Unit-2 Thermodynamics & Heat

Transfer .

UNIT -II
Introduction to Thermal Engineering
CONTENT- Laws of thermodynamics, heat engine, heat pump, refrigerator (simple
numerical) Modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation, Fourier’s law,
Newton’s law of cooling, Stefan Boltzmann’s law. (Simple numerical) Two stroke and Four
stroke engines (Petrol, Diesel and CNG engines). Steam generators.

What is Thermodynamics ?
Thermodynamics is the branch of science, which deals with energy interactions (heat & work)
and its effect on the properties of a system.

Applications of Thermodynamics –
1) Many ordinary household appliances are designed using principles of thermodynamics
such as water heater, electric iron, humidifier, A.C., Computer, shower, pressure cooker,
refrigerator, room heater, T.V. etc.
2) On a Large scale, thermodynamics plays a major role in design & analysis of automotive
engines, power plants, rockets ,jet engines, solar collectors ,airplanes, heat exchangers,
pumps, compressors etc.

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Unit-2 Thermodynamics & Heat
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Thermodynamics system, Boundary, Surroundings:-

Thermodynamic System – It is defined as, quantity of mass or a region in space upon
which particular attention is concentrated for the study of energy interactions (heat &
work) & its conversions .
Boundary -It is real or imaginary layer that separates the system from its surroundings.
Surroundings- Everything outside the system boundary which has direct effect on the
behavior of system.

Fig. Thermodynamics system , Boundary & Surroundings

Types of Thermodynamics Systems -
1. Closed system (fixed masses)- There is no mass transfer across the boundaries ,but there
is transfer of energy i.e. heat& work.
Example :- Piston & cylinder arrangement ,boiling water in closed pan ,thermal power
plant, pressure cooker.

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2. Open System (control volume)- In an open system, ‘mass as well as energy (heat&
work) transfer’, both take place across the boundaries.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be real or imaginary.
Example :- Gas Turbine ,Steam Turbine ,[Link], Air Compressor

3. Isolated system :- There is not mass transfer as well as energy transfer across the
boundaries .No work can be done on the system.
Example :-thermos flask, universe, gas enclosed in an insulated container .

Properties -
• Any observable or measurable characteristic of a system in equilibrium is called a
property.
Types of properties
Extensive properties – It depends on mass of system and vary directly with the size of
the system.
Examples: volume, mass, total energy, enthalpy ,length ,entropy etc.
Intensive properties – It is independent of the mass of the system.
Examples: temperature, pressure, color, viscosity etc.

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State & Equilibrium :-

• State of a system:-
◦ The set of condition that specify all of the properties of system.
◦ If one property changes then the state of the system changes.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
• Equilibrium-( “A state of balance”) In an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any point of the system
with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the mass of each phase
reaches equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does not change with
time, that is no chemical reactions occur.
Processes And Cycles:-
• Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.
• Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as well
as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.

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Thermodynamics Cycles OR Cyclic Process :-

◦ When number of processes are performed on a system ,in such way that ,final state is
identical with initial state
◦ When the system comes to original state after passing through a sequence of processes.

Enthalpy :-
 Enthalpy is a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system.
 It is equal to the internal energy of the system plus the product of pressure and volume.
 It reflects the capacity to do non-mechanical work and the capacity to release heat.
 Enthalpy is denoted as H

Formula -- H = E + PV Joule (PV-flow work)

where -H is enthalpy, E is internal energy of the system, P is pressure, and V is volume

Heat capacity & Specific heat capacity :-

• Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the
amount of heat to be supplied to a given mass of a material to produce a unit change in its
temperature. OR The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by
unit temperature.
Formula----- Q=mCt in Joule per Kelvin (J/K).(SI Unit)

•Specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of unit mass of substance by one Kelvin.

Formula ----- C = Q / ∆T
Where- C-specific heat in KJ/kg K ,Q = heat capacity in J, m = mass in Kg, t:-Change in
Temperature in K

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Laws of Thermodynamics :-
1) Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:-
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
According to law, If two bodies (A and B) are each in thermal equilibrium with a third
body C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Example :- If glass of ice water and a glass of hot water and place them on the kitchen
countertop for a few hours then they will eventually reach thermal equilibrium with the
room, all three systems are reaching the same temperature.
2) First Law of Thermodynamics :-
This law of thermodynamics is a particular statement of the general principles of law of
conservation of energy applied to heat & work transfer.
 The law states that, “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can only be
converted from one form to another”.
Joules experiment:-
 Joules experiment have verified its statement. During the year (1840 – 1849), James
Joule analyzed the statement of conservation of energy by arrangement shown in the fig.

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 It consists of a paddle wheel arrangement with the liquid filled in an insulated container.
 When the weight falls, it supplies the work energy equals to its potential energy to paddle
wheel & causes to rotate it.
 This causes the fluid to heat up due to friction between the paddle wheel & the fluid.
 As a result of work transfer the temperature of the liquid rises, which is measured with
the help of the thermometer.
 Now the heat is transferred from liquid to water till the system returns to its original state
of pressure & temperature.
 The heat transferred is shown by process(2-A-1).
 The system has undergone a process (1-A-2) as shown in fig.

 With such experiment Joule concluded that in every case the work input W was always
proportional to heat transfer Q at the end of the cycle.

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 Mathematically we can write,

∮ dW = ∮ dQ

Statements of First Law:-

When system undergoes cyclic changes, “the net heat supplied to the system equals
the net work done by the system”

∮ dW = ∮ dQ

Both heat & work are mutually convertible one into another i.e. energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but energy can only be transferred or changed from one form to
another.
If closed system undergoes cyclic process, total energy transfer (heat & work) must be
zero. (∮ dW − ∮ dQ)= 0
There is no any machine which is capable of producing work without any expenditure
of energy.
Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics:-(No limitations for In-Sem Examination)
1. The processes can proceed in a particular direction only.
2. All processes involving conversion of heat into work & vice-versa are not equivalent.
Work is completely converted into heat but heat is completely converted into work not
possible.
3. It provide a necessary but does not provide and specify sufficient condition to process
take place.
Example :-
Heat is transferred from hot body to cooler surroundings. However reverse of this is not
possible. [Link] of hot tea in cooler room. the tea gets cooled, as its heat is transferred to
room air .Process is satisfied because heat lost by hot tea is equal to heat gained by air in
room. But, reverse of this process i.e. tea getting hotter as a result of heat transfer from
room air does not take place.
In Joules experiment, reverse process is not possible. i.e. raising the weight by
transferring heat from fluid to the paddle wheel is not possible.
When a running vehicle is stopped by applying brakes, Hot brakes after losing K.E. to
wheels does not cause them to rotate.

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First law allows heat engine to have 100% efficiency, which is not practically possible .It
has been observed that, mechanical work can be fully converted into heat, but heat cannot
be converted completely into .This shows that, heat and work are not fully mutually
convertible.
Basic Definitions :-
 Heat Reservoir : The source of infinite heat energy. Finite amount of heat absorbed or
rejected will not affect its temperature
Example :- Ocean, Lakes, Atmosphere
 Heat Source : A heat reservoir which supplies heat to a system.
 Heat Sink: A heat reservoir which absorbs heat from a system.
 Heat Engine :- Heat engine is a device operating in a cycle to which can produce the
work continuously on the expense of heat input supplied. T1>T2

◦ Three essential parts of a heat engine are : -

Source (Hot Body) , Sink (Cold Body) & Working Substance.
◦ The working substance takes heat Q1 from source at temperature T1 rejects the heat Q2
to the sink at temperature T2 & produces some work W .
◦ Example :-IC engine ,steam turbine, Heat engine in thermal power plant.
◦ Thermal Efficiency(Measure of performance ) of a Heat Engine:-
Heat energy is never converted completely into mechanical energy.
i.e. efficiency of heat engine is never equals to 100%.

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It is given by,
Output work
Efficiency =
Input work
Q1−Q2 T1−T2
= =
Q1 T1
Where,Q1=heat supplied to system ,Q2=Heat rejected from system ,W=Work produced = Q1-Q2
 Refrigerator & Heat Pump:-
• Refrigerator –It is a device operating on a cycle which absorbs heat from a low
temperature body (space to be cooled) and rejects it to a high temperature body on the
expense of external work.(T1>T2)
• Heat pump :-It is a device operating on a cycle which delivers heat energy at higher
temperature T1 (heating in winter) then temperature T2 corresponds to ambient
temperature (T1>T2)

Where -Q1= Heat Rejected from system,Q2= Heat added to the system,
W= energy or work supplied=Q1-Q2
Coefficient of Performance (C.O.P):-
◦ The efficiency of refrigerator & heat pump is expressed in terms of C.O.P.
◦ Coefficient of Performance is unit less quantity.
Coefficient of Performance of refrigerator and Pump is given by,
(C.O.P)refrigerator = Desired Effect / Energy input
= Q2 / W

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(C.O.P)heat pump = Desired Effect / Energy inpu

= Q1 / W
Relationship between heat pump & refrigerator :-
(C.O.P)heat pump - (C.O.P)refrigerator = 1
Q1 / W- Q2/W = 1
Where ,W= Q1- Q2 W/W = 1

Second Law of Thermodynamics-

The second law of thermodynamic gives more information about thermodynamic
processes.
Second law may be defined as
◦ “Heat can not flow itself from colder body to a hotter body”.
The Second law is also used to determine the theoretical limits for the performance of
mostly used engineering systems like heat engines and heat pump.
 Kelvin-Plank” statement:.
The Kelvin-Plank statement of the second law of thermodynamic is states that
“It is impossible to construct for any device as heat engine that operates on a cycle
whose sole effect is receive heat from a single reservoir and produce net amount of
work”.

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This statement means that only part of total heat absorbed by heat engine from a high
temperature is converted to work, the remaining heat must be rejected at a low
temperature.
The heat engine as shown in fig.1is converting 100 % of heat into 100% work.
This system is not satisfying second law.
So, this statement can be also expressed as “No heat engine has a 100 % of thermal
efficiency”.
 Clausius statement:-
Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamic is as below
“It is impossible to construct a device as heat pump that operates on a cycle whose sole
effect is the transfer of heat from a lower temperature to higher temperature body”.

This statement means that heat cannot flow from cold body to hot body without any work input.

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HEAT TRANSFER :-
 Heat ,that energy is transferred from one body to another as the result of a difference in
temperature.
 Temperature –Indication of energy contained within the a system .It measure degree of
hotness or coldness of system .Temperature difference between two systems is required
for heat to be transferred
SI Unit of heat –joule ,SI Unit of Temperature –Kelvin
 Heat transfer :-Heat transfer is the process of transfer of heat from high temperature
reservoir to low temperature reservoir due to temperature difference.
It take place in three different forms or modes –
1)Conduction 2) Convection 3) Radiation

1) Conduction: –It is mode of heat transfer of heat from one part of substance to another
part of same substance by direct contact without movement or displacement of
molecules of substance. Heat is transfer from high temperature body to low temperature
body. heat transfer take place due to vibratory motion from one electron to another. Heat
is conducted through solid to solid, liquid to liquid, gas to gas.
Example :- solid rod heated one end, other end will get hot.
Ice cooling down due to your hand.
2) Convection :- It is mode of heat transfer of heat in which physical displacement of
molecules take place. The heat transfer take place between solid surface adjacent liquid
or gas which is in motion. It is directly linked with transport of medium itself.
Convection is influenced by velocity of circulation of molecules.
Example :- Ice melting in air - Heat moves to the ice from the air.
Air flow over hands then we feel cool

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 Types of convection :
A) Free or Natural convection :- Fluid motion or air motion is caused by buoyancy
forces that are induced by density differences due to temperature difference.
Heat transfer rate is less
Example -Cooling of human body by surrounding air, Ice melting by surrounding
air.

B) Forced convection :- Fluid or air is forced to flow over the surface by means of
external devices such as fan,pump,wind.
Heat transfer rate is more
Example :- Boiling water - The heat passes from the burner into the pot, heating the
water at the bottom.
Car radiator - Puts warm air out at the top and draws in cooler air at the bottom.

3) Radiation :- it is mode of heat transfer of heat through space by means of

electromagnetic waves. Heat transfer take place between two bodies without carrying
medium & will pass through vacuum.
Example :- Standing infront of fire or electric heater ,we feel warm.
Radiant energy from sun to earth’s surface.

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 Applications of Heat Transfer :-

1) IC Engine are cooled for function properly
2) Melting of metals or plastics in manufacturing process
3) Cooling of electronics components like Computer,T.V. Laptops etc.
4) Steam generating equipments like boilers
5) Cooling of generators, transformers, motors
6) Heating & cooling in food industries, dairy industry, milk pasteurizing plants
7) Refrigerators, air conditioning applications
 Difference between heat transfer and Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics Heat transfer
Thermodynamics deals with energy Heat Transfer deals with the rate of Heat
transfer (interactions) and its effect on the transfer.
system.
Energy transfer is based on various laws Heat transfer from system to surrounding
of thermodynamics such as zeroth law, is based on modes of heat transfer-
first, second of thermodynamics conduction ,convection, radiation.
Thermodynamics cannot give information Heat transfer give information about the
about the time required to complete the time required to complete the process .
process.
Thermodynamics give information Heat transfer gives information about the
about final state of the system. temperature distribution inside the
system.
Thermodynamics deals with the Heat transfer deals with the non
equilibrium process equilibrium process
Thermodynamics describes how much Heat transfer describes rate of heat
heat is to be transfer or work is done? transfer & mode due to temperature
gradient.

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 Fourier law of heat conduction :-

It states that “ the rate of change of heat flux due to conduction in any direction is directly
proportional to the temperature gradient present in that direction”
OR
It states that, “the rate of heat flow through a simple homogenous solid per unit area normal
to the direction of heat flow in any direction is directly proportional to change of temperature
with respect to the length of path of heat flow present in that direction”.
Mathematically,
𝑸 𝒅𝑻
α
𝑨
𝒅𝑿
𝑸 = -K 𝒅𝑻
𝑨 𝒅𝑿
𝑸 = -K𝑨 𝒅𝑻
𝑨 𝒅𝑿

Where,Q=rate of Heat flow in J/s / W

A= area normal to the direction of heat flow in m2
𝑑𝑇 = temperature gradient present in that direction in K/m
𝑑𝑋
K= constant of proportionality & is called as thermal conductivity of
material in W/m K
𝑄
= rate of change of heat flux due to conduction in W/m2
𝐴
Negative sign indicates heat flows from hot body to cold body i.e. in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
 Thermal conductivity :- A measure of ability of a material to conduct heat.
Thermal conductivity is the amount of heat energy conducted through a body of unit
surface area & unit thickness in unit time ,when the unit temperature difference is
maintained across the boundary.
𝐐 𝐝𝐓
K= ⁄
𝐀 𝐝𝐗

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 Heat conduction through wall or slab :-

Consider wall of thickness b having

surface temperatures T1 & T2
respectively.
T1>T2
A= surface area of wall in m2
K=Thermal conductivity of wall material
in W/mK
Q= rate of heat flow in the direction in
Watts

According to Fourier law, Heat conduction through wall or slab is given by,
𝐊𝐀
𝐐= (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐)
𝐛
 Electrical analogy of heat conduction :-
Quantity Analogy parameters
Electrical Heat conduction
Rate of flows Current I in amp. Heat transfer Q in watts
Driving forces Potential difference V in Temperature difference Dt
volts in K/C
Responsible parameters 1. resistivity ρ 1. Thermal conductivity K
2. length of conductor L [Link] of slab b
[Link] sectional area of [Link] normal to the
conductor A direction of heat flow.
Resistance Electrical resistance R Thermal resistance Rth
R=( ρ,L,A) Rth = (K,b,A)

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Diagram

Formula
𝑉 𝑇
𝐼= 𝑄=
𝑅 𝑅𝑡ℎ

Thermal resistance is defined as “the amount of temperature difference required for unit
heat flow rate”
From electrical analogy of heat conduction ; Rate of Heat flow through wall is given by ,
𝐓
𝐐=
𝐑𝐭𝐡
𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐
𝐐=
𝐛/𝐊𝐀
Where , T= (T1-T2)
b
Rth =
KA
b m
SI Unit, Rth = = W = K/W
KA .m2
mK

 Heat conduction through hollow sphere :-

Consider hollow sphere having inner & outer radii r1

& r2 with temperature of inner & outer surfaces are
maintained at T1& T2 respectively.
T1>T2
A= surface area of hollow sphere= 4r2 in m2
K=Thermal conductivity of wall material in W/mK
Q= rate of heat flow in the direction in Watts
According to Fourier law, Heat conduction through hollow sphere is given by,
4 Kr1r2
Q= (T1 − T2)
(r2 − r1)

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From electrical analogy of heat conduction,

𝐓
𝐐=
𝐑𝐭𝐡
(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐)
𝐐=
(𝐫𝟐 − 𝐫𝟏/𝟒 𝐊 𝐫𝟏𝐫𝟐

Where , T= (T1-T2)

(r2−r1)
Rth =
4 Kr1r2

 Heat conduction through hollow cylinder:-

Consider hollow cylinder of length L having inner &

outer radii r1 & r2 with temperature of inner & outer
surfaces are maintained at T1& T2 respectively.
T1>T2
A= surface area of hollow cylinder = 2rL in m2
K=Thermal conductivity of wall material in W/mK
Q= rate of heat flow in the direction in Watts

According to Fourier law, Heat conduction through hollow cylinder is given by,
𝟐 𝐋 𝐊
𝐐= 𝐫𝟐 (𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐)
𝐥𝐧(𝐫𝟏)
(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐)
𝐐=
𝐫𝟐
𝐥𝐧 (𝐫𝟏)/𝟐 𝐋𝐊
From electrical analogy of heat conduction ,
𝐓
𝐐=
𝐑𝐭𝐡
(𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐)
𝐐=
𝐫𝟐
𝐥𝐧 (𝐫𝟏)/𝟐 𝐋𝐊

Where , T= (T1-T2)

r2
Rth = ln ( )/2 LK
r1

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 Heat transfer by convection (Newton’s law of cooling) –

The rate of heat transfer by convection is calculated by using Newton’s law of cooling
Newton's law of cooling states that “the rate of heat transfer of a body per unit Surface area
perpendicular to the direction of heat flow is directly proportional to temperature difference
between the body surface and fluid or Surrounding air flowing in the direction of heat flow”
𝐐
Mathematically, α (TS-T∞)
𝐀
Q= hA(TS-T∞)

Where, Q= Rate of heat flow in W

A= Surface area of body in m2
h= Convective heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K
Ts= body surface temperature in K
T∞= fluid flowing temperature or Surrounding air Temperature in K
By Rearranging the equation ,
(𝐓𝐬−𝐓∞)
Q=
𝟏/𝐡𝐀
𝐓
Q=
𝟏/𝐡𝐀
1
Where, Rth =convective thermal resistance = in K/W
hA
 Terms related to radiation for Stefan Boltzmann’s law:-
1) Emissive Power (E)– Emissive power of any surface is defined as “total radiant(heat) energy
emitted per unit surface area per unit time from surface of a body at a certain temperature.
Emissive Power is also known as radiant flux(q)

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E or q = Q in W/m2
A

Emissive power of black body is denoted by (Eb )

3) Emissivity (Ɛ) :-It is defined as “the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat”
It is a ratio emissive power of a any surface of body to emissive power of a black surface
body at same temperature.
E
Ɛ=
Eb
For black body, Ɛ=1 (an object that absorbs all radiations falling on it)
For Grey body, Ɛ=0 to 1(an object that partially absorbs radiations falling on it.
Stefan Boltzmann’s law:-
It states that “the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature”
OR
It states that “the rate of heat energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature”
Mathematically , Eb α T4
Eb = σ T4
Qb α AT4
Qb = A σ T4 -------- (For a black body)
Where,
Eb= Emissive power of black body in W/m2
T = absolute temperature in K
σ = Stefan Boltzmann’s constant= 5.67 x 10-8 in W/m2.K4
Qb = rate of heat energy radiated of a black body in W
A= radiating surface area in m2
For Grey body ,
Q = Ɛ σ A T4
Where,
Ɛ = emissivity of grey body
Q= rate of heat energy radiated of a grey body in W

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