CHAPTER 04

CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Culture and The Consumer Behaviour: Culture, components of culture, useful concepts of
cultural analysis, cross-cultural research and multinational marketing, subcultures-nature
of subculture, different types of subcultures and their marketing implications.
Serial No. Topics Page
Serial No. Topics Page
CULTURE 115
4.01 Culture 115
4.02 Meaning of Culture 116
4.03 Definition of Culture 117
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE 118
4.04 Components of Culture 118
4.05 The Influence of Culture on Consumer Behaviour 120
4.06 Aspects of Culture 122
4.07 Characteristics of Culture 123
4.08 Functions of Culture 128
4.09 Elements of Culture 128
4.10 Factors Affecting the Culture 132
4.11 Importance of the Cultural Study 134
USEFUL CONCEPTS OF CULTURAL ANALYSIS 135
4.12 Useful Concepts of Cultural Analysis 135
4.13 Methods of Learned Culture 138
4.14 Variation in Cultural Values 138
4.15 Components of Critical Cultural Studies 141
CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH AND MULTI- MARKETING 141
4.16 Introduction to Cross-cultural Studies 141
4.17 Definition and Objectives of cross-cultural consumer analysis 142
114 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

4.18 How cross-cultural analysis helps a multinational marketer? 143

4.19 Approaching World Markets 143
4.20 Segmentation versus Standardization 143
4.21 Market Expansion Strategies 144
4.22 Acculturation is a needed marketing view Point 145
4.23 Basic Research Issues in Cross-Cultural Analysis 145
4.24 Frameworks for assessing multinational strategies 146
4.25 Conclusion on Cross-Cultural Analysis 148
4.26 Cultural Deference in Marketing 148
4.27 Area of Research for Cross Cultural Analysis 150
SUBCULTURES-NATURE OF SUBCULTURE 153
4.28 Subculture 153
4.29 Examples of Subcultures 154
4.30 Nature of Subculture 155
DIFFERENT SUBCULTURES AND IMPLICATIONS 156
4.31 Different Types of Subcultures 156
4.32 Subcultures and Their Marketing Implications 157
4.33 What are Cultural Symbols? 159
4.34 What is Symbolic Culture? 160
4.35 Symbols in Different Cultures 160
Exercise 161
End of Chapter 4 162
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 115

CULTURE
ms¯‹…wZ
4.01 Culture
ms¯‹…wZ
Culture consists of all learned, normative behavior patterns – that is, all shared ways or patterns
of thinking and feeling as well as doing.
Word ‘culture’ comes from the Latin word ‘cultura,’ related to cult or worship. In its broadest
sense, the term refers to the result of human interaction.
Society’s culture comprises the shared values, understandings, assumptions, and goals that are
learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of society, and passed on to
succeeding generations.
Sometimes an individual is described as a highly cultured person, meaning that the person in
question has certain features such as his/her speech, manner, and taste for literature, music, or
painting, which distinguish him from others.
Culture, in this sense, refers to certain personal characteristics of an individual.
However, this is not the sense in which the word culture is used and understood in social sciences.
116 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Sometimes culture is used in popular discourse to refer to a celebration or an evening of

entertainment, as when one speaks of a ‘cultural show.’ In this sense, culture is identified with
aesthetics or the fine arts such as dance, music, or drama.
This is also different from the technical meaning of the word culture.
Culture is used in a special sense in anthropology and sociology. It refers to the sum of human
beings’ lifeways, behavior, beliefs, feelings, and thoughts; it connotes everything acquired by
them as social beings. Culture has been defined in several ways.
There is no consensus among sociologists and anthropologists regarding the definition of culture.
Some writers add to these definitions some of the important” other capabilities and habits” such
as language and the techniques for making and using tools.

4.02 Meaning of Culture

ms¯‹…wZi A_©
Culture is a comprehensive and encompassing term that includes what we have learned about our
history, values, morals, customs, art, and habits. Here in this section, we shall mention quite a few
definitions of culture and analyze those to form a clear picture of a culture that may help us
formulate appropriate marketing strategies.
A culture is “the complex of values, ideas, attitudes, and other meaningful symbols created by
people to shape human behavior and the artifacts of that behavior as they are transmitted from one
generation to the next.”
The above definition highlights three important attributes of an individual’s culture.
First, it is ‘created by people,’ evolving due to human activities and passed on to the succeeding
generations.
Second, the impact of cultural influence is both intangible and tangible. People’s basic attitudes
and values are a direct result of their cultural environment. Beliefs in freedom of speech and
choice, heterosexuality, and God are products of human action. Additionally, people leave
physical evidence of their culture through art and craftwork, buildings, furniture, laws, and food.
Third, the cultural environment evolves, and it is most often evolves over lengthy periods. Changes
in women’s roles in the home and business and the outward desire for leisure time have come
about quite slowly. Other changes, however, occur quicker. Clothing styles, for example, come
and go rather hastily.
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 117

Culture may also be defined in other ways. According to Kroeber, “the mass of the learned and
transmitted motor reactions, habits, techniques, ideas, and values – and the behavior they include
– is what constitutes culture. It is all those things about men that are more than just biological or
organic, and that are also more than merely psychological.”
It is the human-made part of the environment, the total way of life of a people, the social legacy
that the individual acquires from his group. The culture into which we are born provides many
ready-made solutions to problems growing out of the geographic, biological, and social
environment in which we live.
These ready-made solutions are provided in the form of cultural patterns relating to the ideology,
role definitions, and socialization procedures of the society in which we live. These cultural
patterns are transmitted to individuals through social institutions such as family, educational
institutions, religious institutions, social classes, languages, parents’ attitudes, behavior, and
reading.
As a result, the cultural patterns that consumers learn to influence their ideas and values, the roles
they play, how they carry those roles out, and how their needs and desires are handled.
E. B. Taylor defined culture as that complex whole, including knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Culture is thus composed of common habits and patterns of living of people in daily activities and
common interest in entertainment, sports, news, and even advertising. Culture is a comprehensive
concept, which includes almost everything that influences an individual’s thought processes and
behaviors. Culture does not include inherited responses and predispositions.

4.03 Definition of Culture

ms¯‹…wZi msÁv
Culture has been defined in some ways, but most simply, as the learned and shared behavior of a
community of interacting human beings.
1. According to British anthropologist Edward Taylor, “Culture is that complex whole
which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as. a member of society”.
2. According to Phatak, Bhagat, and Kashlak, “Culture is a concept that has been used in
several social science disciplines to explain variations in human thought processes in different
parts of the world.” ‘
118 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

3. According to J.P. Lederach, “Culture is the shared knowledge and schemes created by a set
of people for perceiving, interpreting, expressing, and responding to the social realities
around them.”
4. According to R. Linton, “A culture is a configuration of learned behaviors and results of
behavior whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a
particular society.”
5. According to G. Hofstede, “Culture is the collective programming of the mind which
distinguishes the members of one category of people from another.”
6. According to H.T. Mazumdar, “Culture is the total of human achievements, material and
non-material, capable of transmission, sociologically, i.e., by tradition and communication,
vertically as well as horizontally.”
Actually, culture is defined as the shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive
constructs, and affective understanding that are learned through socialization. These shared
patterns identify the members of a culture group while also distinguishing those of another group.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
ms¯‹…wZi Dcv`vb
4.04 Components of Culture
ms¯‹…wZi Dcv`vb
If you study a culture, whether modern or backward, you will identify three important components
in it. 3 Components Of Culture are;

1. Cognitive component

Components of Culture
2. Material component

3. Normative component

In other words, the culture of a particular society is composed of three distinct elements or
components. Let us now have a brief discussion on them:
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 119

1. Cognitive Component (Ávbxq Dcv`vb): The basic component of any culture is one relating to
people’s knowledge about the universe’s creation and existence. This aspect is based on either
people’s observation or on certain factual evidence that they have.
An individual of a backward culture believes in gods, superstitions, and other objects as a
part of their cognitive aspect. But, in a technologically advanced society, the cognitive aspect
is based on scientific experiments and their applications.
The cognitive component of an advanced society’s culture is quite distinct from that of a
primitive one because of the refinement of knowledge through systematic testing and
observation.
2. Material Component (e¯‘MZ Dcv`vb): Another important component of any given culture is
the material feature of society. It consists of all the tangible things that human beings make,
use, and give value to the material component varies from culture to culture as the cognitive
component.
It is based on the technological state that society has achieved and understood, looking at
society’s artifacts. The artifacts include the type of housing where people live, the furniture
they use, and other material goods they possess.
Since it is tied to the level of technological advancement of the society, the material features
of cultures are very diverse as technological achievements vary.
3. Cognitive Component (g~j¨‡eva Dcv`vb): The other important component of a culture is the
cognitive component. The cognitive component is composed of society’s values and norms,
which guides and regulates behavior.
In other words, it consists of the values, beliefs, and rules by which society directs people’s
interactions. Understanding culture means understanding its values.
Values are shared standards of acceptable and unacceptable, good and bad, desirable, and
undesirable. Values are abstract, very general concepts that are expressed by norms.
Norms are rules and guidelines, setting forth proper attitudes and behaviors for specific
situations.
For example, in South Asian countries, the culture places a high value on religious training;
therefore, our norms specify formal religious education for every child up to a certain age.
Mass religious education norms create a need for religious teachers, books, and other related
materials.
120 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Among the values the culture holds, some are core or central values, while others are
peripheral values. Core values are the deeply held enduring beliefs that guide our actions,
judgments, and specific behaviors, supporting our efforts to realize important aims.
Although not as deeply embedded or as fundamental as central values, our peripheral values
reflect our central values. If you value your health, you may value regular exercise and a low-
salt, low-cholesterol diet. You may also abstain from smoking cigarettes and drinking
alcoholic beverages.
Marketers should give a deep look at each of the three components of culture discussed above
as they determine the consumption of goods and services by people of a particular culture to
a great extent. Failure to understand them may become a grave concern for marketers.

4.05 The Influence of Culture on Consumer Behaviour

†fv³v AvPi‡Yi Dci ms¯‹…wZi cªfve
The influence of culture on consumer behavior is profound, and if misunderstood or taken lightly,
then the product might fail in the new cultural market. As businesses are expanding, they are
entering wider territories and in many cases, businesses are operating in more then one country.
When the company is truly multi national, then it means that it is operating in two different cultures
besides operating in two different geographies.

Let us take simple examples of difference in cultures between two countries

 In China, asking about a person’s income, age or marital status is common whereas in US it
is considered rude.
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 121

 The spending patterns of a top economy like UK will be completely different then a
developing nation. Same goes for the saving pattern as well. UK consumers are more likely
to spend more money than other countries because their earnings is high as well.

 In most countries, when you go to someone’s place, you have to take gifts with you. In China,
even if someone is coming to your place, you have to give gifts to them.
In essence, there are small things which make up the culture of an individual. However, in the
marketing world the influence of culture on consumer behaviour takes 3 different aspects into
consideration.
1) Culture as a whole (mvgwMªKfv‡e ms¯‹…wZ): Think of this as the statement “I love India” or “I love
USA”. The people of these two countries love the country for the heritage they have or for
things that have happened in the past as well as the way the country is moving forward.
Similarly, each individual of different countries will have different cultural backgrounds. And
this culture influences the consumer greatly.
Culture is made up of the things that have happened in the fast. There is a saying that goes
“The child always adopts the culture of the parents”. So if the parents are hot headed, the
child will be similar. So culture definitely defines an individual and the buying pattern of the
individual will vary on the basis of culture.
The best example of influence of culture on consumer behavior is McDonalds. The same
McDonalds has different type of Burgers in USA, UK and India. I am sure it will be different
in China as well. If McDonalds had kept the same taste in all these countries, it would have
failed to expand beyond US borders.
2) Subculture (Dcms¯‹…wZ): A nation’s culture can be understood at the macro level, but many
countries are divided in sub cultures as well. Sub cultures are generally formed on the basis
of religion and geography. Take any democratic country and you will find many different
regions sub divided, with each region having its inherent characteristics.
So, in India for example, the north is filled up of Sikh’s and Punjabi’s whereas the south is
filled up of South Indian people. The dressing style, language, music of both these regions
are completely different. Naturally, the product brought by the individuals will be different
too. On a cultural level, these consumers might all be buying the same McDonalds. But in the
north, on a local level, a Paratha or a Kulcha will sell more than an Idli or a Dosa (North and
south india cuisine respectively).
3) Social class (mvgvwRK †k«Yx): Be it the north or the south, be it one country or another, the effect
of culture on consumer behavior is observed most on the basis of social class of the individual.
122 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

If the consumer belongs to a higher social class, he has to buy a mercedes to show his social
class. On the other hand, a consumer of the low social class will be happy with a bicycle too.
Social class influences many different aspects of a consumer. What he wears, what he drives
or rides, how he carries himself, which product he needs or does not need, are all decided on
the basis of Social class.
Based on the targeting of social class, the company can alter its product to normal, premium
and super premium (which BMW is doing continually). Thus, the customer can then pick his
choice to match his social class. If you only have normal products, the super premium class
will ignore you. And if you only have premium products, you are losing out on the normal
social class (it is your choice to do so based on your decided target market).
If a company which is entering a new market, fails to understand the influence of culture on
consumer behavior, then it will have serious ramifications in its success. The company might
not understand the reason of its failure also. On the other hand, a company which invests in
understanding the local culture can go a long way towards the success of their product.

4.06 Aspects of Culture

ms¯‹…wZi w`K
If we explain the above definition, we can identify three aspects of a given culture;
1. Culture is a pattern of behavior,
2. Culture is learned, and
3. Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next.
1. Culture is a Pattern of Behavior (ms¯‹…wZ AvPi‡Yi GKwU aiY): Culture refers basically to the
style of behavior. This style is found to be present in the behaviors of the majority of people
living in a particular culture.
This pattern varies from culture to culture, and as a result, consumptions vary among
countries. The pattern of behavior you will see in South-Asian culture will definitely not be
seen in other cultures. The behavior established by culture is found to be practiced by the
majority as it satisfies their needs.
Someone not following the established pattern of behavior is likely to be condemned by
others in society. Since the majority follows the same style of behavior in a particular culture,
it becomes a pattern.
To be successful, marketers must find out the patterns of behavior and design their marketing
strategies accordingly to be successful in a culture.
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 123

2. Culture is Learned (ms¯‹…wZ †kLv nq): The second important aspect relating to culture is that
we learn it through experiences and interactions.
The aspects of culture are not found in an individual right from his birth. He rather learns
those from others in the society as he follows, observes, and interacts with them. Since
experiences vary among people of different societies, they learn different things resulting in
differences among cultures.
For example, a South-Asian child grows in a European country among the Europeans and
will definitely not learn South-Asian cultural aspects but the European cultural aspects,
influencing his behavior.
It clearly indicates that culture is learned, not present from birth, why people of different
cultures see the same object or situation differently.
The reason is that their learning differs. For example, wearing mini-skirts by females is seen
negatively in South-Asia, where it is seen positively in Western countries. Since people of
two different cultures learn differently, they are likely to view the same object differently.
People learn about their cultures from their parents and different social organizations and
groups. This will be discussed later.
3. Culture is Transmitted from One Generation to the Next (ms¯‹…wZ GK cªRb¥ ‡_‡K Ab¨ cªR‡b¥
mÂvwiZ nq): We have in our culture in terms of values, ideas, attitudes, symbols, artifacts, or
other, and we are likely to conform to those.
We follow the patterns of our cultures and teach them to the next generation to guide them.
This process of transmitting the cultural elements from one generation to the next is known
as ‘Enculturation”.
Thus, cultural elements do not persist in one generation but are transmitted to the next
generation and survive the entire life span of an individual. That is why a lot of similarities
in behaviors are found between people of two different generations.

4.07 Characteristics of Culture

ms¯‹…wZi ‰ewkó¨
All organizations have a culture because they are embedded in specific societal cultures and are
part of them.
Some values create a dominant culture in organizations that help guide employees’ day-to-day
behavior.
124 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

There is also evidence that these dominant cultures can positively impact desirable outcomes, such
as successfully conducting mergers and acquisitions supporting product innovation processes and
helping firms cope with rapid economic and technological change.
Culture has various characteristics. From various definitions, we can deduce the following
characteristics of culture:

1. Learned Behavior
2. Culture is Abstract
3. Culture Includes Attitudes, Values, and Knowledge
4. Culture also Includes Material Objects
5. Culture is Shared by the Members of Society
Characteristics of Culture

6. Culture is Super-Organic
7. Culture is Pervasive
8. Culture is a Way of Life
9. Culture is Idealistic
10. Culture is Transmitted among Members of Society
11. Culture is Continually Changing
12. Language is the Chief Vehicle of Culture
13. Culture is Integrated
14. Culture is Dynamic
15. Culture is Transmissive
16. Culture Varies from Society to Society
17. Culture is Gratifying

1. Learned Behavior (†kLv AvPiY): Not all behavior is learned, but most of it is learned; combing
one’s hair, standing in line, telling jokes, criticizing the President, and going to the movie all
constitute behaviors that had to be learned.
Sometimes the terms conscious learning and unconscious learning are used to distinguish the
learning.
Some behavior is obvious. People can be seen going to football games, eating with forks, or
driving automobiles. Such behavior is called “overt” behavior. Other behavior is less visible.
2. Culture is Abstract (ms¯‹…wZ weg~Z©): Culture exists in the minds or habits of the members of
society. Culture is the shared ways of doing and thinking. There are degrees of visibility of
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 125

cultural behavior, ranging from persons’ regularized activities to their internal reasons for so
doing.
In other words, we cannot see culture as such; we can only see human behavior. This behavior
occurs in a regular, patterned fashion, and it is called culture.
3. Culture Includes Attitudes, Values, and Knowledge (ms¯‹…wZi g‡a¨ g‡bvfve, g~j¨‡eva Ges Ávb
AšÍf©y³): There is a widespread error in the thinking of many people who tend to regard the
ideas, attitudes, and notions they have as “their own.”
It is easy to overestimate the uniqueness of one’s own attitudes and ideas. When there is an
agreement with other people, it is largely Unnoticed, but when there is a disagreement or
difference, one is usually conscious of it.
Your differences, however, may also be cultural. For example, suppose you are a Muslim,
and the other person is a Christian.
4. Culture also Includes Material Objects (ms¯‹…wZi g‡a¨ e¯ÍMy Z Dcv`vb AšÍf©y³): Men were
behaving when they made these things. To make these objects required numerous and various
skills which human beings gradually built up through the ages. Man has invented something
else, and so on.
Occasionally one encounters the view that man does not really “make” steel or a battleship.
All these things first existed in a “state nature.”
The man merely modified their form, changed them from a state in which they were to the
state in which he now uses them. The chair was first a tree which man surely did not make.
But the chair is’ more than trees, and the jet airplane is more than iron ore and so forth.
5. The Members of Society share culture (mgv‡Ri m`m¨‡`i ms¯‹…wZ ew›UZ nq): The patterns of
learned behavior and behavior results are possessed not by one or a few people, but usually
by a large proportion.
Thus, many millions of persons share such behavior patterns as automobiles or the English
language. Persons may share some part of a culture unequally.
Sometimes the people share different aspects of culture.
6. Culture is Super-Organic (ms¯‹…wZ cÖYešÍ): Culture is sometimes called super organic. It
implies that “culture” is somehow superior to “nature.” The word super-organic is useful
when it implies that what may be quite a different phenomenon from a cultural point of view.
126 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

For example, a tree means different things to the botanist who studies it, the older woman
who uses it for shade in the late summer afternoon, the farmer who picks its fruit, the motorist
who collides with it, and the young lovers who carve their initials in its trunk.
The same physical objects and physical characteristics, in other words, may constitute a
variety of quite different cultural objects and cultural characteristics.
7. Culture is Pervasive (ms¯‹…wZ cwie¨vß): Culture is pervasive; it touches every aspect of life. The
pervasiveness of culture is manifest in two ways.
First, culture provides an unquestioned context within which individual action and response
take place. Cultural norms govern not only emotional action but relational actions.
Second, culture pervades social activities and institutions.
8. Culture is a Way of Life (ms¯‹…wZ Rxe‡bi GKwU c_): Culture means simply the “way of life” of
a people or their “design for a living.” Kluckhohn and Kelly define it in his sense”, A culture
is a historically derived system of explicit and implicit designs for living, which tends to be
shared by all or specially designed members of a group.”
Explicit culture refers to similarities in word and action, which can be directly observed.
For example, adolescent cultural behavior can be generalized from regularities in dress,
mannerism, and conversation. Implicit culture exists in abstract forms, which are not quite
obvious.
9. Culture is Idealistic (ms¯‹…wZ Av`k©ev`x): Culture embodies the ideals and norms of a group. It
is the sum-total of the ideal patterns and norms of behavior of a group. Culture consists of the
intellectual, artistic, and social ideals and institutions that the members of society profess and
strive to confirm.
10. Culture is Transmitted among Members of Society (mgv‡Ri m`m¨‡`i g‡a¨ ms¯‹…wZ mÂvwiZ nq):
Many of them are “handed down” by their elders, parents, teachers, and others. Other cultural
behaviors are “handed up” to elders. Some of the transmission of culture is among
contemporaries.
For example, the styles of dress, political views, and the use of recent labor-saving devices.
One does not acquire a behavior pattern spontaneously.
He learns it. That means that someone teaches him, and he learns. Much of the learning
process for the teacher and the learner is unconscious, unintentional, or accidental.
11. Culture is Continually Changing (ms¯‹…wZ µgvMZ cwieZ©bkxj): There is one fundamental and
inescapable attribute (a special quality) of culture, the fact of unending change.
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 127

Some societies sometimes change slowly, and hence in comparison to other societies, seem
not to be changing at all. But they are changing, even though not obviously so.
12. Language is the Chief Vehicle of Culture (fvlv ms¯‹…wZi cªavb evnb): Man lives not only in the
present but also in the past and future.
He can do this because he possesses a language that transmits what was learned in the past
and enables him to transmit the accumulated wisdom to the next generation.
A specialized language pattern serves as a common bond to the members of a particular group
or subculture.
Although culture is transmitted in various ways, language is one of the most important
vehicles for perpetuating cultural patterns.
13. Culture is Integrated (ms¯‹…wZ GKxf~Z): This is known as holism, or the various parts of a
culture being interconnected.
All aspects of a culture are related to one another, and to truly understand a culture, one must
learn about all of its parts, not only a few.
14. Culture is Dynamic (ms¯‹…wZ MwZkxj): This simply means that cultures interact and change.
Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols.
All cultures change. Otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing
environments.
And because cultures are integrated, the entire system must likely adjust if one component in
the system changes.
15. Culture is Transmissive (ms¯‹…wZ n¯ÍvšÍig~jK): Culture is transmissive as it is transmitted front
one generation to another.
Language is the main vehicle of culture. Language in different forms makes it possible for
the present generation to understand the achievement of earlier generations.
Transmission of culture may take place by imitation as well as by instruction.
16. Culture Varies from Society to Society (mgvR †_‡K mgv‡R ms¯‹…wZ cwiewZ©Z nq): Every society
has a culture of its own. It differs from society to society. The culture of every society is
unique to itself. Cultures are not uniform.
Cultural elements like customs, traditions, morals, values, beliefs are not uniform
everywhere. Culture varies from time to time also.
128 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

17. Culture is Gratifying (ms¯‹…wZ Z…wß`vqK): Culture provides proper opportunities for the
satisfaction of our needs and desires.
Our needs, both biological and social, are fulfilled in cultural ways. Culture determines and
guides various activities of man. Thus, culture is defined as the process through which human
beings satisfy their wants.
So we can easily say that culture has various features that embodied it in an important position in
organizations and other aspects.

4.08 Functions of Culture

ms¯‹…wZi Kvh©vejx
We will review the functions that culture performs and assess whether culture can be a liability
for an organization. Culture performs some functions within an organization.
 First, it has a boundary-defining role; it creates distinctions between one organization and
another.
 Second, it conveys a sense of identity for organization members.
 Third, culture facilitates the generation of commitment to something larger than one’s
individual self-interest.
 Fourth, it enhances the stability of the social system. Culture is the social glue that helps
hold the organization together by providing appropriate standards for what employees
should say and do.
 Finally, culture serves as a sense-making and control mechanism that guides and
shapes employees’ attitudes and behavior. It is this last function that is of particular interest to us.
The role of culture in influencing employee behavior appears to be increasingly important in
today’s workplace.
As organizations have widened spans of control, flattened structures introduced, teams reduced
formalization and empowered employees. The shared meaning provided by a strong culture
ensures that everyone is pointed in the same direction.

4.09 Elements of Culture

ms¯‹…wZi Dcv`vb
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 129

Culture is transmitted to employees in many ways. The most significant are stories, rituals,
material symbols, and language.
Society’s culture also comprises the shared values, understandings, assumptions, and goals that
are learned from earlier generations, imposed by present members of society, and passed on to
succeeding generations.
There are some elements of culture about which the managers of international operation should
be aware of.
 Languages,
 Norms,
 Symbols,
 Values,
 Attitude,
 Rituals,
 Customs and Manners,
 Material Culture,
 Education,
 Physical Artifacts,
 Language, Jargons, and Metaphors,
 Stories, Myths, and Legends,
 Ceremonies and Celebrations,
 Behavioral Norms, and
 Shared Beliefs and Values.
1. Languages (fvlv): It is a primary means used to transmit information and ideas. Knowledge
of local language can help because-
 It permits a clearer understanding of the situation.
 It provides direct access to local people.
 Understanding of implied meanings.
2. Religion (ag©): The spiritual beliefs of a society are often so powerful that they transcend other
cultural aspects. Religion affect-
130 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

 The work habit of people

 Work and social customs
 Politics and business
3. Norms (wbqg): Cultures differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for
behaving. Norms are often divided into two types, formal norms and informal norms.
Formal norms, also called mores and laws, refer to the standards of behavior considered the
most important in any society.
Informal norms, also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behavior that are
considered less important but still influence how we behave.
4. Symbols (cªZxK): Every culture is filled with symbols of things that stand for something else,
which often suggests various reactions and emotions.
Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication, while other symbols are, in
fact, material objects.
5. Values (g~j¨‡eva): Values are a society’s ideas about what is good or bad, right or wrong –
such as the widespread belief that stealing is immoral and unfair.
Values determine how individuals will probably respond in any given circumstances.
6. Attitude (g‡bvfve): Attitude is a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way.

Actually, it is the external displays of underlying beliefs that people use to signal to other
people.
7. Rituals (AvPvi): Rituals are processes or sets of actions that are repeated in specific
circumstances and with a specific meaning. They may be used in rites of passage, such as
when someone is promoted or retires.
They may be associated with company events such as the release of a new event. They may
also be associated with a day like Eid day.
8. Customs and Manners (ixwZbxwZ Ges AvPvi): Customs are common and establish practices.
Manners are behaviors that are regarded as appropriate in a particular society. These indicate
the rules of behavior that enforce ideas of right and wrong.
They can be the traditions, rules, written laws, etc.
9. Material Culture (e¯ÍyMZ ms¯‹…wZ): Another cultural element is the artifacts, or material objects,
that constitute a society’s material culture. It consists of objects that people make. Like-
 Economic infrastructure (transportation, communication, and energy capabilities)
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 131

 Social infrastructure (Health, housing, and education systems)

 Financial infrastructure (Banking, insurance, and financial services)
10. Education (wk¶v): It influences many aspects of culture.

Actually, culture is the entire accumulation of artificial objects, conditions, tools, techniques,
ideas, symbols, and behavior patterns peculiar to a group of people, possessing a certain
consistency of its own and capable of transmission from one generation to another.
11. Physical Artifacts (kvixwiK wb`k©b): These are the tangible manifestations and key elements of
organizational culture.
If you visit different organizations, you’ll notice that each is unique in terms of its physical
layout, use of facilities, centralization or dispersion of common utilities, and so on.
This uniqueness is not incidental; instead, they represent the symbolic expressions of an
underlying meaning, values, and beliefs shared by people in the organization. The workplace
culture greatly affects the performance of an organization.
12. Language, Jargons, and Metaphors (fvlv, cwifvlv, Ges iƒcK): These elements of
organizational culture play an important role in identifying a company’s culture.
While the language is a means of universal communication, most business houses tend to
develop their own unique terminologies, phrases, and acronyms.
For instance, in the organizational linguistics code, “Kremlin” may mean the headquarters;
in Goal India Limited, the acronym. J.I.T. (Just In Time) was jokingly used to describe all the
badly planned fire-fighting jobs.
13. Stories, Myths, and Legends (Mí, wg_ Ges wKse`wšÍ): These are, in a way, an extension of
organizational language. They epitomize the unwritten values and morals of organizational
life.
If you collect the various stories, anecdotes, and jokes shared in an organization, they often
read like plots and themes, in which nothing changes except the characters.
They rationalize the complexity and turbulence of activities and events to allow for
predictable action-taking.
14. Ceremonies and Celebrations (Abyôvb Ges D`hvcb): These are consciously enacted behavioral
artifacts which help in reinforcing the organization’s cultural values and assumptions.
For example, every year, Tata Steel celebrates Founder’s Day to commemorate and reiterate
its adherence to the organization’s original values.
132 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Stating the importance of ceremonies and celebrations, Deal and Kennedy (1982) say,
“Without expressive events, and culture will die. In the absence of ceremony, important
values have no impact.”
15. Behavioral Norms (AvPiYMZ wbqg): This is one of the most important elements of
organizational culture. They describe the nature of expectations, which impinge on the
members’ behavior.
Behavioral norms determine how the members will behave, interact, and relate with each
other.
16. Shared Beliefs and Values (wek¦vm Ges g~j¨‡eva e›Ub): All organizations have their unique set of
basic beliefs and values (also called moral codes), shared by most of its members. These are
the mental pictures of organizational reality and form the basis of defining the organization’s
right or wrong.
For instance, in an organization, if the predominant belief is that meeting the customers’
demands is essential for success, any behavior that supposedly meets these criteria is
acceptable, even if it violates the established rules and procedures.
Values and beliefs focus organizational energies toward certain actions while discouraging
the other behavioral patterns.

4.10 Factors Affecting the Culture

ms¯‹…wZ‡K cªfvweZKvix Dcv`vb
There are so many ways of examining cultural differences and their impact on international
management. Culture can affect technology transfer, managerial attitudes, managerial ideology,
and even business-government relations.
In overall terms, the cultural impact on international management is reflected by these basic beliefs
and behaviors.
Here are some specific examples where the culture of a society can directly affect management
approaches:
1. Centralized vs. Decentralized Decision Making (†K›`ªxf~Z ebvg we‡K›`ªxf~Z wm×všÍ MªnY): In some
societies, top managers make all-important organizational decisions.
In others, these decisions are defused throughout the enterprise; middle and lower-level
managers actively participate and make decisions.
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 133

2. Safety vs. Risk (wbivcËv ebvg SyuwK): In some societies, organizational decision-makers are risk-
averse and have great difficulty with conditions of uncertainty. In others, risk-taking is
encouraged, and decision making under uncertainty is common.
3. Individual vs. Group Rewards (e¨w³MZ ebvg `jMZ cyi¯‹vi): In some countries, personnel who
do outstanding work are given individual rewards in bonuses and commissions. In others,
cultural norms require group rewards, and individual rewards are frowned on.
4. Informal vs. Formal Procedures (AbvbyôvwbK ebvg AvbyôvwbK c×wZ): In some societies, much is
accomplished through informal means. In others, formal procedures are set forth and
followed rigidly.
5. Cooperation vs. Competition (mn‡hvwMZv ebvg cªwZ‡hvwMZv): Some societies encourage
cooperation between their people. Others encourage competition between their people.
6. High Vs. Low Organizational Loyalty (D”P ebvg Kg mvsMVwbK AvbyMZ¨): In some societies,
people identify very strongly with their organization or employer. In others, people identify
with their occupational groups, such as an engineer or mechanics.
7. Short-term vs. Long-term Horizons (¯^í‡gqv`x ebvg `xN©‡gqv`x w`MšÍ): Some cultures focus most
heavily on short-term horizons, such as short-range goals of profit and efficiency. Others are
more interested in long-range goals, such as market share and technological development.
8. Stability vs. Innovation (w¯’wZkxjZv ebvg D™¢veb): The culture of some countries encourages
stability and resistance to change. The culture of others puts a high value on innovation and
change.
9. Goals and Objectives (j¶¨ I D‡Ïk¨): The culture of the organization is also affected by its
goals and objectives. The strategies and procedures designed to achieve this organization’s
goals and objectives also contribute to its culture.
10. Others (Ab¨vb¨):

 Language and dialect

 Religion
 Wealth
 Climate and weather
 Dress sense and clothes-fashion
 Level of education and literacy
 General living standards
134 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

 Employment regulations
These cultural differences influence the way that comparative management should be conducted.
Sometimes these factors affect international business because some international managers are
unknown and unfamiliar with these factors and day to day business protocol.

4.11 Importance of the Cultural Study

mvs¯‹…wZK Aa¨q‡bi ¸iæZ¡
The influence of society’s religious, family, educational, and social system on consumers’
behavior and their impacts on marketing comprise a company’s cultural environment. It would be
difficult to overlook the importance of culture as a motivator of consumer behavior.
While it is easy to state the general significance of culture, it is more difficult to define the term
to receive general acceptance.
Consequently, it is hard to be precise about the impacts of culture on consumer behavior. Cultural
dimensions among countries vary even more than economic dimensions, so that it becomes
difficult at best to find general patterns.
For example, even though Western European countries’ economic characteristics are similar, their
cultural dimensions make for very different eating habits.
Certainly, culture is the most pervasive external force on an individual’s consumption behavior
how people work and play, what they eat, how they eat, how and what they buy, and the cultural
traditions and socially developed modes of behavior are all affected.
Even a slight change in them can significantly alter how and what people buy.
For example, in the US, in the early 1980s, some religious groups began a movement to boycott
products promoted on certain highly popular but “immoral” (sex-oriented) Consumer Behavior
Television shows. Over 6000 churches joined the movement, and some companies agreed to cease
their advertising on those shows.
Marketing executives must consider the importance of the cultural setting within which consumer
behavior takes place. The attitudes people possess, the values they hold dear, the lifestyles they
enjoy, and the interpersonal behavioral patterns they adopt are the outcomes of the cultural setting.
These forces affect the marketplace by influencing other external forces. They undoubtedly have
a bearing on government standards, the state of the economy, and the intensity of competition and
technological development. You should keep in mind that cultures vary from country to country,
and as a result, consumption patterns among people vary.
Failure to carefully consider cultural differences is often responsible for monumental marketing
failures. In fact, it has been convincingly argued that the root cause of most international business
problems is the selfreference criteria, i.e., the unconscious reference to one’s own cultural values.
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 135

Marketing across cultural boundaries is a challenging and difficult task. You know that consumer
behavior always takes place within a specific environment, and an individual’s culture provides
the most general environment in which his consumption behavior takes place.
Cultural influences have broad effects on buying behavior because they permeate our daily lives.
Our culture determines what we wear and eat, where we reside and travel. It broadly affects how
we buy and use products, and it influences our satisfaction with them.
For example, in our urban culture, time scarcity increases because of the increase in the number
of females who work. Because of the current emphasis, we place on physical and mental self-
development. Many people do time-saving shopping and buy time-saving products, such as instant
noodles, to cope with time scarcity.
Since culture, to some degree, determines how products are purchased and used, it, in turn, affects
the development, promotion, distribution, and pricing of products.
From the premise given above, it is now quite evident that the study of the market’s culture where
you operate or plan to operate is vital for your success and even existence.
Understanding culture is important to you as a marketing manager because it always provides
approved specific goal objects for any generalized human want.

USEFUL CONCEPTS OF CULTURAL ANALYSIS

mvs¯‹…wZK we‡køl‡Yi `iKvix aviYv
4.12 Useful Concepts of Cultural Analysis
mvs¯‹…wZK we‡køl‡Yi `iKvix aviYv
Key Concepts in Cultural Analysis are:
(a) Representation (cªwZwbwaZ¡): Cultural studies emphasize focus on representation which refers
to how the world is socially constructed and represented to us by ourself in meaningful ways.
The major stress of cultural studies is on the study of culture as the signifying practice of
representation. For this, we need to explore the different meanings generated by texts, and
the modes by which each meaning is produced in different contexts. Moreover,
representations of culture and their meanings have a material aspect. These are embedded in
sounds, inscriptions, objects, images, books, magazines and programmes on television. All
this is produced, enacted, used and understood in specific social contexts. A wide range of
different representations of groups or individuals can exist in texts or cultures. The concept
of representation has an important place in the study of culture. Representation is that which
connects meaning and language to culture. It is an important element of the process through
which meaning is produced and exchanged between members of a culture. It involves use of
language, signs and images which stand for or represent things. Basically, representation is
136 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

the creation of the meanings of the concepts created in our minds through language. For
example, SUV advertisements portray driving of SUVs as an exciting outdoor experience or
beer advertisements which show drinking beer as the most important aspect of a party, or
motorcycles being represented as a manly means of transport.
(b) Materialism (e¯Íyev`): Cultural studies is mostly concerned with modern industrialized
economies as well as with the media cultures which are organized on capitalist lines. In these,
the representations are produced by profit-motivated corporations. It is in this context, that,
cultural studies have developed a form of cultural materialism concerned with understanding
how and why specific meanings are inscribed at the time of production. Therefore, in addition
to keeping the focus on signifying practices, cultural studies also try to connect these to
political economy. In this manner, cultural studies, as a discipline is concerned with power
and the distribution of economic and social resources. As a result, cultural studies is
concerned with the one who owns as well as controls cultural production; distribution
mechanisms used for cultural products; and the consequences of the patterns of ownership
and control of the outlines of the cultural landscape.
(c) Non-reductionism (A-n«vmev`): A central characteristic of cultural studies is its non-
reductionism. In this, each culture is viewed as having its own particular meanings, rules and
practices, which cannot be reduced to or explained only in terms of some other category or
level of social formation. Cultural studies has specifically fought against economic
reductionism which tries to explain meanings of cultural texts with reference to its place in
the production process. The processes of political economy do not determine meanings of
texts in cultural studies. Political economy, social relationships and culture are to be
understood on the basis of their own specific logic and methods of development. Each one of
these is ‘articulated’ or related to the other in context-specific manner. Non-reductionism of
cultural studies emphasizes that class, gender, sexuality, race, nation, as well as ethnicity have
their own specifics and they cannot be reduced to political economy or to each other.
(d) Articulation (D”PviY): It links cultural or social phenomena. The concept of articulation has
been deployed by cultural studies for theorizing the relationships among various components
of a social formation. It points towards the formation of temporary unity among elements
which do not necessarily have to go together. Articulation refers to expressing/representing
as well as ‘putting together’. In this way, representations of gender can be ‘put-together’ with
representations of race or nations, so that we can refer to nations as being female. Articulation
is the framework of connections which can create a unity of two or more different or distinct
elements, under certain conditions. This takes place in context-specific and contingent ways
which cannot always be predicted. Articulation is also deployed for discussing the relation
between culture and political economy. Thus, we can say that culture is ‘articulated’ with
moments of production, but not determined in any ‘necessary’ way by that moment, and vice
versa. Hence, we can look into how the moment of production is inscribed in texts and also
how the ‘economic’ is cultural, which is a meaningful set of practices. In cultural studies,
articulation is a method used to analyze culture. It envisions and builds up new frameworks
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 137

for interpretation. The metaphor of a game of Lego set can be used to understand how
articulation works. It can be continually fashioned and refashioned.
(e) Power (kw³): Power is the capacity of imposing one’s will on others. It is a common argument
that media has too much power. There is startling agreement among cultural studies writers
about the centrality of the concept of power. For them, power is seen as pervading at every
level of social relationships. Power is coercive force subordinating one group of people to
another and the glue holding the social groups together, but it is not just these. It is also seen
in terms of the processes generating and enabling any form of social action, relationship or
order. In this sense, power is constraining as well as enabling. Cultural studies is specifically
concerned with subordinated groups, mainly class, and then race, gender, age group, nations,
etc. For example, minorities of all kinds generally presume that their way of life and views
are treated by media in a positively hostile manner.
(f) Popular culture (Rbwcªq ms¯‹…wZ): Subordination takes place due to coercion, as well as consent.
Cultural studies understands popular culture as the grounds on which this consent is obtained
or lost. In order to understand the interplay of power and consent, two related concepts of
ideology and hegemony are often deployed in the earlier texts of cultural studies. Ideology
commonly refers to maps of meanings which are presented as universal truths. Ideology is a
historically specific meaning obscuring and maintaining power. For example, gender
representations in advertising depicting women as housewives or sexy bodies, reduces them
to such categories. Such portrayal denies them their rightful position as human beings and
citizens of society. This process of making, maintaining and reproducing ascendant meanings
and practices is referred to as hegemony. It refers to a situation where powerful groups
exercise social authority and leadership over subordinate groups by gaining consent.
(g) Texts and readers (cvV¨ Ges cvVK): Production of consent refers to popular identification to
cultural meanings by signifying practices of hegemonic texts. Text refers to written word as
well as the practices signified. Texts generally describe a range of cultural objects like books,
television programmes, CDs, films, etc. It also includes generating meaning by sounds,
images, objects (like clothes) and activities (like dance, sport). Images, sounds, practices and
objects are systems of sign and signify in the same way as language. So, they all can be
commonly referred to as texts. All sorts of texts, including television and films, are said to be
read. In a broader sense, it refers to understanding the audience. The meanings which critics
find in cultural texts are not the same as that produced by readers or active audiences. All
readers do not necessarily share same meanings with each other. Critics are also a specific
breed of readers. Texts, as forms of representation, are polysemic by nature, containing the
possibility of many different meanings which have to be realized by actual readers. These
readers give life to words and images. The ways in which texts work can be easily examined,
but the meanings, audiences obtain from textual analysis cannot be ‘read-off’. Meaning is
produced by the interplay of text and reader. As a result, the moment of consumption is also
a moment of meaningful production.
138 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

(h) Subjectivity and identity (welq Ges cwiPq): Identity is the sense of self and the process of
definition of that sense. It is commonly argued that media plays a significant role in this
process. One of the processes by which we are formed as persons, is marked by the moment
of consumption. During the 1990s, main areas of concern in cultural studies were what it is
to be a person, viz., subjectivity and how we describe ourselves to each other, viz., identity.
Therefore, we can say that cultural studies looks into how we come to be the kind of people
we are; how we are produced as subjects; and how we identify with descriptions of ourselves
as male or female, black or white, etc. Anti-essentialism is an argument which states that
identities are not things that exist; they do not have essential or universal qualities. In fact,
they are discursive construction, products of discourses or regulated ways of speaking
through the world. So, identities are made rather than found through representation, especially
language. For instance, in relation to media, an individual may define himself/herself as a
heavy metal fan or a fan of rock music

4.13 Methods of Learned Culture

†kLv ms¯‹…wZi c×wZ
Culture is learned through the following three ways:
1) Formal learning (AvbyôvwbK wk¶v): parents and elders teach children the proper way to behave.
For instance, you have been taught that you need to study to be successful and happy in life.
This learning may influence your response both as a student and individual towards
education.
2) Informal learning (AbvbyôvwbK wk¶v): we learn by imitating the behaviour of our parents,
friends, or by watching TV and film actors in action. Consumer Behaviour (Marketing)
3) Technical learning (KvwiMwi wk¶v): instructions are given about the specific method by which
certain things to done such as painting, dancing, singing etc.

4.14 Variation in Cultural Values

mvs¯‹…wZK g~j¨‡ev‡ai cwieZ©b
There are three broad forms of cultural values as shown in the following figure.
I. Other Oriented Value (Ab¨vb¨ Iwi‡q‡›UW gvb): This shows the relationship between individuals
and the society. The relationship influences marketing practices. If the society values
collective activity, decisions will be taken in a group. It gives rise to following questions
which affect consumer behaviour.
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 139

a) Individual/ collective (e¨w³/mw¤§wjZ): Whether individual initiation has more value than
collective activity?
b) Romantic orientation (†ivgvw›UK Awf‡hvRb): This depicts whether the communication is
more effective which Emphasizes courtship or otherwise. In many countries a romantic
theme is more successful.
c) Adult/ child theme (cªvßeq¯‹/wkï w_g): Is family life concentrated round children or
adults? What role do children play in decision-making?
d) Masculine/ Feminine (cyswj½ ¯¿xwj½): Whether the society is male dominant or women
dominant or balanced.
e) Competitive/ Cooperation (cªwZ‡hvwMZvg~jK/mn‡hvwMZv): Whether competition leads to
success. This is achieved by forming alliances with others.
f) Youth/ age (hye/eqm): Are prestige roles assigned to younger or older members of the
society. American society is youth oriented and Korean is age oriented. Decisions are
taken by mature people in Korea.
II. Environment Oriented Values (cwi‡ek wfwËK g~j¨‡eva):
a) Cleanliness (cwi”QbœZv): If a culture lays too much stress on cleanliness. There is scope
for the sale of beauty creams, soaps, deodorants, insecticides, washing powder, vacuum
cleaner, etc. In western countries, a lot of emphasis is placed on this aspect and perfumes
and deodorants are widely used.
b) Performance/ status (Kg©¶gZv/w¯’wZ): A status oriented society cares for higher standards
of living, and chooses quality goods and established brand names and high prices items.
This is true for the United States, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and
most Arabic countries. In performance oriented societies, where rewards and prestige is
based on an individual’s performance, less importance is given to brand names. Products
which function equally well and may not be big brand names are used. Germans do not
give the same amount of emphasis to brand names. The marketers adopt strategies
accordingly.
c) Tradition/ change (HwZn¨/cwieZ©b): Traditional oriented societies stick to the old product
and resist innovation or new techniques. In traditional societies, there is less scope for
new products, and old traditional products are in greater demand. In some societies
which are upwardly mobile, consumers are looking for modern methods, new products,
new models and new techniques.
d) Risk taking/ security (SyuwK MªnY/wbivcËv): An individual who is in a secure position and
takes a risk can be either considered venturesome or foolhardy. This depends on the
culture of the society. For developing new entrepreneurs risk taking is a must. It leads to
140 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

new product development, new advertising themes and new channels of distribution.
Security oriented societies have little chances of development and innovation.
e) Problem solving/fatalist (mgm¨v mgvavb/wbqwZev`x): A society can be optimistic and have a
problem solving attitude or, be inactive and depend on fate. This has marketing
implications on the registering of complaints when consumers are dissatisfied with the
purchase of the products. Advertising plays an important part and gives guidance to the
consumer, and removes these doubts to a great extent.
f) Nature (cªK…wZ): There are differences in attitude over nature and its preservation.
Consumers stress on packing materials that are recyclable and environment friendly.
Some countries give great importance to stop environmental pollution and to recycling
of products.
Companies like P & G, Colgate-Palmolive captured a great extent of the market by offering
products which are less harmful to the environment. They also use ingredients in the
products which are not harmful in any way.
III. Self-Oriented Values(¯^-wfwËK g~j¨‡eva):
a) Active/passive (mwµq / wbmwµq): Whether a physically active approach to life is valued
more highly than a less active orientation. An active approach leads to taking action all
the time and not doing anything. In many countries, women are also taking an active part
in all activities. This makes the society a highly active one, where everybody is involved
in work.
b) Material/ non-material (Dcv`vb / A Dcv`vb): In many societies money is given more
importance, and a lot of emphasis is on being material minded. While in many societies
things like comfort, leisure and relationships get precedence over being materialistic.
c) Hard work/leisure (cwikªg/Aemi): This has marketing implications on labour saving
products and instant foods. Some societies value hard work and consider it as a fuller
life. Others adopt labour saving devices and instant foods to have more leisure time at
their disposal.
d) Postponed gratification/ immediate gratification (¯’wMZ cwiZ…wß/ Zvr¶wYK cwiZ…wß): Should
one save for the rainy day or live for the day? Sacrifice the present for the future, or live
only for the day? Some countries like The Netherlands and Germany consider buying
against credit cards as living beyond one’s means, whereas credit cards are very popular
in America and other countries having a different cultural orientation, some prefer cash
to debt. Some societies save for tomorrow; others enjoy the present and spend lavishly.
e) Sexual gratification/Abstinence (†hŠb Z…wß / weiZ _vKv): Some traditional societies curb
their desires, food, drinks or sex, beyond a certain requirement. Muslim cultures are very
conservative, and do not want their women to be seen in public or be exposed, so the
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 141

Polaroid camera which gives instant photographs can be purchased and pictures can be
taken by the family members without their women being exposed to the developers in a
photo lab.
f) Humour/serious (nvm¨im/M¤¢xi): Should we take life lightly and laugh it off on certain
issues or, take everything seriously? This is another aspect of culture. Advertising
personnel selling techniques and promotion may revolve around these themes and the
way the appeal for a product is to be made in various cultures.
4.15 Components of Critical Cultural Studies
mgv‡jvPbvg~jK mvs¯‹…wZK Aa¨q‡bi Dcv`vb
Cultural studies contains three-fold project of analysing:
(a) Production and political economy of culture.
(b) Cultural text analysis.
(c) Audience reception of texts and their efforts. Details of each project is as follows.
(a) Production and political economy (ms¯‹…wZi Drcv`b I ivR‰bwZK A_©bxwZ): Political economy of
culture means to analyze cultural texts within their system of production and distribution.
(b) Textual analysis (cvV¨ we‡kølY): Products of media culture require multidimensional, textual
readings to analyze their various forms of discourses, ideological positions, narrative
strategies, construction and effects. This is generally done through:
(i) Content analysis (welq we‡kølY): That is analysis of contents of communication, which
involves classifying contents in such a way so as to bring out their basic structure.
(i) Semiology: Analyses how linguistic and non-linguistic cultural ‘signs’ form a system of
meanings.
(ii) Audience reception and use of media culture (): All texts are subject to multiple readings,
depending on the perspective and subject position of the reader. Audiences are of three
types: – Information seeking – Reaction seeking – Conversion seeking.

CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH AND MULTINATIONAL

MARKETING (µm-mvs¯‹…wZK M‡elYv Ges eûRvwZK wecYb)

4.16 Introduction to Cross-cultural Studies

µm-mvs¯‹…wZK ÷vwWR f~wgKv
Today, almost all major corporations are actively marketing their products beyond their original
homeland borders. In fact, the issue is generally not whether to market a brand in other countries
but rather how to do it. Because of this emphasis on operating as a multinational entity, the
142 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

vocabulary of marketing now includes terms such as global, which refers to companies that are
both “global” and “local”.
Firms are selling products worldwide for several reasons. First, with the buildup of “multinational
fever” and the general attractiveness of multinational markets, products or services originating in
one country are increasingly being sought out by consumers in other parts of the world. Second
many firms have learned that overseas markets represent the single most important opportunity
for their future growth when their home markets reach maturity. This realization is propelling
them to expand their horizons and seek consumers scattered all over the world. Moreover
consumers all over the world are increasingly eager to try “foreign” products that are popular in
different and far-off places.

4.17 Definition and Objectives of cross-cultural consumer

analysis (µm-mvs¯‹…wZK ‡fv³v we‡køl‡Yi msÁv Ges D‡Ïk¨)
To determine whether and how to enter foreign markets, marketers need to conduct some form
of cross-cultural consumer analysis. Cross-cultural consumer analysis is defined as the effort to
determine to what extent the consumers of two or more nations are similar or different. Such
analyses can provide marketers with an understanding of the psychological, social and cultural
characteristics of the foreign consumers they wish to target, so that they can design effective
marketing strategies for the specific national markets involved. According to Berkman and
Gilson, Cross-cultural research is a methodology for comparing cultures on the basis of similarities
and differences as well as studying small segments of a total culture. Comparisons are usually
made by analyzing the statistical, typological and content aspects of cultures.
 Statistical: what the demographics of a population are
 Typological: what cultural types may be identified
 Content: what kinds of values and norms people accept and live by
Traditionally, anthropologists have used cross-cultural research to explore at wide variety of
topics. These include comparing love and courtship patterns and political power. Knowledge about
the cultural meanings of color, for example, gives marketers some cues to effective product design,
advertising and packaging for specific societies. For example, in twenty-three different cultures,
“black and grey” are considered “bad” while white, blue, and green are perceived as “good”.
Yellow, white, and grey are universally seen as weak but red and black are strong. And where
black and grey are considered as passive colors, red is definitely active.
A major objective of cross-cultural consumer research is to determine how consumers of two or
more societies are similar and how they are different. Understanding of similarities and differences
that exist between nations is critical to multinational marketer who must devise appropriate
strategies to reach consumers in specific foreign markets. The greater the similarity between
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 143

nations, the more feasible it is to use relatively similar marketing strategies in each nation. On the
other hand, if the cultural beliefs, values, and customs of specific target countries are found to
differ widely, then a highly individualized marketing strategy is indicated for each country. For
example, advertising will be far different for American culture and Arabian culture.

4.18 How cross-cultural consumer analysis helps a

multinational marketer? wKfv‡e µm-mvs¯‹…wZK ‡fv³v we‡kølY GKwU
eûRvwZK wecYbKvix‡K mvnvh¨ K‡i?
Cross-cultural consumer analysis helps a multinational marketer in the following ways:
1. Cross-cultural study is an extremely important activity for a multinational marketer. There
are a great many cross-cultural variations in consumer behavior that are of particular interest
to the marketer operating in more than one culture.
2. As differences in verbal communication system across cultures are found such as the
symbolic communications, multinational marketers must also take that into active
consideration for success in other cultures.
3. Understanding cross-cultures help marketers to understand values of other cultures which
influence their purchase behavior. This understanding helps marketers making proper
adaptations in their product, pricing, distribution, and promotion policies.
4. Since marketers cannot satisfy the needs of the entire market, markets must be segmented.
To segment markets effectively, marketers also require an understanding of other cultures.
5. Values also determine whether people of a particular culture will be influenced by others in
the society. Knowing this aspect of a culture helps marketers identifying reference groups
that will have bearing on consumer behavior. Thus it helps marketers to tailor their
promotional programs on specific reference group.

4.19 Approaching World Markets

wek¦ evRv‡ii KvQvKvwQ
Recently, cross-cultural methodology has been applied to marketing research, closely aligned with
developments in multinational marketing. But a controversy has emerged over best means to
approach world markets; one argument maintains that markets should be segmented along national
boundaries and another contends that markets are sufficiently alike to standardize marketing
initiatives.

4.20 Segmentation versus Standardization

wefvRb ebvg gvbKKiY
144 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

The more traditional technique has been to treat markets as local entities; each society, or part of
a society, is regarded as a unique and well-defined cultural milieu.
Ernest Dichter conceptualized six different types of countries based on the degree of middle class
development. In this context, he related each type to characteristics of automobile consumption.
One group of countries was defined as almost classless and contented. In what are primarily
Scandinavian countries, the middle class predominates and few people are either very rich or very
poor. Attitudes toward products are rational rather than status oriented, and automobiles are
regarded as strictly utilitarian.
The second group was described as affluent, and includes the United States, Canada, and Holland.
Few people go hungry and there is potential for upward mobility, especially at the top end of the
upper middle class. Individualistic, high quality products are sought after, and automobiles tend
to follow that pattern.
The third group is termed countries in transition, such as England, France, and Italy. All of these
nations sustain a working class of the 19th century variety, but this class is really working at joining
the middle class. Where upper class individuals still enjoy special privileges, automobiles may be
opulent and expensive. England produces Rolls Royce and Italy Ferrari and Maserati. But in the
United States no mass production cars appear in this $20,000-and-up category.
Group four consists of revolutionary countries; India and the Philippines are examples. Here there
are extremely wealthy people, a small but growing middle class, and huge numbers of poor.
The fifth group is made up of primitive countries such as the new nations of Africa. In this there
is a small, wealthy class of political leaders and foreign businessmen, but a predominantly illiterate
and economically depressed population.
Finally, the sixth group is called the new class society and is made up of Russia and its satellite
countries. Here a newly established class of bureaucrats represents a kind of aristocracy while
everyone else seem grouped into a low middle class existence.
Generally, the recent trend in international marketing has veered away from segmentation toward
greater standardization of markets. Because a significant degree of culture universally exists
throughout the world marketing experts urge the more economical approach of viewing several
countries one market. Erik Elinder notes that Europe has experienced a gradual breakdown in
language and custom barriers due to media, migration, and tourism and suggests that advertising
should be geared to all-European media rather than custom fitted for localities. Buzzell, citing the
economic advantages of standardizing products, packaging, and promotion, cautions that
segmentation may still be appropriate where income levels, shopping patterns, language, access
to media, and other factors seem to warrant a more narrowly focused approach.

4.21 Market Expansion Strategies

evRvi m¤úªmviY ‡KŠkj
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 145

In a cross cultural analysis of English, United States, Canadian, and Australian markets, Sommers
and Kernan offer four strategies for expanding existing products into new markets. Their primary
considerations are twofold: 1) the cultural values which will determine how a product is positioned
and 2) cultural cues as to how a product may best be marketed. The strategies are:
1. Same product-same promotion (GKB cY¨-GKB cªPvi): In this case, a new market’s established
way of indicates that a given product will be accepted and the current promotion is
sufficiently widespread to sell it. Coca-Cola represents a widely successful example.
2. Same product-different promotion (GKB cY¨-wfbœ cªPvi): This method is appropriate where
the new market reflects a way of life similar to that in the established market, but individual
life styles are patterned differently. A standard ford, no great luxury, in the United States,
would be an extravagant purchase for most New Zealanders.
3. Different product-same promotion (wfbœ cY¨-GKB cªPvi): When a new market exhibits
product-use styles quite different from the present market, some reworking of the product
itself may be in order. A laundry detergent might be branded and packaged differently in
Europe but would still be advertised with “brightness” claims.
4. Different product-different promotion (wewfbœ cY¨-wfbœ cªPvi): If both the cultural way of life
and individual life styles is dramatically different in a new market, it may be most advisable
to acquire existing firms there. Walgreen’s, for instance, entered the Mexican market by
acquiring a retail chain known as Sanborn’s.

4.22 Acculturation is a needed marketing viewpoint

msMªn Kiv GKwU cªh‡qvRbxq wecYb `…wófw½
Too many marketers contemplating international expansion make the strategic error of believing
that if its product is liked by local or domestic consumers, then everyone will like it. This increases
marketing failures abroad. It reflects a lack of appreciation of the unique psychological, social,
cultural, and environmental characteristics of distinctly different cultures. To overcome such a
narrow and culturally myopic view, marketers must also go through an acculturation process. In a
sense, cross-cultural acculturation is a dual process for marketers. First, marketers must thoroughly
orient themselves to the values, beliefs, and customs of the new society to appropriately position
and market their products. Second, to gain acceptance for a culturally new product in a foreign
society, they must develop a strategy that encourages members of that society to modify or even
break with their own traditions.

4.23 Basic Research Issues in Cross-Cultural Analysis

µm-mvs¯‹…wZK we‡køl‡Y †gŠwjK M‡elYv mgm¨v
The following table identifies basic issues that multinational marketers must consider when
planning cross-cultural consumer research.
146 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Factors and Examples

Differences in language and meaning. Example; Words or concepts may not mean the same in two
different countries.
Differences in market segmentation opportunities. Example; The income, social class, age and sex
of target customers may differ dramatically between two different countries.
Differences in consumption pattern. Example; Two countries may differ substantially in the level
of use of products or services.
Differences in the perceived benefits of products and services. Example; Two nations may
consume same product differently.
Differences in the criteria for evaluating of products and services. Example; The benefits sought
from a service may differ from country to country.
Differences in economic and social conditions and family structure. Example; The style of family
decision making may vary from country to country.
Differences in marketing research possibilities. Example; The availability of professional
consumer researchers may vary from country to country.

4.24 Frameworks for assessing multinational strategies

eûRvwZK ‡KŠkj g~j¨vq‡bi Rb¨ KvVv‡gv
Multinational marketers face the challenge of creating marketing and advertising programs
capable of communicating effectively with a diversity of target markets. To assist in this imposing
task, various frameworks have been developed to determine the degree to which marketing and
advertising efforts should be either globalized or localized, or mixed or combined.
To enable international marketers to assess the positions their products enjoy in specific foreign
markets, the following table presents a five-stage continuum that ranges from mere awareness of
a foreign brand in a local market area to complete global identification of the brand; that is the
brand is accepted “as is” in almost every market, and consumers do not think about its country of
origin-“it belongs.”
Factors and Examples
1. Stage One: Local consumers have heard or read of a brand marketed elsewhere but cannot
get it at home; a brand is “alien” and unavailable but may be desirable.
2. Stage Two: Local consumers view a brand made elsewhere as “foreign,” made in a particular
country but locally available. The fact that the brand is foreign makes a difference in the
consumer’s mind, sometimes favorable, sometimes not.
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 147

3. Stage Three: Local consumers accord imported brand “national status”; that is, its national
origin is known but does not affect their choice.
4. Stage Four: Brand owned by a foreign company is made (wholly or partly) domestically and
has come to be perceived by locals as a local been “adopted” (naturalized). Examples are
Sony in the United States, Coca-Cola in Europe and Japan.
5. Stage Five: Brand has lost national identity and consumers everywhere see it as “borderless”
or global; not only can people not identify where it comes from but they never ask this
question. Examples are CNN news services, Nescafe.
Again the following table presents a framework that focuses on four marketing strategies available
to a firm contemplating doing business on a global basis. A firm might decide either to standardize
or localize its product and either standardize or localize its communications program. The four
possibilities that this decision framework considers range from a company incorporating a global
strategy to developing a completely local strategy. In the middle there are two mixed strategies.
To determine which cell represents the firm’s best strategy, the marketer must conduct cross-
cultural consumer analysis to obtain consumer reactions to alternative product and promotional
executions:

Communication Strategy
Product Strategy Standardized Localized
Communications Communications
Standardized Product Global Strategy: Mixed Strategy:
Uniform Product Uniform Product
Uniform Message Customized Message
Standardized Product Mixed Strategy: Local Strategy:
Customized Product Customized Product
Uniform Message Customized Message
When looking for success in a foreign market, it has been suggested that a company should
remember the 3 P’s- Place, People, and Product. Often the key to success is to “be global but to
act local.” The following table presents the specific elements of these 3 P’s and cites the
appropriate marketing strategy when using a standardization approach and when using a
localization approach:
Degree of fit between Marketing Strategies and the 3 P’s

The 3P’s Specific Elements Standardization Localization

Economy Prosperous Struggling
Price Partners Few Plentiful
Competitors Low Intense
Tests Little Preference High Preference
Sophistication High Low
People
Segments Few Many
Classification
148 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Industrial /Consumer Consumer

durables nondurables

Products Technology High Low

Culture bound Low High
Reputation Sterling Poor or unknown
Product High Low
Perception

4.25 Conclusion on Cross-Cultural Analysis

µm-mvs¯‹…wZK we‡køl‡Yi Dci Dcmsnvi
Marketers must learn everything that is relevant to the product and product category in the society
in which they plan to market, and then they must persuade the members of that society to break
with their traditional ways of doing things to adopt the new product. There is an urgent need for
more systematic and conceptual cross-cultural analyses of the psychological, social, and cultural
characteristics concerning the consumption habits of foreign consumers. Such analyses would
identify increased marketing opportunities that would benefit both international marketers and
their targeted consumers. So marketers should conduct extensive cross-cultural research and set
multinational strategies accordingly.
Cross-cultural studies involve persons from different countries and/or ethnic groups. One of the
central methodological problems of these studies is bias, the generic term for rival explanations of
cross-cultural differences. Three different types of bias are distinguished, depending on whether
the source of interpretation problems derives from the construct, method of the study, or specific
items (called construct, method, and item bias or differential item functioning, respectively).
Equivalence refers to the implications of bias on score comparability. Linguistic, structural,
measurement unit, and full score equivalence are described. Issues in test translation (translation—
back-translation, committee designs, decentering) are discussed. Common subject- and culture-
sampling schemes in cross-cultural research are mentioned. The article ends with a discussion of
issues in combining individual- and country-level characteristics.

4.26 Cultural Deference in Marketing

wecY‡b mvs¯‹…wZK m¤§vb
International marketing is a strategic decision that involves developing a marketing mix strategy
based on the characteristics of a potential foreign market. In simpler terms, it is how organizations
should design and convey their messages if they want to sell their goods and services in a foreign
market. Cultural differences make this process more complicated and should therefore be the
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 149

starting point of preparing a strategy. Cultural differences in marketing form the fundamentals of
the international marketing mix.
Cultural differences in marketing should receive primary attention when selling goods or services
internationally, as the cultural environment changes one country to the other. This means that
multinational companies must understand the culture of a specific state before selling the products.
Here are some significant cultural factors that businesses intending to move to the international
stage should consider.
1. Language
2. Purchasing Power/Pricing
3. Consumption Habits
4. Age/Demographics
5. Taste and Preferences
6. Religion
1. Language (fvlv): Languages are some of the major cultural differences in marketing that
companies ought to understand before they market their products and services in a foreign
country. Previously, grave mistakes have occurred during translation, which has led
to devastating effects. One of the most memorable embarrassing mistakes in international
marketing happened when General Motors was marketing its cars by the brand name ‘Nova,’
which in South American local languages, translated to, ‘it won’t go.’ These mistakes
obviously don’t help the company to sell its products. Therefore, companies need to pay
attention to language and translations to avoid business failure.
2. Purchasing Power/Pricing (µq ¶gZv/g~j¨): In as much as pricing strategies appears to be
economic factors, they are important cultural differences in marketing. It is common
knowledge that some cultures have a higher purchasing power than others. For example,
people in the United States have a higher purchasing power than those in Africa. This plays
a significant role in how you should price your products and services. In addition, it should
be taken into consideration that some people have high purchasing power, but tend to hold
money rather than spend. Therefore, you have to come up with a strategic marketing plan that
will make people exercise their high purchasing capability.
3. Consumption Habits (Lv`¨vf¨vm): As a marketer, you are already aware that personalities and
cultures combine to shape the consumption behavior of individuals in a particular country or
region. Before marketing your products, you need to determine whether individuals in a
specific country make individualistic or collective buying decisions. This will help you to
formulate a marketing approach that appeals to personality or a strategy that pulls the entire
society. You’re also required to understand the psychological and societal factors influencing
buying decisions.
150 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

4. Age/Demographics (eqm/RbmsL¨v): Just like in domestic marketing, age and other

demographics significantly contribute to cultural differences in marketing. For example, in
developing countries, literacy levels among senior citizens, especially those above 60 years
is very low. Therefore, you may decide to target your marketing message not directly at this
demographic group, especially when selling digital devices. Moreover, you’ve to understand
the dominant demographic groups in a country before you can modify your marketing
messages. This will help your country to appeal and communicate to the majority rather than
the minority.
5. Taste and Preferences (¯^v` Ges cQ›`): Eating habits are further important cultural differences
in marketing that multinational companies need to understand. For a food selling company,
it is essential to understand the eating habits of a particular region before marketing its menu.
For instance, McDonald’s and other fast-food companies had to start offering vegetable
products in India rather than meat products. Likewise, these companies have started to
increasingly cater to international tastes, like rice dishes for the Asian market.
6. Religion (ag©): Religious beliefs are important cultural differences in marketing that should
be considered when selling in foreign markets. They influence how a particular society
perceives various products and services. Organizations have to understand the impact of
religion and its role in society. For example, in Muslim countries, marketing secular women
outfits might be off as the religion in these countries requires women to dress in a modest
way, which is highly regulated. Besides, some marketing messages have been at loggerheads
with religious groupings after their messages were deemed to be offensive towards a
particular religion. Religion is a very critical aspect that companies need to understand before
they can start marketing their products at the international stage.

4.27 Area of Research for Cross Cultural Analysis

µm KvjPvivj A¨vbvjvBwm‡mi Rb¨ M‡elYvi †¶Î
In cross cultural analysis, the firm has to do research in the following areas:
1. Language;
2. Differences in market segmentation;
3. Differences in criteria for evaluating products and services;
4. Differences in consumption pattern of consumers and perceived benefits of products and
services.
5. Differences in economic and cultural, social condition and family structure.
1. Language Differences (fvlv cv_©K¨): Language is the most important aspect of culture.
Understanding a country’s mother tongue will be of immense help to the marketer to know
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 151

the impact of culture on consumer behavior. The marketer should study the nuances of
cultural variances and respond in such a way which a consumer easily understands.
2. Differences in market segmentation opportunities (evRvi wefvR‡b cv_©K¨): The company’s
product may be superior in terms of quality, cost service, technology clout and brand equity
in the domestic market. But this will benefit the company only when it suitably segments the
market with the help of overseas research.
For example, in India, ready made garments are manufactured at lower cost. This gives
competitive advantage in the global market. Research is undertaken in foreign market to study
the potentiality for exporting ready-made garments from India. Proper market segmentation is
essential for developing the products.
3. Differences in the criteria for evaluating products and services (cY¨ Ges cwi‡lev g~j¨vq‡bi
Rb¨ gvb`‡Ði cv_©K¨): India has tremendous opportunities in the field of textile and ready-made
garments. This is due to availability of cheap labor and quality natural fabrics at reduced
prices. Consumers are very particular about quality assurance while buying products. So, the
exporting company should understand the “Perceived quality” in the consumer market.
Variances do occur in consumer perception. Only research can reveal the differences in
criteria for evaluating product and services; This aspect cannot be ignored by the marketer
for cross cultural marketing.
4. Differences in consumption pattern and perceived benefits of products and services
(†fv³v‡`i e¨envi c×wZi cv_©K¨ Ges cY¨ I cwi‡levi Abyf~Z myweav): Leather and leather products are an
important item of export being exported by India. India has a competitive advantage in leather
products. The livestock population in India is the largest in the world. So, best quality raw
hides and skins are available for manufacturing leather products.
Availability of cheap skilled manpower is an added advantage for leather units operating in
the country. South Korea and Taiwan were compelled to go slow on production due to
escalating costs in production. So, India has gained a competitive advantage against its
competitors in leather products.
Products like footwear, belts, bags and wallets are considered as an inseparable part of
everyday life for all of us. So, the demand for leather products is ever increasing all over the
world. Global customers have perceived values and added benefits from buying Indian leather
products. Marketing research can identify suitable strategies for improving the position in
marketing leather products.
5. Differences in the economic and cultural social conditions and family structure (A_©‰bwZK
I mvs¯‹…wZK, mvgvwRK Ae¯’v Ges cvwievwiK KvVv‡gvi cv_©K¨|): Consumption pattern is not uniform
152 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

among all countries. Differences occur due to subcultures centered around consumer
preferences. Food habits, clothing styles etc., are part of the belief structure and cultural
taboos. Professor [Link] Warner of the University of Chicago has divided the United States
society into six groups:
i. Upper class;
ii. Lower upper;
iii. Upper middle;
iv. Lower middle;
v. Upper lower and
vi. Lower-lower.
1. Upper-Class (D”P †kªYx): Constitutes only a small percentage of population. It consists of
prominent families with wealth inherited through two or more generations.
2. Lower-upper (wbgœ Dc‡ii): Accounts for only two percent of the population. These
families are wealthy. The first generation parents in lower-upper class give prominence
to the education of their children.
3. Upper-middle (D”P ga¨g): Includes about ten percent of the population. These families
earn income from a variety of sources and consist mainly of professionals like successful
business mangers, lawyers, doctors, etc. They have a very strong desire for professional
success and recognition in the upper middle class. They give importance to clothing,
home decor etc., as signs of social recognition.
4. Lower-middle (wbgœ ga¨g): About one-third of the families in the society belong to lower
level supervisors, non-managerial white collar workers, owners of small business,
clerks, etc. They desire respectability, living in respectable neighbourhoods, and send
their wards to colleges. They avoid lower class living.
5. Upper-lower (Dc‡ii wbgœ): The upper-lower class is perhaps the largest one in the society.
It constitutes about 40% of the population. The families in the upper-lower class are
similar to those of lower middle class. Their main form of income is not salary but wages.
This class is popularly known as working class and includes skilled, semi-skilled and
manual laborers, construction, workers etc. This class does not spend its income striving
for middle class respectability.
6. Lower-lower (me© wb¤œ): About 15% of the population belongs to lower-lower class. The
income of the members in the lower-lower class is the lowest. They are often
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 153

unemployed. Even those who are employed are unskilled and usually uneducated as day
laborers. The above social classes have relevance to United States and they are based on
occupation, source of income, house type and neighborhood.

SUBCULTURES-NATURE OF SUBCULTURE
Dcms¯‹…wZ-mveKvjPv‡ii cªK…wZ
4.28 Subculture
Dcms¯‹…wZ
Subcultures are groups of individuals within a culture that distinguish themselves from the parent
culture to which it belongs. Members of subcultures typically maintain some of the parent culture's
founding principles. A subculture forms when a group of people have a common set of experiences
or values that differ from the dominating culture in a way that fits their group's obligations and
values.
1. According to Schiffman “A subculture is a distinct cultural group that exists as an
identifiable segment within a larger, more complex society.”
2. Scott and Marshall describe subculture as “… a collective solution to, or resolution of,
problems arising from the blocked aspirations of members, or their ambiguous position in the
wider society.”
3. Phil Cohen states that “subculture is a tool that some young people use for shaping [these]
contradictory and confusing ideological forces in such a way that a young person has room
to act and to live.”
4. According to Hall and Jefferson are “sub sets, smaller, more localised and differentiated
structures, within one of other of the larger cultural networks”.
This means that a subculture is a “related” group of people WITHIN an overarching culture, which
shares common values and behaviors.
As a result, consumers within subcultures will have a perceived “sense of identity” and follow an
“expected” set of behaviors.
Because they have will some unique behavioral characteristics, this means that subcultures can be
used for market segmentation purposes and become target markets, for the purpose of developing
a suitable marketing strategy.
If you're a marketing professional, understanding the different subcultures can help you conduct
market segmentation and identify your target market so you can develop a suitable marketing
strategy. For instance, you can help a company develop products suitable for the teenage culture
154 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

and create advertising directed at these consumers. Each subculture, like a larger culture, has
unique attitudes, beliefs and values that you can learn to create an effective marketing strategy for.

4.29 Examples of Subcultures

Dcms¯‹…wZi D`vniY
The following diagram outlines some common examples of subcultures, which typically include:

1. Age cohorts = Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y, etc.

2. Gender and sexual preferences and variations
3. Country of birth and racial backgrounds = where they were born, born internationally,
first-generation, second-generation etc.
4. Regional and state/province locations and related lifestyles
5. Differing religious beliefs, particularly those that strongly influence behaviour and values
6. Social class = upper, middle, lower class subculture examples
For subculture to have a strong influence on the consumer, the consumer needs to identify with,
or perceive that they belong to, the subculture. This influence is quite significant if the consumer
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 155

regularly interacts with others in those communities, as the subculture lifestyle, values and
expected behaviours are frequently reinforced.
4.30 Nature of Subculture
Dcms¯‹…wZi cªK…wZ
Nature of subcultures are stated below:
1. Subcultures are often negative relations to work.
2. They have ambivalent or negative regard to class
3. They have an association with territory instead of an association with a property like the street
or the club, etc.
4. They have a moment out of home into many of the non-domestic types of belonging like
social groups other than the family.
5. They have many stylistic ties of exaggeration and access, but this may be with some
exceptions.
6. The refusal can identify them on when as it is of the regular life. There are usually against the
status quo.
Members of a given ethic group are:
1) generally descend from common forebears,
2) tend to reside in the same locale and one that is distinct form another ethnic group over
generations,
3) tend to marry within their own group,
4) give certain objects meanings unique to their ethnic group over generations, and
5) share a common sense of people hood of kindness.
Consumers may be undivided into to the following three types of ethnic dimensions only the first
two of which will be examined further in this article.
1) Race (RvwZ): Racial Subcultures are made up of people with a common biological heritage
involving certain physical distinctions. The two most significant minority aces in the United
States for the marketer are African Americans and Asian Americans. We will examine both
of these markets.
2) Nationality (RvZxqZv): People within a common national origin constitute another distinctive
language or accent. The minority market segment to be discussed in this category will be
the Hispanics.
3) Religion (ag©): Religious subcultures are composed of people with a common and unique
system of worship. Two important minority religious segments are Jews and Catholics. However,
useful knowledge about the consumer behavior of these and other religious groups is limited
and will not be discussed.
156 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

4) Ethnic diversity (RvwZMZ ‰ewPZª¨): Some of the most ethnically diverse counties are in southwest,
while the least diverse are in the Midwest.
Ethnic dimensions will now be illustrates by discussing three examples of important US
subcultures: blacks, Asian Americans, and Hispanics. These groups represent an attractive basis
for segmentation because:
1) The people making up these markets are identifiable,
2) They have definable purchase pattern,
3) The markets are large and growing and
4) The market are concentrated in certain locations within the United States.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUBCULTURES AND THEIR

MARKETING IMPLICATIONS
wewfbœ ai‡bi Dc-ms¯‹…wZ Ges Zv‡`i wecY‡bi cªfve
4.31 Different Types of Subcultures
wewfbœ cªK‡ii Dc-ms¯‹…wZ
There are various subcultures and are divided into a variety of factors such as Age, Region,
Gender, Social Class
1) Age Sub-cultures (eqm Dc-ms¯‹…wZ): Generally consumers suffer expected alterations in
lifestyles, values and expenditure patterns during their life cycle. Four major age trends
includes baby, youth, middle aged and elderly stage, customer performance vary accordingly
with change in age trend.
2) Regional Sub-cultures (AvÂwjK Dc-ms¯‹…wZ): Regional subculture follows those customs which
are practiced in different states of a country. People comprises of diverse lifestyles due to
variations in culture, climate and mixture of ethnic people, therefore various product
preferences exist.
3) Gender Sub-culture (wj½ Dc-ms¯‹…wZ): This type of subculture is based on gender i.e. male-
female division. The requirements and desires of men and women differ from each other to a
greater extent and on this basis their buying habits also differ.
4) Social Class (mvgvwRK ‡k«Yx): Human societies are socially or publically stratified and the part
played by various individuals is appreciated differently. Differentiation among roles and their
comparative estimation leads to stratification of society. Social classes are simply recognized
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 157

market sections which can be reached with relative effortlessness while they comprise of
characteristically distinct media habits. Customer behaviour generally varies with the change
in the social class.

4.32 Subcultures and Their Marketing Implications

Dcms¯‹…wZ Ges Zv‡`i wecYb cªfve
Culture can be divided into subcultures. A subculture is an identifiable distinct, cultural group,
which, while following the dominant cultural values of the overall society also has its own belief,
values and customs that set them apart from other members of the same society.
Sub-culture categories are:
a) Nationality: Indian, Srilanka, Pakistan
b) Religion: Hinduism, Islam
c) Race: Asian, black, white
d) Age: young, middle aged, elderly
e) Sex: Male, Female
f) Occupation: Farmer, teacher, business
g) Social class: upper, middle, lower
h) Geographic regions: South India, North-eastern India
1. Regional, Ethnic, and Religious Influences on Consumer Behaviour (†fv³v AvPi‡Yi Dci
AvÂwjK, RvwZMZ Ges ag©xq cªfve): The three major aspects of culture that have important effects
on consumer behaviour are regional, ethnic, and religious differences.
Firstly, consumption patterns may differ in various regions of India and the world, and
marketing strategy can sometimes be tailored specifically to these regions.
Secondly, our country has a number of different ethnic groups, and population trends will
dramatically alter the demographic profile of the country in the next 50 years. The very
diverse Asian American subculture is described as young and having higher socioeconomic
status, placing strong value on the family and the group, and being strongly brand loyal. In
spite of its diversity, marketing strategies can be developed for this group.
Finally, religious beliefs and values can influence consumer. Many marketers are now
becoming multicultural in their marketing activities by trying to appeal to a variety of cultures
158 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

at the same time. Although the diversity of the Indian melting pot may be unique, there are
many important ethnic groups in other areas of the world.
2. Age, Gender, and Household Influences on Consumer Behaviour (†fv³v AvPi‡Yi Dci eqm,
wj½ Ges cwiev‡ii cªfve): Among the four major age groups, Teens, who need to establish an
identity, are the consumers of tomorrow and have an increasing influence on family decisions.
The somewhat disillusioned Generation consists of smart and cynical consumers who can
easily see through obvious marketing attempts. Baby boomers grew up in a very dynamic and
fast-changing world, and this has affected their values for individualism and freedom. The 50
and older segment can be divided into two groups-the young again and the gray market.
Neither group likes to be thought of as old. The affect of gender differences on consumer
behaviour is examined next.
Sex roles are changing. Women are becoming more professional and independent, and men
are becoming more sensitive and caring. Also, men and women can differ in terms of traits,
information processing, decision styles, and consumption patterns. Gender is consistent
throughout lifetime, influencing customer values and preferences. Gender shows different
consumption patterns and perceptions of consumption situations –E.g. the wedding
ceremony.
Households play a key role in consumer behaviour. Households also exert an important
influence on acquisition and consumption patterns. First, household members can play
different roles in the decision process (gatekeeper, influencer, decider, buyer, and user).
Second, husbands and wives vary in their influence in the decision process, depending on the
situation husband- dominant, wife- dominant, autonomic, or synchronic.
3. Psychographics- Values, Personality, and Lifestyles (g‡bvweÁvbxK- g~j¨‡eva, e¨w³Z¡ Ges
Rxebaviv): The roles of psychographics in affecting consumer behaviour are detailed below.

Values are enduring beliefs about things that are important. They are learned through the
processes of socialization and acculturation. Our values exist in an organized value system,
with some values being viewed as more important than others. Some are regarded as terminal
values and reflect desired end states that guide behaviour across many different situations.
Instrumental values are those needed to achieve these desired end states. Domain specific
values are those that are relevant within a given sphere of activity. Western cultures tend to
place a relatively high value on material goods, youth, the home, family and children, work
and play, health, hedonism, and technology. Marketers use tools like value segmentation to
identify consumer groups with common values. Personality consists of the distinctive patterns
of behaviours, tendencies, qualities, and personal dispositions that make people different
from one another. Approaches to the study of personality include
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 159

1) The psychoanalytic approach, which sees personality arising from unconscious internal
struggles within the mind at key stages of development;
2) Trait theories, which attempt to identify a set of personality characteristics that describe
and differentiate individuals, such as introversion, extroversion, and stability;
3) Phenomenological approaches, which propose that personality is shaped by an
individual’s interpretation of life events;
4) Social-psychological theories, which focus on how individuals act in social situations
(e.g., compliant, detached, or aggressive); and
5) Behavioural approaches, which view an individual’s personality in terms of past rewards
and punishments. Marketers also measure lifestyles, which are patterns of behaviour (or
activities, interests, and opinions). These lifestyles can provide some additional insight
into consumers’ consumption patterns. Finally, some marketing researchers use
Psychographic techniques that involve all of these factors to predict consumer
behaviour. One of the most well known Psychographic tools is the Values and Lifestyle
Survey (VALS). The newer VALS2 identifies eight segments of consumers who are
similar in their resources and self-orientations.

4.33 What are Cultural Symbols?

In order to clearly understand cultural symbols, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the
individual words. A symbol is an object, word, or action that represents a concept. Culture is all
of the behaviors, languages, beliefs, traditions, and its shared meaning that guides the standards of
a group. Together, a cultural symbol is a symbol that holds meaning and understanding for a group.
Many groups use symbols to express a concept of their culture. Symbols are used by a culture to
express a value of the culture. Cultural symbols allow a group that shares the same beliefs to
identify each other based on the experience of that symbol. A continued belief or experience can
be transmitted through the cultural symbol. For example, when a flag from a country is raised,
people who are affiliated with that country will stand in honor of that flag as it represents
nationalism.
Symbols are very important for cultures because they help a group create the culture itself. Cultural
symbols can represent many things and help cultures express specific ideologies and social
standards of the culture that are communicated amongst the group.
The three crosses symbolize the Christian idea of the thief, Jesus, and the non-believer.
Three crosses standing together in a field.
160 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

4.34 What is Symbolic Culture?

Symbolic culture is very different from cultural symbols. Remember that a cultural symbol is an
object, word, or action that represents a concept. Symbolic culture can be defined as an experience
that signifies a culture. It is more about what cannot be touched in a culture and the things that the
people of a group or culture attach a meaning to in order to communicate with one another. People
of different cultures have a shared behavior or a shared experience that is understood to connect
the culture. Actions such as a dance during the rainy season, a special handshake, or a face tattoo
that alerts the people involved that they belong to the same group are elements of symbolic culture.
There are so many elements of symbolic culture that it is impossible to list them all. Symbolic
culture elements include, but are not limited to, language, gestures, values, customs, heritage,
music, colors, and many more. One example of symbolic culture are concepts, such as good and
evil or heaven and hell.

4.35 Symbols in Different Cultures

Symbols are sometimes used by many different cultures and may represent different things to each
of those cultures. It may be confusing to understand the difference in meaning. It is very important
to be aware of the different meanings for the different cultures because a symbol may offend one
culture but not the other. For example, the swastika is historically known as a symbol of hate that
the Nazi party and Adolf Hitler of the 1930s through the 1940s used to signify hate and genocidal
behavior towards Jewish people and other races in a desire to create a pure Aryan race.
Contradistinction, the swastika originated from various Asian cultures. The swastika originated
from a Sanskrit word that means "beneficial for health." In Hinduism, the clockwise symbol
represents the sun, prosperity, and good luck, but the counter-clockwise symbol symbolizes night.
In Buddhism, it represents the footprints of the Buddha, and in Jain, it represents Suparshvanatha:
the 7th spiritual teacher. In the Indo-European culture, the swastika represent a lighting bolt which
signifies the thunder god.
 CHAPTER 4: CULTURE AND THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 161

EXERCISE
1. What is culture? (Point 4.01, Page 115) BBA 2013

2. What do you mean by culture? (Point 4.02, Page 116)

3. Define culture’ (Point 4.03, Page 117) BBA 2018

4. What are the components of Culture? (Point 4.04, Page 118)

5. What are the major component of culture? Describe. (Point 4.04, Page 118) BBA 2017

6. What are the major aspects of a culture? Discuss. (Point 4.04, Page 118) BBA 2013

7. Briefly demonstrate the components of a culture. Explain with examples. (Point 4.04,
Page 118) BBA 2018,2013

8. Explain the influence of culture on consumer behaviour? (Point 4.05,Page 120)

9. How the individual response influences our consumption pattern?-Explain. (Point

4.05,Page 120) BBA 2017

10. What are the different aspects of culture? (Point 4.06, Page 122)

11. What are the characteristics /features of Culture? (Point 4.07, Page 123) BBA 2018

12. Explain the functions of Culture. (Point 4.08, Page 128)

13. What are the elements of Culture? (Point 4.09, Page 128)

14. What are the factors that affect the Culture? (Point 4.10, Page 132)

15. Explain the importance of the cultural study. (Point 4.11, Page 134)

16. Discuss the importance of cultural study to a marketer. (Point 4.11, Page 134) BBA
2018

17. Explain the useful concepts of cultural analysis. (Point 4.12, Page 135)

18. Explain the methods of learned culture. (Point 4.13, Page 138)

19. What types of variation are found in cultural values? (Point 4.14, Page 138)

20. What are the components of critical cultural studies? (Point 4.15, Page 141)
162 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

21. What is cross cultural analysis? (Point 4.17, Page 142) BBA 2014, BBA 2012

22. What are objectives of cross-cultural consumer analysis? (Point 4.17, Page 142)

23. How can a multinational company use cross-cultural research to design each factor in
marketing? (Point 4.18, Page 143) BBA 2014

24. Explain Segmentation versus Standardization. (Point 4.20 , Page 143)

25. Explain different strategies of market expansion. (Point 4.21, Page 144)

26. Acculturation is a needed marketing view. –Explain. (Point 4.22 , Page 145)

27. Explain basic research issues in cross-cultural analysis. (Point 4.23, Page 145)

28. Describe cross cultural study in analysing consumer behaviour. (Point 4.23, Page 145),
BBA 2012

29. Explain frameworks for assessing multinational strategies. (Point 4.24, Page 146)

30. What do you mean by cultural deference in marketing? (Point 4.26, Page 148)

31. What are the area of research for cross cultural analysis? (Point 4.27, Page 150)

32. What is subculture? (Point 4.28, Page 153) BBA 2016

33. Give examples of subcultures. (Point 4.29, Page 154)

34. What are the nature of subculture? (Point 4.30 , Page 155)

35. Explain different types of subcultures. (Point 4.31 , Page 156)

36. Explain marketing implications subcultures. (Point 4.32 , Page 157)

37. How sub culture differences make influence on our consumption pattern? (Point 4.32 ,
Page 157) BBA 2017, 2016

38. What is_ cultural symbolism? Put example. (Point 4.33 , Page 159) BBA 2013

39. What is Symbolic Culture? (Point 4.34 , Page 160)