (In-Circuit Serial
Programming) header using Arduino ISP or similar; see these instructions for details.

The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source code is
available in the Arduino repository. The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU
bootloader, which can be activated by On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper
on the back of the board (near the map of Italy) and then rese ing the [Link] Rev2 or
later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2 HWB line to ground, making
it easier to put into DFU mode.

42 Dept of ECE
 You can then use Atmel's FLIP software (Windows) or the DFU programmer
(Mac OS X and Linux) to load a new firmware. Or you can use the ISP header with an
external programmer (overwriting the DFU bootloader). See this user-contributed
tutorial for more information.

5.7 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:

Microcontroller ATmega328

Operating voltage 5V

Input voltage (recommended) 7-12V

Input voltage(limits) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14(of which 6 provide PWM

Analog I/O Pins 6

Dc current per I/O Pin 40 Ma

Dc current for 3.3v Pin 50mA

Flash memory 32 Kb of which 0.5 Kb

SRAM 2 kb

EEPROM 1Kb

Clock Speed 16MHz

Length 68.6mm

Weight 25g

Table 5.1: Technical specifications of Arduino Uno

5.8 USB OVER CURRENT PROTECTION:

The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB
ports from shorts and over current. Although most computers provide their own internal
protection, the fuse provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is

43 Dept of ECE
applied to the USB port, the fuse will automatically break the connection until the short
or overload is removed.

5.9 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches
respectively, with the USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former
dimension. Three screw holes allow the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note
that the distance between digital pins 7 and 8 is 160 mil (“0.16"), not an even multiple
of the 100 mil spacing of the other pins.

5.10 APPLICATIONS:

Arduino Uno comes with a wide range of applications. A larger number of

people are using Arduino boards for developing sensors and instruments that are used
in scientific research. Following are some main applications of the board.

 Embedded System.
 Security and Defense System.
 Digital Electronics and Robotics.
 Parking Lot Counter.
 Weighing Machines.
 Traffic Light Count Down Timer.
 Medical Instrument.
 Emergency Light for Railways.
 Home Automation.
 Industrial Automation.

44 Dept of ECE
 CHAPTER - 6
design and code

const int trigPin = 7; // Trigger pin of HC-SR04

const int echoPin = 6; // Echo pin of HC-SR04

const int buzzer = 5;

void setup() {

[Link](9600);

pinMode(trigPin, OUTPUT);

pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);

pinMode(buzzer, OUTPUT);

void loop() {

digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);

delayMicroseconds(2);

digitalWrite(trigPin, HIGH);

delayMicroseconds(10);

digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);

45 Dept of ECE
long duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH);

// Speed of sound is 343 meters/second or 0.0343 cm/microsecond

int distance = duration * 0.0343 / 2;

if (duration == 0) {

[Link]("Error: Out of range");

} else {

[Link]("Distance: ");

[Link](distance);

[Link](" cm");

if(distance <= 30){

digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH);

[Link]("object detected be careful");

else{

digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW);

46 Dept of ECE
 }

delay(500); // Wait for a short time to avoid too frequent measurements

#include <ESP8266WiFi.h>

#include <Firebase_ESP_Client.h>

#include "addons/TokenHelper.h"

#include "addons/RTDBHelper.h"

// Wi-Fi Credentials

#define WIFI_SSID "123456789"

#define WIFI_PASSWORD "123456789"

// Firebase Credentials

#define API_KEY "AIzaSyC0gPSHesz3RxIsbFM48OkKK_zCBhfbtmc"

#define DATABASE_URL "[Link]

// Firebase Objects

FirebaseData fbdo;

FirebaseAuth auth;

FirebaseConfig config;

// Variables

47 Dept of ECE
unsigned long sendDataPrevMillis = 0;

bool signupOK = false;

void setup() {

[Link](9600); // Initialize Serial for communication with Arduino

[Link]("Starting NodeMCU...");

// Connect to Wi-Fi

[Link](WIFI_SSID, WIFI_PASSWORD);

[Link]("Connecting to Wi-Fi");

while ([Link]() != WL_CONNECTED) {

[Link](".");

delay(300);

[Link]();

[Link]("Connected with IP: ");

[Link]([Link]());

[Link]();

// Firebase Configuration

config.api_key = API_KEY;

48 Dept of ECE
 config.database_url = DATABASE_URL;

if ([Link](&config, &auth, "", "")) {

[Link]("Firebase Sign-Up Success");

signupOK = true;

} else {

[Link]("Firebase Sign-Up Failed: %s\n",

[Link].c_str());

config.token_status_callback = tokenStatusCallback; // Callback for Token Status

[Link](&config, &auth);

[Link](true); // Enable automatic reconnect

void loop() {

if ([Link]()) {

// Read data from Arduino

String receivedData = [Link]('\n');

[Link]("Received from Arduino: " + receivedData);

// Check if data is valid

49 Dept of ECE
 if ([Link]("Distance:")) {

int distance = [Link](9).toInt();

// Send data to Firebase if ready

if ([Link]() && signupOK && (millis() - sendDataPrevMillis > 1000 ||

sendDataPrevMillis == 0)) {

sendDataPrevMillis = millis();

// Upload distance value to Firebase

if ([Link](&fbdo, "sensor/distance", distance)) {

[Link]("Distance Value sent to Firebase");

} else {

[Link]("Failed to send Distance Value: " + [Link]());

50 Dept of ECE
 CHAPTER -7
Advantages and Future Scope:
Advantages
Enhanced Safety: The integration of sensors and artificial intelligence enables the
smart blind stick to detect obstacles, hazards, and changes in terrain in real-time,
helping visually impaired individuals navigate safely and avoid accidents.

Improved Independence: By providing immediate feedback and guidance, the

smart blind stick empowers users to navigate their environment independently, reducing
reliance on assistance from others and promoting greater autonomy.

Efficient Navigation: Advanced features such as GPS integration and route

planning assist users in navigating unfamiliar environments efficiently, helping them
reach their destinations with confidence and ease.

Customization Assistance: Smart blind sticks can be customized to meet the

specific needs and preferences of individual users, allowing for personalized settings,
alerts, and navigation assistance tailored to each user's unique requirements.

Real-time Feedback: Users receive real-time feedback through auditory, tactile,

or visual cues, providing immediate awareness of obstacles and changes in the
environment, enhancing situational awareness and safety.

Integration with Mobile Devices: Many smart blind sticks offer integration with
mobile devices, allowing users to access additional features such as voice commands,
location sharing, and connectivity with navigation apps, enhancing functionality and
convenience.

Continuous Innovation: The field of assistive technologies is rapidly evolving,

with ongoing advancements in sensor technologies, artificial intelligence, and user
interfaces. Smart blind sticks benefit from continuous innovation, with new features and
improvements continually being developed to enhance user experience and
effectiveness.

51 Dept of ECE
 Promotion of Inclusion: By enabling visually impaired individuals to navigate
their environment more effectively, smart blind sticks promote inclusion and
accessibility, allowing users to participate more fully in activities, social interactions,
and community life.

Long-term Cost Savings: While smart blind sticks may represent an initial
investment, the long-term cost savings associated with reduced accidents, injuries, and
reliance on assistance can outweigh the upfront expenses, making them a cost-effective
solution in the long run.

Positive Impact on Quality of Life: Ultimately, the advantages of smart blind

sticks translate into a significant improvement in the quality of life for visually impaired
individuals, fostering greater independence, confidence, and freedom to explore and
engage with the world around them.

Future scope
A variety of future scope are available that can be used of with the stick such as
usage of global positioning system can help the blind person to source to destination
route information. GPS can help to find the shortest and best path has accordingly to
google ( map based on real time coordinates). Global system for mobile
communication(GSM) attachment can help in future for any immediate causality help.

Connectivity with mobile changes to Bluetooth for replacing signal issues and more
reliability. Integrating Smart blind stick with artificial intelligence and machine learning
to detect the obstacle and reading the name of obstacle aloud. Designing the smart blind
stick more reliably, easy to carry, proper working in Adverse weather conditions

Voice commands for easy access of mobile application and redirecting to various
applications. These increases the safety of the blind person in identity of the object in
front of him/her.

52 Dept of ECE
 CHAPTER - 8

RESULT, CONCLUSION AND OUTPUT

Thus, this project which is built by our group is totally tells us about the
architecture and model of Arduino based third eye or extra vision for blind people. A
simple architecture device, efficient in use, cheap in cost, easy to carry with us, easy
configurable, easy to handle electronic guidance system with proper and easy usages
guidance and various effective hardware helps to provides the amazing properties so
that it helps the needy blind people. So, talking about this project it has the feature to
detect the distance of objects that’s are major issue for blind people after detecting the
object distance they also told us about the direction where object was detected like left,
right, top, bottom. This all feature helps the blind person to easy walk in any direction
without colliding with obstacle. With our given project instruction if it is made as
accurate as we were showing in our research paper that helps the blind people to move
in any direction without taking the third person help it also makes someone independent
from the others and if they have some work so they do by itself. Our project is
successfully removing the problem of existing navigation techniques like carry the stick
with us while walking, use of another person while moving one place to another and
many more issue was successfully resolved by this project. This project, if used on a
wider scale and distributed to all the blind people it really makes a bigger impact to the
society and the community.

Output:

53 Dept of ECE
 CHAPTER - 9
REFERENCES:
1 [Link]/blog/2020/04/build your-own-object-detection model-using-t
ensorflow-api/
2 JM. Benjamin, A, Ali, AF. Schepisi. ARDUINO BASED THIRD EYE FOR BLIND PEOP
LE, Proceedings of San Diego Medical Symposium, 1973, 443-450.
3 S. Sabari’s. \"ARDUINO BASED THIRD EYE FOR BLIND PEOPLE\", International Jo
urnal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT), 2013; 2(4):139-143
4 Pooja Sharma, SL. Shimmies. Chatterjee. ARDUINO BASED THIRD EYE FOR BLIND
PEOPLE\", International Journal of Science and Research Technology. 2015; 4(1):1-1
5 JM. Benjamin, A. Ali, AF. Schepisi. \'ARDUINO BASED THIRD EYE FOR BLIND PEO
PLE\", Proceedings of San Diego Medical Symposium, 1973,443-450.
6 S. Shovel, I Ulrich, J. [Link] Belt and the Guide Cane, IEEE \"Transactions o
n Robotics & Automation\". 2003; 10(1):9-20.
7 S. Sabari’s. \"Navigation Tool for Visually Challenged using Arduino\', International Jou
rnal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT), 2013; 2(4):139-143.
8 D. Bolgiano, E. Meeks.” A laser cane for the blind”, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electroni
cs. View at Google Scholar. 1967; 3(6):268.
9 AA. Tahat.” A wireless ranging system for the blind long-cane utilizing a smart-phone”,
in Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Telecommunications. (ConTEL \'09),
IEEE, Zagreb, Croatia, June. View at Scopus. 2009, 111-117.
10 MA. Espinosa, S. Ungar, E. Ochaíta. “Blades comparing methods for Introducing Blind
and Visually Impaired People to unfamiliar urban environments.”, Journal of Environmental p
sychology. 1998; 18:277- 287.

54 Dept of ECE