CHAPTER 3

KINEMATICS OF TRANSLATION

Learning Objectives 8. Solve problems on projectile motion.

9. Compute relative velocity.
1. Define displacement, velocity,
acceleration, free fall, and projectile
motion.
2. Differentiate instantaneous velocity
from average velocity.
3. State the five kinematic equations on
motion, explain the symbols used,
and state the condition under which
the equation can be applied.
Science is a powerful instrument.
4. Solve simple problems on uniformly
How it is used whether it is a blessing or a
accelerated motion including free fall.
curse to mankind, depends on mankind and
5. Calculate an object’s velocity at any
not on the instrument. A knife is useful, but it
time given its displacement versus
can also kill. –Albert Einstein
time graph.
6. Calculate the acceleration and
displacement of an object given its
Essential Question: How is motion
velocity versus time graph.
relative?
7. Draw displacement-time and
velocity-time graphs.
Microgravity
 One type of acceleration that we experience every day is the acceleration due to gravity,
denoted by g. the acceleration due to gravity has a value of -9.8 m/s² at the surface of Earth. All
other accelerations are measured in terms of g. An acceleration of 5g means 9.8 m/s² or 49 m/s².
Everything feels normal at 1g. But what if it is zero gravity or microgravity? What possible effects
does it have on our bodies and on mankind in general?

Stephen Hawking suffered from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or Lou Gehrig’s disease,
since he was 22, a disease which cost him all of his neuromuscular control leaving him almost
completely paralyzed. Yet, he did not let his physical condition get into the way of his work. He
became one of the greatest physicists of all time, specializing in quantum gravity and black holes.
He had publicly spoken of his dream to go into space last 2006. Hawking, who authored the best-
selling book, “A Brief History of Time,” experienced a brief history with weightlessness and
microgravity last April 26, 2007, the closest as he can come to going into space.

Value Aims

1. Work harmoniously with a group.

2. Practice road safety.
3. Comply with traffic rules and regulations for road safety.

Concepts in a Box
3.1 Motion
Motion is an excellent topic to
begin our study of physics. It is one of the
most common physical phenomena. We see
motion in the activities people do every
day: walking, jogging, running, or riding in
a car to go to school or work. Motion can
also be observed in nature: clouds moving,
raindrops falling, wind blowing the leaves
of a tree, and water moving in a never-
ending cycle.

The study of motion is divided into kinematics and dynamics. Kinematics is a quantitative
description of motion without reference to its physical causes. Here, we define terms like
displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Dynamics is the study of the relationship between motion
and force.

3.2 Frame of Reference and Position

The term position refers to the location of an
object with respect to some reference frame. A reference
frame is a physical entity such as the ground, room, or a
building to which motion or position of an object is being
referred. For instance, we say that the gymnasium is 20
m to the right of the main gate. Our reference in this
example is the main gate.

When an object is undergoing a continuous

change in position, we say that the object is moving.
Fig. 3-2. Motion is relative. It depends
Motion is a relative term. It depends on the reference on where motion is referred to. To a
frame where motion is being observed. Imagine that you fellow jeepney passenger, you are at
rest. But to the person outside the
are riding in a car with another passenger. Observing your
jeepney, you are moving.
fellow passenger reveals no change in his position. He is at rest as far as you are concerned.
However, to an observer standing by the road, you and the passenger are in motion. In everyday
life, we always refer motion relative to the earth.

3.3 Distance and Displacement

A distinction has to be made between distance and
displacement. Distance d refers to the actual length of path
taken by an object in moving from its initial position to its
final position. Displacement d refers to straight- line distance
between its initial and final positions with direction toward
the final position. Distance is scalar, while displacement is a Fig. 3-3. Displacement is not
vector. necessarily the actual path taken by
this girl. Displacement is the vector
whose magnitude is the shortest
distance from A to B.

Sample Problem 3.1

Suppose that in going to school, you walked

40 m east and 30 m north. (a) What was the total
distance that you walked? (b) What was your total
displacement? When you arrived in school, you
found out that classes were suspended because of
bad weather. You went back home following the
same path. (c) What was the total distance you
walked in going to school and back home? (d) What
was your total displacement?

Solution:

a. The total distance that you walked was 30 m + 40 m = 70 m.

b. Using the Pythagorean theorem,

𝑑 = √(30𝑚)2 + (40𝑚)2 = 50 𝑚.
 Solving for direction,

30 𝑚
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 | | = 37° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸.
40 𝑚

Thus, your displacement was 50 m, 37˚ N of E.

c. Total distance was 30 m + 40 m + 30 m + 40 m = 140 m.

d. Since you were back to where you started, your displacement was zero.

Practice Exercise 3.1

A student walked 50 m due east. Realizing that he forgot his book, he decided to go back
to his house. He has traveled 35 m due west when he met his brother carrying his book. After
getting the book from his brother, he turned east and walked his way to school an additional
distance of 50 m. (a) Find the total distance the student walked. (b) Find his resultant displacement.

3.4 Speed and Velocity

The terms speed and velocity are used interchangeably in everyday situations. However, in
physics they have distinct meanings. Speed is the distance that a body moves in a unit time. Speed
is a scalar quantity.

When the speed of a body is associated with a direction, the

result is the velocity of the body. Velocity is the time rate of change
of position. It is the displacement of a body per unit time. Velocity
is a vector quantity. The SI unit for speed and velocity is
meter/second (m/s).

A body normally changes its speed while moving. When the speed
of a body is associated with a direction, the result is the velocity of
the body. Hence, it is necessary to distinguish between average
speed and instantaneous speed. Average speed of a body is the total
distance it traveled divided by the time spent in traveling the total distance.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Average speed = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 ∆𝑑
v= ∆𝑡

Δt and Δd are time and length intervals, respectively. Δt means t-to where t and to are final
and initial times, respectively. If to = 0, then Δt = t. Similarly, Δd = d – do where d is the final
position and do is the initial position. Taking the initial position as zero, then Δd = d.

The instantaneous speed of an object is its speed at a particular instant of time with ∆ t
being extremely small. The speed indicated by a speedometer is instantaneous speed.

Average velocity is total displacement divided by total time. Similarly, instantaneous

velocity is the velocity at an instant of time.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Average velocity = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑑
v= 𝑡

Throughout the chapter, velocity and speed refer to

instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed, respectively.

Sample Problem 3.2

For his daily training, an athlete runs around a 15.0 m radius

track five times in 2.50 minutes. What is his (a) average speed and
(b) average velocity?

Solution:

a. The total distance traveled by the athlete is five times the circumference of the circular
track.

d = 5C
=5(2)(3.14)(15.0 m)
=471 m
𝑑 471 𝑚
V= 𝑡 = 2.5 min×60 𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 3.14 𝑚/𝑠
 b. The athlete has no resultant displacement since he is back to where he started. Therefore,
his average velocity is zero.

Practice Exercise 3.2

A homeowner jogged from gate 1 to gate 2 of his subdivision in a straight 325 m track in
4.25 min, turned around and jogged 125 m toward gate 1 in another 1.50 min. What are the average
speeds and average velocities of the homeowner for (a) the first 4.25 min, (b) the last 1.50 min,
and (c) the total time he jogged?

3.5 Acceleration
In the real world, objects move with changing velocities. A new concept called acceleration has
been defined to describe how velocity changes. Acceleration is change in velocity with respect to
time. Velocity can change in three ways: (a)
change in speed, either increase or decrease;
(b) change in direction; and (c) change in
speed as well as direction. Thus, an object is
said to be accelerating when it is moving
with (a) changing speed or (b) constant speed
but with changing direction or (c) changing
speed as well as changing direction.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

∆𝑣
𝑑=
∆𝑡

Where ∆𝑣 is change in velocity and ∆𝑡 is the time interval 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 0. Since acceleration

is defined in terms of velocity, it is also a vector quantity. The SI unit of acceleration is m/s/s or
m/s2.

Sample Problem 3.3

In which case is the car accelerating?

a. A car changing lanes at constant speed.

b. A car speeding up in an effort to beat the red light.

c. A car slowing down while making a left turn.

d. A car going around Mabuhay Rotonda at constant speed.

Answers:

In all four cases the car is accelerating. In cases A and D, there is acceleration because of a
change in direction. The car is accelerating in case B because of change in its speed. In case C,
the car accelerates because it changes its speed and direction.

Practice Exercise 3.3

The gas pedal is usually referred to as accelerometer. From the point of view of physics which
among the parts may be considered an accelerometer: (a) brakes; (b) clutch pedal; or (c) steering
wheel? Explain.

3.6 Motion in a Straight Line

In order to describe better the motion of a body, we shall be using a Cartesian coordinate
system in our frame of reference. We shall consider the origin
as the start of motion. For one-dimensional motion, we shall
consider motion along the x-axis. Positions to the right of the
origin shall be considered positive. Positions to the left of the
origin shall be considered negative. A positive velocity would
indicate motion to the right of the origin. A negative velocity
would mean motion to the left of the origin.

3.6 Motion in Straight Line

In order to describe better the motion of a body, we shall
be using a Cartesian coordinate system in our frame of reference.
We shall consider the origin as the start of motion. For one-dimensional motion, we shall consider motion
along x-axis. Positions to the right of the origin shall be considered positive. Positions to the left of the
origin shall be considered negative. A positive velocity would indicate the motion to the right of the origin.
A negative velocity would mean motion to the left of the origin.
Uniform Motion

The simplest type of motion is uniform motion. For uniform motion, the velocity is constant,
the acceleration is zero and the instantaneous velocity is equal to the average velocity. Its
displacement (d) may be obtained by multiplying its constant velocity (v) by the time (t).

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡

Sample Problem 3.4

A car caught in a heavy traffic situation along Rizal Avenue moves at constant speed
covering of 3.0 m in 5.0 s. (a) What is the speed of the car? (b) How far will the object move in
10.0 s?

Solution:

We are given that in 5.0s, the distance traveled at constant speed is 3.0 m.

a. The relationship 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 is appropriate. Substituting the given values

3.0 𝑚 = 𝑣(5.0 𝑠)

𝑣 = 0.60 𝑚/𝑠

b. Using again the relation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡

𝑚
𝑑𝑥 = (0.60 ) (10.0 𝑠)
𝑠

𝑑𝑥 = 6.0 𝑚

Practice Exercise 3.4

Two cyclists race against the clock in a 50.0 km cross-country route. Cyclist A travels at a
constant speed of 50.0 km/h. Cyclist B started 15.0 min after cyclist A but manages to catch up at
the finish line. What is the speed of cyclist B assuming that his speed is constant?

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

A more common type of motion would be that in which velocity is changing at a constant
rate. Since the discussion is limited to straight-line motion, acceleration here would mean change
in speed rather than change in direction.
If an object changes its velocity from an initial velocity v 0 and a final velocity vf, during a time interval
∆𝑡 = 𝑡, its acceleration is given by

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣0
𝑎=
𝑡

Sample Problem 3.5

A Nissan Sentra is stopped at a traffic light. When the light turns green, the driver
accelerates so that the cars speedometer reads 10 m/s after 5 s. What is the car's acceleration
assuming it is constant?

Solution:

𝑚
We are given that 𝑣0 = 0 and 𝑣𝑓 = 10 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 5 𝑠. Substituting these values in the
𝑠

equation for acceleration,

𝑚
10 −0
𝑎= 𝑠 = 2𝑚/𝑠2
5𝑠

Practice Exercise 3.5

A particle moving with uniform acceleration in a straight line was first observed to be
moving at 4.5 m/s. After 10 s, it was moving at 6.8 m/s. Find its acceleration.

Knowing the initial velocity, the acceleration, and the time during which the object is
accelerating, the previous equation may be rearranged to arrive at an equation for final velocity.

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡

The displacement of a uniformly accelerating object may be obtained from the definition
of average velocity.

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑡

But

1
𝑣 = (𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣0 )
2
Solve for dx

1
𝑑𝑥 = (𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣0 )𝑡
2

Replacing vf by v0 + at and simplifying,

1
𝑑𝑥 = (𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣0 )𝑡
2

1
𝑑𝑥 = (𝑣 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣0 )𝑡
2 0

1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

Sample Problem 3.6

A racer accelerates from rest at a constant rate of 2.0 m/s/s. (a) How fast will the racer be
going at the end of 6.0 s? (b) How far has the racer traveled during this time?

Solution:
We are given that Vo =0, a=2 m/s/s, and t = 6.0 s

a. Using the equation for final velocity and considering only the scalar values,
vf = vo + at
= 0 + (2.0 m/s2)(6.0 s)
vf = 12 m/s
b. Substituting the given values in the equation
1
dx = vot +2 at2
1
=0(6.0 s) + 2 (2.0 m/s2)(6.0 s)2

= 36 m

Practice Exercise 3.6

A car starting from rest passes two successive milestones A and B that are 250 m apart. It
takes 60 s to pass A and another 60 s to pass from A to B. Find the velocities of the car when it
passes milestone A and milestone B. Assume that the acceleration of the car is uniform.
Another useful equation relating final velocity, initial velocity, and acceleration may be obtained.

Starting from:

1
dx = v t and v = 2 (vf + vo)

We obtain:

1
dx = 2 (vf + vo)

𝑣𝑓− 𝑣𝑜
Replacing t by
𝑎

1 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑜
Dx = (vf + vo). ( )
2 𝑎

Performing the operation and simplifying:

2adx = vf2 – vo2

Sample Problem 3.7

A car has uniformly accelerated from rest to a speed

of 25 m/s after traveling 75 m. What is its
acceleration?

We are given that vo = 0, vf = 25 m/s, and dx = 75 m.

Substituting the given values in the equation

2adx = vf2 – vo2

2a(75 m) = (25 m/s)2 – 0

a = 4.2 m/s2

Problem Exercise 3.7

A driver traveling at 12 m/s sees a stalled

vehicle 17 m ahead of his car. He steps on the brakes
to slow down the car. At what rate must the car slow
down so that it stops just before hitting the stalled vehicle? Assume that the driver's reaction time
is 0.25 s. Reaction time is the time for a person to notice, think, and act in response to a given
situation.

Free Fall
We all have observed that what goes up
always goes down. In the absence of air resistance,
it is found that all bodies regardless of its size and
weight at the same location above Earth's surface
will fall vertically with the same acceleration. This
very idealized motion in which air resistance is
neglected and the acceleration is constant is called
free fall. The acceleration of a freely falling body
is called acceleration due to gravity. This is
denoted by a letter "g" and is equal to -9.8 m/s² at
the surface of Earth. This acceleration is downward and directed toward the center of Earth, giving
it its negative sign.

In reality, g decreases with increasing altitude according to the equation.

𝑔𝑅2
gh = (𝑅+ℎ)2

where R is the radius of Earth = 6.37 × 108 m, h is the altitude, and g = -9.8 m/s2, gh is the
acceleration due to gravity at an altitude h. However, if h is very small compared to R, then gh ≈
g. For our purposes, we shall assume that h is negligible and g = -9.8 m/s2.
FILIPINO Inventor in FOCUS
Allan and Antonio Aguilar

The tricycle is a popular mass transport in the

country, second to the jeepney. Ordinary tricycle
uses gasoline. An engineer by profession, Allan
Aguilar with his father Antonio Aguilar, who is also
an engineer invented the E- Trike, an electricity
powered tricycle. This tricycle consumes only
P20.00 worth of electrical energy for its whole day
operation. It passed the Land Transportation Office
(LTO) tests for 40-kilometer per hour maximum
speed and the 250-kilogram carrying capacity on 25-
degree road elevation.

We may treat free fall as a case of uniformly accelerated motion. All the equations that we
have derived may be used to analyze free fall. Since motion is along the vertical direction, it is
better to replace dx by dy in our equations and a by g. Correspondingly we have;

1
dy = vot + gt2
2

2gdy = v2f – v2o

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑜
g= 𝑡
 The following sign conventions shall also be used: (1) Distances
above origin are positive while distances below the origin are negative. (2)
Upward velocities are positive and downward velocities are negative. (3)
g is always negative. The origin is the point of release.
The motion of an object thrown upward and eventually returns to
its starting point exhibits two symmetries: time symmetry and speed
symmetry. Time symmetry means that the time required for the object to
reach maximum height equals the time for it to return to its starting point.
Speed symmetry shows that at any displacement above the point of release,
the speed of the body during the upward trip equals the speed during the
downward trip.

Sample Problem 3.8

A boy tosses a coin upward with a velocity of +14.7 m/s. Find (a) the maximum height
reached by the coin, (b) time of flight, and (c) velocity when the coin returns to the hand. Suppose
the boy failed to catch the coin and the coin goes to the ground. (d) With what velocity will it strike
the ground? The boy's hand is 0.49 m above the ground.
Solution:
We are given that the initial velocity is +14.7 m/s. Point A is the point of release. Let the
origin be at point A.
a. Distance AB is the maximum height reached by the coin. At point B, final velocity = 0.

Representing distance AB by dymax’

2gdymax = vf2- vo2

2(-9.8 m/s2) dymax = 0 – (14.7 m/s)2

dymax = 11.0 m

b. Let t be the time to go from point A to point B.

𝑣𝑓−𝑣𝑜
g= 𝑡
0−14.7 𝑚/𝑠
-9.8 m/s2 = 𝑡
 t = 1.50 s

Because of time symmetry, the time to go down from point B to point C is also 1.50 s. Thus,
the time of flight is 3.00 s.

c. Starting from point A, the time to reach point C is 3.0 s.

vo = +14.7 m/s
𝑣𝑓−𝑣𝑜
g= 𝑡
𝑣 𝑚
𝑓−(+14.7 )
-9.8 m/s2 = 𝑠
3.00 𝑠

vf = -14.7 m/s

The negative sign means the coin is going down.

An alternative solution is to use speed symmetry. Since point C is aligned with

point A, the speed at point A = speed at point C = 14.7 m/s. At point C, the coin is going down.

Hence, it’s velocity = —14.7 m/s.

d. The distance 0.49 m is negative because it is below the origin. Starting from point A and
using the equation.

2gdy = v2 – vo2

2(-9.8m/s2)(-0.49 m) = v2 – (+14.7 m/s2)

v = ± 15 𝑚/𝑠

We must choose the negative value because we know that the coin is going down.

Therefore, velocity when it strikes the ground = -15 m/s.

Practice Exercise 3.8

A clown standing on a 23.5 m high platform tosses a ball vertically upward into the air at a
speed of 6.5 m/s. The ball leaves his hand 3.4 m above the platform. (a) How high from the floor
will it go? (b) Suppose the clown fails to catch the ball, with what velocity will it hit the floor?
3.7 Projectile Motion
The motion of a body thrown horizontally or at an angle other than 90° with the
horizontal is called Projectile motion. A soccer ball being kicked, a basketball that was thrown,
and a bullet fired from a rifle are all examples of projectiles. Projectile motion has two
components: a horizontal component and a vertical component. The horizontal component of
motion is uniform motion. The vertical component of motion is free fall. This means that if air
resistance is neglected, a projectile moves horizontally at constant speed and as it moves
vertically, it has an acceleration equal to g. Again, the kinematic equations of motion previously
derived apply to projectile motion. Table 3-1 summarizes the equations applicable for each
component of projectile motion. vox refers to the initial horizontal velocity; voy refers to initial
vertical velocity.

The path that a projectile follows is called its trajectory. The trajectory of a projectile is a
parabola. This results from the combined motions along the horizontal and vertical directions.

Table 3-1 THE HORIZONTAL AND THE VERTICAL COMPONENTS OF PROJECTILE

MOTION.

Horizontal Vertical
Acceleration ax = 0 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑔
Velocity v0x = v0 COS𝜃 𝑣0𝑦= 𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
vx = v0x 𝑣𝑦= 𝑣0𝑦 +𝑔𝑡

Displacement dx = vxt 1 2
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡
2
2𝑔𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 2 − 𝑣0𝑦 2
Fig. 3-7
The trajectory of a projectile with an initial velocity v 0 at an angle of projection 𝜃 with the
horizontal.
It is important to take note of the following;
a. At any instances, the velocity of a projectile is
𝑦 𝑣
v = √𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 |𝑣 | 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑥

b. At the highest point of its trajectory, only the vertical velocity is zero. The horizontal
velocity is still v0x. Thus, velocity at the highest point is equal to v0x.
c. c. The acceleration at the highest point of its trajectory is g and not zero.
For a projectile fired at an angle O above the horizontal, the projectile rises to some
maximum height and then descends. It finally lands at some horizontal distance from its
launching point. This horizontal distance is called range. The range is the horizontal distance
traveled by the projectile between the launching position and landing position on the assumption
that it returns to the same level at which it is fired. Range depends on the angle of projection.
Maximum range is obtained at an angle of projection of 45.

Projectile motion also exhibits time and speed symmetries. in addition, there are always two
angles giving the same range for a given initial velocity. Furthermore, it can be shown that these
two angles must be complementary. Thus, angles of projection of 20 and. 70 for a given initial
velocity cover the same range.
Sample Problem 3.9

A ball is thrown horizontally from a height of 5.50 m with an initial speed of 25.0 m/s. (a)
How long will it take the ball to reach the ground? (b) At what horizontal distance from the point
of release will it strike the ground? (c) What will be the magnitude of its velocity when it strikes
the ground? (d) At what angle will it strike the ground?

Solution:

This is an example of a projectile where the angle of projection is equal to zero.

We are given that v0 = 25.0 m/s. Height = -5.50 m. we resolve the initial velocity into its
horizontal and vertical components.

𝑚 𝑚
𝑣0𝑥 = 25.0 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 25.0
𝑠 𝑠
𝑚
𝑣0𝑦 = 25.0 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0
𝑠

a. We consider the point of release as the origin. Taking into account only the vertical
component of motion dy = -5.50 m. Substituting the given values in the equation

1
𝑑𝑦 =𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2

1 𝑚2
−5.50 𝑚 = 0 + ( ) (−9.8 ) 𝑡 2
2 𝑠

And solving for t

b. Consider this time the horizontal component of motion.

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡
𝑚
𝑑𝑥 = (25.0 ) (1.06 𝑠)
𝑠
𝑑𝑥 = 26.5 𝑚

c. The magnitude id its velocity is given by

v = √𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2
We know that vx = vox = 25.0 m/s.
 We first solve for the vertical components of the velocity.
vy = vox + gt
vy = 0 + (-9.8 m/s2)(1.06 s) = -10.4 m/s
Substituting the values, we obtained and solving for v
𝑚2 𝑚
v = √(25.0 ) + (−10.4 𝑠 )2 = 27.1 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠

We don’t need to consider the sign of the velocity since we are just asked of its magnitude.

d. The angle at which it will strike the ground is

𝑣𝑦 −10.4 𝑚/𝑠
𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 | | = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 | |
𝑣𝑥 25 𝑚/𝑠

𝜃 = 22.6° with the horizontal

Practice Exercise 3.9

A ball thrown horizontally from the top of a building 55 m high strikes the ground at a point
35 m from the building. Find (a) the time to reach the ground, (b) the initial speed of the ball, and
(c) the velocity with which the ball will strike the ground.

Sample Problem 3.10

A body is projected with an initial velocity of 24.5 m/s at 30° below the horizontal. Find (a)
time of flight, (b) maximum height attained by the body, and (c) range.

Solution:

We resolve the initial velocity into its horizontal and vertical components.
vox = vo cos 𝜃 = (24.5 m/s) cos30˚ = 21.2 m/s
voy = vo sin 𝜃 = (24.5 m/s) sin30˚ = 12.3 m/s
a. We consider the vertical component of motion. We know that at the highest point, vy = 0.
Using the equation vy = voy + gt and substituting the values,
0 = 12.3 m/s + (-9.8m/s2) t
t = 1.3 s
b. For the maximum height, we consider again the vertical component of motion. Let dymax
represents the maximum height.
2gdymax = vy2 – voy2
 2(-9.8m/s2) dymax = 0 – (12.3 m/s)2
dymax = 7.7 m
c. For the range, we consider the horizontal component of motion. Let R represents the range.
R = v xt
R = (21.2 m/s)(2.6 s) = 55 m

Practice Exercise 3.10

Suppose the body in Sample Exercise 3.10 is projected from

a height of 20.0 m at 24.5 m/s 30° below the horizontal. Find (a)
time of flight, (b) the horizontal distance traveled by the body, and
(c) impact velocity.

3.8 Graphical Analysis of Motion

Three types of graphs are of considerable importance to our
study of motion. These are the displacement versus time graph, the
velocity versus time graph, and acceleration versus time graph. The
slope of a line on a displacement versus time graph gives the average velocity. The numerical value
of the slope gives the magnitude of the velocity while the sign of the slope gives the direction. The
slope can be positive or negative. If the displacement versus time graph is not a straight line but a
curved line, the slope is changing hence we need to get the slope at various times. We shall be
employing the tangent technique. We draw a line tangent to the graph at the particular time we are
interested in. A tangent line is a straight line that touches a at a single point and does not cross the
curve at that point. The slope of this tangent line is the slope of the curve at that point and is the
instantaneous velocity. The average velocity is the slope of the straight line joining the two points
on the curve corresponding to the start and end of the time interval under.

A velocity versus time graph can give us acceleration. If the graph is a straight line, the
acceleration is uniform. The slope of the line gives us the average acceleration. For non-uniform
acceleration, the graph is not a straight line. We again employ the tangent technique to get
instantaneous acceleration.

A velocity versus time graph can be used to determine displacement for a particular time.
This is accomplished by getting the area bounded by the graph and x-axis.
 A velocity versus time graph can be used to determine displacement for a particular time.
This is accomplished by getting the area bounded by the graph and x-axis.

An acceleration versus time graph can be straight line or curved line. The change in
velocity for particular time interval may be determined by getting the are bounded by the curve
and the x-axis. For simplicity, we shall be considering uniform acceleration.

Negative Slope
There are times that slope (and therefore the velocity) of a displacement versus time graph
or of a velocity versus time graph (and therefore acceleration) is negative. What does a negative
slope mean? Well, if you move along a straight line, you have two choices of direction to move.
Considering your starting position as the origin, you can either move to the left or to the right.
You may designate to the left of the origin as the negative direction and to the right of it, the
positive direction. Thus, a positive slope representing either velocity or acceleration means that
the velocity or acceleration is directed to the right of the origin. A negative slope means that the
velocity or acceleration is directed to the left of the origin. Note that a negative acceleration does
not necessarily mean deceleration. Whenever, the velocity and acceleration of a body are in the
same direction (and hence have same sign, be it negative or positive) the body is speeding up.
Whenever they are oppositely directed (and therefore have opposite signs), the body is slowing

down.

Uniform Motion
Recall that acceleration is zero and velocity is constant for uniform motion. The equation
relating displacement d to time is
 d = vt

This equation has the same form as that of the equation of a line y=mx+b, where m is the slope
and b is the y-intercept. Hence, when displacement is plotted against time, the graph must be a
straight line with a slope equal to and a y-intercept equal to zero. Since velocity is constant, the
average velocity is equal to the instantaneous velocity. The velocity versus time graph is a
horizontal line. The area bounded by the line and the time axis gives the displacement. The
acceleration versus time graph is a horizontal line that coincides with the x-axis.

Sample Problem 3.11

The distance between two bus terminals A and B is 80.0 km. Starting from terminal A, a bus
traveling at constant speed covers this distance in 1 h. Upon arriving at terminal B, the driver rested
for 30.0 min. It then travels back to terminal A at constant speed arriving there after 50.0 min. (a)
Draw the displacement versus time graph of the motion of the bus. (b) What is the slope of the line
during the first 1 h? (c) What is the slope of the line for the next 30 m² (d) What is the slope of the
line for the last 50 min? (e) What do these slopes represent?

Solution:

a.

b. The slope (6) for the first 60.0 min is

80.0 𝑘𝑚−0
m = 60.0 𝑚𝑖𝑛−0 = 1.33 km/min.

c. The slope for the next 30.0 min is 0.

d. The slope for the last 50.0 min is
 0−80.0 𝑘𝑚
m = 50.0 min − 0 = -1. 60 km/min.

e. The slopes represent the average velocity for each time interval. But since motion is
uniform for each time interval, the slopes also represent instantaneous velocity.

Practice Exercise 3.11

A bus left Manila for Bulacan at noon 50.0 km away at a constant speed covering 25.0 km in 1.25
h. However, when it was 25.0 km away from Manila, it had a flat tire. It took 30 min to have the
tire replaced. Afterwards, the bus travelled at the same rate for the rest of the trip. Suppose a second
bus leaves Bulacan at noon for Manila at 15 km/h, will the two buses meet? If yes, when, and
where will they meet? Draw the displacement versus time graph for each bus.

The equation relating displacement with time is

1
d = vot + at2
2

Fig. 3-10. Displacement-time graph and velocity-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion.
The velocity is the slope of the line tangent to the graph at point of interest, The initial velocity is
assumed to be zero.

This equation has the form similar to the general equation of a parabola passing through
the origin assuming = 0. Therefore, the graph of displacement versus time is a parabola. The
tangent technique will be used to determine instantaneous velocities.
The relation between velocity and time is v = vo + at. Again, the equation has the same
form as that of a line. Hence, the graph of velocity versus time is a straight line with a slope equal
to the acceleration and a y-intercept equal to vo. If vo, is zero, then the line must pass through the
origin. The acceleration versus time graph is a horizontal line.
Sample Problem 3.12
The velocity versus time graph of a body is as shown. Characterize the motion of the body
for each portion of his trip. Determine the acceleration and displacement for each portion of his
trip. Also find the total displacement as well as the total distance of the body from its starting
position.

Solution:

Portion Type of Motion Acceleration Displacement

𝑚 1
AB Uniformly Accelerated Motion +20 −0 area = (base)(height)
a= 𝑠
2
10 𝑠−0
1
dx = (10 s – 0)(+20 m/s)
a = +2 m/s2 2

dx = +100 m
BC Uniform Motion a=0 area = (length)(height)
dx = (30 s – 10 s)(+20 m/s)
dx = +400 m
𝑚 1
CD Uniformly Decelerated Motion 0−(+20 𝑠 ) area = (base)(height)
a= 2
40 𝑠−30 𝑠
1
a = -2 m/s2 dx = (40 s – 30 s)(+20 m/s)
2

dx = +100 m
DE At rest a=0 dx = 0
𝑚 1
EF Uniformly Accelerated Motion (−20 𝑠 −0) area = (base)(height)
a= 2
60 𝑠−50 𝑠
(negative direction) 1
a = -2 m/s2 dx = (60 s – 50 s)(-20 m/s)
2

dx = -100 m
FG Uniform Motion a=0 area = (length)(height)
dx = (80 s – 60 s)(-20 m/s)
dx = -400 m
GH Uniformly Decelerated Motion 𝑛 1
(0−(−20 𝑠 )) area = (base)(height)
a= 2
90 𝑠−80 𝑠
1
dx = (90 s – 80 s)(-20 m/s)
a = +2 m/s2 2

dx = -100 m
Total displacement = + 100 m + 400 m + 100 m + (-100 m) + (-400 m) + (-100 m) = 0
Total distance = 100 m + 400m + 100m + 100m + 400m + 100 m = 1200 m
Practice Exercise 3.12
The motion of an object moving in a straight line was observed and its
velocity noted at the end of each second for 6 s.
a. Draw the velocity versus time graph.
acceleration and its displacement at the end of each time interval.
b. From the graph of velocity versus time, determine the
acceleration and its displacement at the end of each time interval.
c. Draw the displacement versus time graph.

3.9 Relative Velocity

At the start of the chapter, we have said that motion is relative. Velocity too is relative. The
velocity of a moving body viewed at two different frames of reference may not be equal. The next
example illustrates how to determine relative velocity.

Sample Problem 3.13

A boy is walking at +1.0 m/s toward the front of a bus moving at +1 m/s. What is the
velocity of the boy as observed by (a) a passenger sitting inside the bus and (b) another passenger
waiting for the bus at a nearby bus stop?

Solution:

a. Relative to a passenger sitting inside the bus, the velocity of the boy is +1.0 m/s.
b. To a ground-based observer at a bus stop, the velocity of the boy is +1.0 m/s+(+5.0 m/s)
+6.0 m/s.

Practice Exercise 3.13

The driver of a parked car A observes that car B on a

parallel lane is moving away from him at 90 km/h in the +x
direction while car C in another lane is approaching him with
a speed of 30 km/h in the negative x- direction. Relative to the
driver of car B, what are the velocities of cars A and C? Relative to the driver in car C, what are
the velocities of cars A and B?

3.10 Physiological Effects of Acceleration

Acceleration may be classified as impact acceleration or sustained acceleration. Impact
acceleration lasts for one second or less. This is experienced during car collision and crashes.
Sustained acceleration normally lasts for more than one second. The acceleration due to gravity is
an example of sustained acceleration.

The effect of acceleration depends on several factors, foremost of which are magnitude and
duration. The greater the acceleration and longer time duration, the greater the danger or damage.

Three kinds of acceleration stresses were identified according to the direction of

acceleration relative to the human body. Positive acceleration (+g) stress happens when
acceleration is from head to foot. This is characterized by a feeling of heaviness, similar to the
sensation we feel when an elevator is rising rapidly. Positive & carries blood toward the lower
portion of the body, reducing blood supply to the brain and eyes. This induces gray-out (graying
of vision), blackout (complete loss of vision), and loss of consciousness. Test conducted showed
that the average visual blackout occurs at 3 g and loss of consciousness at 6 g. Loss of
consciousness lasts for about 15 s, followed by 5-15 s of disorientation.

Negative g is the opposite of +g. The acceleration is directed from foot to head. This is
normally encountered during inverted flight or push over maneuvers. g stress is characterized by
a slight displacement of the internal organs in the abdomen and chest and a feeling of congestion.
Blood is being pushed toward the head, resulting in the reddening of the face. Fighter pilots also
experience "red-out." Humans on the average can tolerate-5 g for a few seconds, -4.5 g for 15 s,
and -3 g for 30 s.

Transverse acceleration stress is experienced when the direction of acceleration is

sideways relative to the body's long axis (the axis joining head to foot).

What about zero gravity? A freely falling body behaves as if it has no weight. Astronauts
orbiting Earth are effectively weightless in a free fall. Prolonged weightlessness in space can have
harmful effects on health. This weightlessness may produce circulatory and excretion difficulties.
Red blood cells diminish in number, blood collects in the thorax, bones lose calcium and become
brittle, and muscles lose their tones.

Take HOME Tasks

[Link] your way to school or in one of your trips, sit near the driver and record the speed of your
car or vehicle at equal intervals of time. You can make observations every five minutes if it is a
long trip or every minute if it is a short trip. Make a velocity versus time graph of your trip. Are
there times when the vehicle is accelerating? If so, compute your acceleration.
2. When do bodies become apparently "weightless?" Try this water trick activity. Obtain a plastic
cup. Punch two holes on the opposite side of the cup. Cover the holes with your finger as you All
it with water. Now remove your fingers and raise the cup little by little. Observe what happens.
Refill the cup. Then, drop the cup from a certain height. What do you observe?
3. Climb a stair and drop simultaneously a cupcake paper negligible? and a coin. On which object
is air resistance.

4. Drop two balls having same size but different weight. Which will reach the ground first? Why?
5. Take a garden hose and aim the nozzle so that the water streams upward at an angle above the
horizontal. For best results, the water stream should be fast and narrow. Stand in one place and try
aiming the nozzle at different angles. Notice how the range varies with the angle of the nozzle.
Approximately, what angle do you observe gives the maximum range? Try also to compare the
range for angles of 30 and 60°, 20 and 70°, 40°, and 50%.
6. Place one coin very near the edge of a table. Place an identical coin near the first coin. Snap the
second coin with your finger so that it flies off the table and, at the same time, hitting the first coin
so that it falls straight to the floor? Did you hear a single sound of the coins hitting the floor? Do
the coins have to be identical? Try using different coins.

70 Exploring Life Through Science-Physics

To protect combat pilots and astronauts from these adverse effects of acceleration, a special suit
called anti-G suit is normally used. Pilots and astronauts also train in so-called "human centrifuge"
where they are exposed to artificial gravity to be able to perform certain flying tasks.
e-Physics
Physiological effects of acceleration, acceleration due to gravity, and microgravity
Physiological effects of acceleration

• [Link]

Microgravity

• [Link]

Amusement Park physics

• [Link]

Weightlessness and microgravity

• [Link]

Factors affecting acceleration due to gravity.

• [Link]

Chapter Summary

• The study of motion is divided into kinematics and dynamics. Kinematics is a quantitative
description of motion and deals with the relations between displacement, velocity, and
acceleration. Dynamics is the study of force in relation to motion.
• Motion and velocity are relative. They depend on the frame of reference. A frame of
reference is a physical entity to which we refer motion. Our reference frame is usually the
ground.
• Distance is the total length of path a body travels. Displacement refers to straight line
distance between its initial and final positions with direction toward the final position.
• Speed is the distance a body moves in a unit time. Velocity is the time rate of change of
position. It is the displacement of a body per unit time.
• Acceleration is change in velocity per unit time. A change in velocity means a change in
speed and/or direction.
• There are five kinematic equations for motion.
 dx = vt
1
v = 2 (vf + vo)
𝑣𝑓− 𝑣𝑜
a= 𝑡

2adx = vf2 – vo2

1
dx = vot +2 𝑎𝑡 2

• All bodies near the surface of the Earth fall with the same acceleration due to gravity. g
being -9.8m/s2.
• Projectile motion is a combination of uniform horizontal motion and free fall.
• For uniform motion, the graph of displacement versus time is a straight line with a slope
equal to velocity. For uniformly accelerated motion, the graph of displacement versus time
is parabola. The velocity is the slope of the tangent to the displacement curve at the time
under consideration.
• The graph of velocity versus time is horizontal line for uniform motion and a line sloping
upward or downward for uniformly accelerated/decelerated motion. The slopes of these
graphs give the acceleration. The area under the velocity-time graph for a particular time
interval is the displacement for that time interval. The are under an acceleration-time graph
is the change of the velocity for a particular time interval.

A CLOSER LOOK EXPLAINED

A micro-g environment (also µg,
often referred to by the term
microgravity) is one where the
acceleration induced by gravity has little
or no measurable effect, gravity itself
does not change. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) where a body behaves as if it has no
defines it as one in which the apparent weight. Perhaps that’s the reason why
weight of a system is small compared to weightlessness and zero gravity are
its actual weight due to gravity. it is one loosely used to refer to microgravity.
 There are three methods of creating a Keplerian trajectory. In the pull up phase,
micro-g environment: (a) travel for the plane climbs rapidly at a 45-degree
enough into deep space so as to reduce the angle, traces a parabola in the push-over
effect of gravity, (b) orbit a planet, and (c) phase, and then descends at 45-degree
fall freely. As you will learn later in this angle in the pull out phase. During the
book, the gravitational force on a body is pull up and pull-out segments, crew and
inversely proportional to the square of its those on-board experience accelerations
distance from earth. Thus, one way to of about 2 g. during push-over phase, net
achieve a microgravity environment is to accelerations drop as low as 1.5 × 10-2 g
travel for enough into deep space at least for about 15-20 s. Reduced gravity
a distance of 6.4 million kilometers from conditions created by the same type of
Earth or roughly 17 times farther than the parabolic motion describes above can be
moon. NASA uses orbiting spacecraft experienced on the series of ‘floater” hills
like the Space Shuttles as well as research that are usually located at the end of the
rockets (or sound rockets as they are roller coaster rides and when driving over
scientifically called). For purposes of swells on the road. (NASA’s
research, drop facilities in NASA Microgravity: A teachers Guide with
research centers as well as in other Activities in Science, Mathematics and
countries as constructed to achieve Technology).
microgravity for a few seconds. The
Matter behaves differently in a
feeling of “weightlessness” resulting
microgravity environment. Take for
from a drop in these facilities can also be
instance a candle flame. On Earth,
experienced on free fall rides in
gravity-driven buoyant convection causes
amusement parks or when stepping off
a candle flame to be teardrop-shaped (A)
diving boards. Planes, commonly referred
and carries soot to the flame’s tip, making
to as Vomit Comet, have been in
it yellow. In microgravity, where
existence since 1973 to provide a nearly
convective flows are absent, the flame is
weightless environment to train
spherical, soot-free, and blue.
astronauts, conduct research, and film
Researchers on material science,
motion pictures. To accomplish this, the
biotechnology, fluid dynamics and other
plane followed a parabolic path called
areas are being done in microgravity
 laboratories like the Shuttles and the pollution, improve fiber optics, and
International Space Station. Microgravity enable medical breakthroughs to cure
allows new materials to be developed diseases. In addition, results of
which cannot be made on Earth due to researchers on microgravity can be our
gravity. these new materials can be used database for exploring Mars and the outer
to speed up future computers, reduce space.

TEST YOURSELF

A. Answer the following briefly.

1. Give three examples of accelerated motion.
2. Give an example where velocity and acceleration are negative.
3. At the highest point of a body thrown vertically upward, what is the speed? What is its
acceleration?
4. At what point or points in its path is the speed of a projectile minimum? Maximum?
5. Four coins are thrown simultaneously from a bridge. Coin A is thrown vertically
upward, coin B is thrown horizontally, coin C is thrown up at a certain angle with the
horizontal, and coin D is dropped from rest. Assume that the initial speed if coins A, B,
and C are equal. Which among the coins will reach the water first? Which will be the
last to hit the water? Which among the four coins will hit the water at the same time?
6. For a projectile thrown with an initial velocity at an angle of Ø, show that maximum
range is obtained if Ø=45˚.
7. What is the appearance of the graph of acceleration versus time for a freely falling
object?
8. You accidentally drop a ball while standing inside a moving bus. How will the path of
the ball appear to you? How will the path of the ball appear to a bystander outside the
bus?
9. Vertically falling rains make slanted streaks on the side windows of a moving car. Why?

SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS.

1. A car starting from rest, accelerates for 15.0 min until its velocity is 20 m/s. It then moves
at constant velocity for another 20.0 min before it slows down and finally stopped in
another 10.0 min. Find (a) acceleration during the first 15 min, (b) the deceleration during
 the last 10 min of its motion, (c) the distance travelled during the last min., and the (d) total
displacement. Draw the displacement versus time graph and velocity versus time graph for
the motion of the car.
2. When the front of a 5.0 m long bus traveling at a constant speed of 20 m/s is 55 m away
from an intersection, the traffic light runs orange. It will take 3.0 s before the traffic light
turns red. The driver’s reaction time is 0.25 s. the bus can accelerate up to 2.0 m/s2 or slow
down at a maximum rate of 4.3 m/s2. The intersection is 22.0 m wide. Should the drivers
step on the brakes or on the gas pedal?
3. A student is running at a constant velocity of +5.0 m/s in an effort to catch the bus parked
in a station. When he is 10.0 m away from the bus, the bus pulls away with a constant
acceleration of +1.2 m/s. How much time will it take the student to catch the bus if he keeps
running with the same velocity.
4. An object moves in the negative direction with a speed of 3.25 m/s. If an acceleration of
2.00 m/s2 is applied to the object in the positive direction, how long will it have a speed of
3.25 m/s in the positive direction?
5. The human body can survive an acceleration less than 250 m/s. If a person is involved in a
car accident with an initial speed of 120 km/h and is stopped by an air bag, over what
distance must the air bag stop the person to survive the crash?
6. A bounder in basketball has a vertical leap of 1.2 m. What is his launch speed and “hang
time?”
7. A student drops a stone from the top of the building and hears the sound of the stone striking
the ground 5.0 s. How high is the building? Assume the speed of sound in air to be 340
m/s.
8. What is the distance travelled by an object drop from rest during the second of its motion?
Will this distance double during the fourth speed of its motion?
9. Two students are experimenting on fallen bodies. From a window 15.0 m above the ground,
one student drops a ball, and, at the same time, the other student throws another ball
vertically up with an initial speed of 9.5 m/s. How much time would elapse between the
ball striking the ground?
10. A firecracker tossed in the air at 60˚ with the horizontal speed of 30.0 m/s exploded 15 m
away. How long was the firecracker in air before it exploded? How high did it go?
11. In the last five seconds of the championship match between teams A and B, the scores were
tied at 75 when a player from team A was fouled and was awarded two free throws. On the
first attempt, he released the ball with a velocity of 6.0 m/s at 45˚ above the horizontal from
a height of 2.0 m from the floor. (a) Is this a miss or a basket? (b) for the second throw, the
player shoots again at 45˚ from the same point of release. What must be the initial speed of
the ball so that it will go through the basket? The center of the basket is 4.21 m from the
free throw line and 3.05 m above the floor.
12. A military plane wants to drop supplies to some survivors from the rocky ridge. The plane
is flying horizontally at an altitude of 235 m with a speed of 72.5 m/s. How far in advance
must the relief goods be released so that they arrive precisely at the survivor’s location?
13. Two projectiles are thrown up with the same initial velocity at angles of projection that are
complementary. Prove that they will cover the same range.
14. The horizontal and vertical components of the initial velocity of a ball are 4.5 m/s and 3.6
m/s, respectively. Find (a) the initial velocity of the ball, (b) the maximum height attained
by the ball, and (c) the displacement of the ball after 0.52 s.
15. Draw the displacement versus time-graph and acceleration versus time-graph of the coin
in Sample Problem 3.8.
16. Bethsy and Michael are 150 m apart. Michael is walking toward Bethsy at a constant speed
of 2.5 m/s, while Bethsy is running and acceleration at 1.0 m/s 2 starting from rest. How
long will it take them to meet? Draw the displacement versus time graph and velocity
versus time graph of Bethsy and Michael.
17. The table below gives the distances traveled by a body at the corresponding times.
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Distance (m) 0 4 16 36 64 100 144 196 256

(a) Draw a distance versus time graph.

(b) From the distance versus time graph, determine the speed at time = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
and 8 s.
(c) Draw the corresponding speed versus time graph.
(d) From the speed versus time graph, determine the acceleration of the body.
 (e) Draw distance versus square of time graph. From this graph, determine the
acceleration of the body.
18. Inside a train traveling at constant speed of 6 m/s, a ball is thrown vertically up at 12 m/s.
What is the velocity of the ball after 1.0 s as observed by (a) somebody inside the train,
and (b) a passenger standing on the ground outside the train?
19. Bea and John are approaching each other at 2.0 m/s and -3.2 m/s, respectively. Determine
the velocity of Bea relative to John. At what speed do they close the gap between them?