Revision Notes for Science Chapter 1 - Crop production

and management (Class 8th)

[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/crop-production-and-management

Why do we need food?

We need food because it gives us energy, keeps us healthy, and helps us to grow as well
as repair and replace damaged and worn-out tissues.

How do plants and animals get their food?

Most plants make their own food through the process of Photosynthesis. Animals feed on
plants or other animals to get energy.

When we cultivate same kind of plants on a large scale at one place, it called ‘Crop’.

Agricultural Practices
Depending on the season, there are two major types of crops:

Basic Practices of Crop Production

Seven agricultural practices followed while growing a crop are:

Preparation of Soil: To loosen and turn the soil.

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 Sowing: Planting of seeds of a crop in soil.

Adding Manure and Fertilisers: Adding essential nutrients to soil for growth and
development of plants.

Irrigation: Supplying water to plants at regular intervals.

Protection from Weeds: Removal of unwanted plants from the cultivated field to
allow crops proper access to lights, space, and nutrients.

Harvesting: Cutting mature crops from fields.

Storage: Keeping grains or produce safe from rats, insects, microorganisms and
moisture.

Preparation of Soil

Why do we loosen or turn the soil?

Loosening the soil is important because it:

allows the toots to go deeper into the soil and yet, breathe easily (allowing air to reach
the roots),

helps in growth of microbes and earthworms that add humus to the soil and turn and
loosen the soil further, and

nutrient-rich soil comes to the top and can be used by plants.

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The process used to loosen and turn the soil is called Tilling or Ploughing. After tilling,
Levelling is donein which the big clumps of soil called crumbs are broken (and levelled).
Levelling the field helps in the process of sowing and irrigation.

Step-by-step Agricultural Process

Agricultural Implements used for Ploughing

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Why is levelling the field important?
Land levelling is typically done in mildly sloping lands where farmers use surface irrigation
methods such as furrows, borders, basins or floods. It ensures uniform distribution of
irrigation water in the root zone of the crop. It also helps in seeding and managing the crop
better, which means that the yield and quality of the crop is better.

Agricultural Implements used for Levelling

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Traditionally, farmers used ox-drawn scrapers to level the land but today, laser land leveller
is being used to make sure that the surface of the field is even and flat. The laser-guided
levellers saves time, increases productivity, and saves water (as it minimizes water-logging
or run-off problems.

Ox-drawn Scraper

Laser Land Leveller

Sowing

Which kind of seeds should farmers use?

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Farmers should use good-quality seeds that are clean, healthy and give high yield.
Selection of the right variety of seeds depends on the soil, climate, irrigation method, and
other regional factors.

The Ministry of Agriculture in India has set up a national-level organisation called the
National Seeds Corporation (NSCC) that tests the quality of seeds. State Seeds
Corporations and Agricultural Universities have also set up seed testing laboratories
throughout India. These labs test seeds for their:

purity,

resistance to diseases and pests,

germination and vigour,

suitability to regional climatic conditions, and

general seed health. (olympiad)

How to separate damaged seeds from healthy seeds?

Put the seeds in water. Damaged seeds are hollow and lighter and thus, float on water.
Good and healthy seeds sink in water and settle down.

Agricultural Implements used for Sowing

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What precautions should be taken while sowing?
While sowing seeds, it is essential to make sure that:

Seeds are healthy and of high quality.

They are planted at correct distance from each other so that they can get proper light,
water and nutrients from soil.

They must be sown deep enough to protect them from animals and birds (which might
eat them) and wind (which might blow them away) but not so deep that they may not
get enough air to germinate.

Why it is better to sow seeds uniformly?

Seeds should be planted at appropriate distance to avoid overcrowding of plants. It allows

plants to get proper sunlight as well as sufficient water and nutrients from the soil.

Why are plants kept in small bags in nursery?

Few plants (like paddy, forest plants, and flowering plants) are first grown in a nursery into
seedlings and then, transplanted to plants manually. Keeping the seedlings in bags makes it
easier to transfer them to another place.

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Adding Manure and Fertilisers
Why are manure and fertilisers added to the soil?

When crop after crop is grown in the same field, the soil becomes poor in certain nutrients.
Manure and fertilisers are added to the soil to replenish it with nutrients to ensure healthy
growth of plants.

What are different types of manure that farmers can use?

Manure can be of various types, such as:

Natural Organic Manure: This includes raw manure, compost, and green manure:

Raw manure is a mixture of cattle and domestic waste.

Compost is well-rotted plant and animal residue.

Green Manure are crops grown in the field as the pure crop or as an intercrop
between the main crops - and then, buried in the field to enrich the soil.

Biofertilizers: These are the nitrogen-fixing organisms that are widely used in organic
farming and make agriculture sustainable. These include Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
blue-green algae, and Mycorrizae (a type of fungi that increases phosphorus uptake in
fruit crops like papaya and citrus fruits).

Vermi-Compost: It is a type of compost which is made using earthworms.

What are the three methods of replenishing the soil with nutrients?
The three methods of replenishing the soil are:

Adding organic manure to the soil,

Adding chemical fertilizers to the soil,

Leaving the field uncultivated (or fallow) between two crops, and

Crop rotation, in which different crops are grown alternately to allow the soil to
replenish with different nutrients.

Difference between Manure and Fertilisers

[Link]. Fertiliser Manure

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 1. Fertiliser is a man-made inorganic Manure is a natural substance obtained by
salt. the decomposition of cattle dung and plant
residues.

2. Fertiliser is prepare in factors. Manure provides a lot of humus to the soil.

3. Fertiliser does not provide any Manure provides a lot of humus to the soil.
humus to the soil.

4. Fertilisers are very rich in plant Manure is relatively less rich in plant
nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus nutrients.
and potassium.

Examples of Fertilisers

Pros and Cons of using Fertilisers

Pros: They are chemicals, rich in particular nutrients and help farmers get better yield of
crops like wheat, paddy and maize.
Cons: They make soil less fertile and also cause water pollution.

Why is Manure better than Fertilisers?

Organic Manure is better than Fertilisers because:

It adds humus to the soil and increases its water holding capacity,

Improves soil texture,

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 Makes soil porous which makes exchange of gases easier, and

Increases the number of friendly microbes.

State an example of Crop Rotation

In North India, farmers used to grow legumes in one season as fodder and wheat in the
next season. This helped the soil to get replenished with nitrogen*.

*Root nodules of leguminous plants have Rhizobium bacteria that fix atmospheric nitrogen
and make it usable by plants.

Irrigation

Why is Irrigation necessary?

Time and frequency of irrigation depends on: Irrigation is essential because:

the veriey of crop, Plants contain 90% water

and need it for proper
the type of soil and growth and development.
the season (In summers, watering has to be done When roots absorb water,
more frequency dut to the increased rate of they also absorb minerals
evaporation from the soil and leaves). and fertilisers.

Germination of seeds
does not take place in dry
conditions.

Nutrients dissolved in
water get transport to
different parts of the
plant.

Water also protects crops

from frost and hot air
currents.

Sources of Irrigation

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Wells Tubewells

Ponds Lakes

Rivers Dams

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 Canals

Traditional Methods of Irrigation

Traditional irrigation methods can be of two types:

Ones that use cattle and human labour: They are cheaper but less efficient. These
include:

Moat (Pulley System) Chain Pump

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 Dhekli Rahat (Lever System)

Video Reference:

Ones that use pumps: To lift water, pumps can be powered by:
Diesel,

Biogas,

Electricity, and

Solar Energy.

Modern Methods of Irrigation

They are best for saving water. Two main irrigation methods in use today are:

Sprinkler System

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Best for places where:

land is uneven, and

sufficient water is not available.

It has perpendicular pipes, with rotating nozzles on top, joined to the main pipeline at
regular intervals. Water flows through the main pipeline under pressure (created with the
help of a pump). It escapes from rotating nozzles and sprinkles on the crop like rain.

Often used in watering:

Lawns, and

Coffee plantations.

Drip System

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Best for places where:

availability of water is poor.

Water falls drop-by-drop directly near the roots of the crop. There is no wastage of water at
all.

Often used in watering:

Fruit Plants,

Gardens, and

Trees

How does over-irrigation harmful for crop production?

Like irregular or under-irrigation, excessive water can also damage crops. In a waterlogged
field:

Seeds do not germinate properly as they do not get sufficient air to respire,

Roots do not grow properly due to lack of proper soil aeration,

Water evaporates more which leads to accumulation of salt which in turn damages
soil fertility, and

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 Roots do not go deep in soil and hence, plants are not able to get full nutrients from
the soil. Roots are also unable to anchor the plants properly and the crop can easily
get damaged by strong winds.

Protection from Weeds

Undesirable plants that grow naturally along with the crop are called weeds. Removal of
weeds is called Weeding.

Why is weeding necessary?

Removal of weeds is essential because:

Weeds compete with crops for space, light, water, and nutrients.

They may interfere in harvesting and can be poisonous for animals and human
beings.

How do farmers remove weeds?

Farmers remove weeds by:

Tilling before sowing of crops (to uproot and kill weeds),

Manually removing them using khurpi to uproot them or cut them close to the ground,

Spraying weedicides (chemicals that kill weeds but do not damage crops), such as 2,
4 Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2, 4-D), Naphthalene acetic acid, and Atrazine.

What should farmers keep in mind while using weedicides?

The best time to remove weeds is before they produce flowers and seeds.

Weedicides are diluted with water and sprayed in the fields. Farmers should cover their
nose and mouth with a piece of cloth while spraying them.

Harvesting
Cutting of crop after it matures is called Harvesting*.

Cereal crops usually take 3-4 months to mature.

In India, many festivals are associated with harvesting, such as Pongal, Baisakhi,
Holi, Diwali, Nabanya and Bihu.

Harvesting can be done manually (using sickle) or by machine (called Harvester).

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 Harvesting Threshing

Winnowing

After harvesting, separating chaff from grain can be done through threshing and
winnowing.

Threshing is separating chaff from grain by beating the crop against a stone or wooden
bar. In this process, grains fall from the stalk due to force.

After threshing, winnowing separates the husk from the seeds by blowing air through it. In
this process, the husk (which is lighter) flies away and the seeds (which are heavier) fall
down.

There is a machine called ‘Combine’ which works as a harvester as well as a thresher.

(olympiads)

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Storage
How are grains protected from pests, bacteria and fungi?

Grains (seeds) are dried in the sun to reduce their moisture.

At small scale, grains are stored in jute bags or metallic bins.

At large scale, they are kept in silos and granaries.

Dried neem leaves are used at home to protect food grains.

In big godowns, chemical treatments are done to protect the large quantities of grain.

What precautions should be taken during storage of grains?

Precautions to be taken during storage of food grains are:

Grains should be dried properly or they might rot easily.

They should be stored in completely dry gunny bags.

The bags should be kept in a place which is completely moisture-free.

Storage areas should be well-ventilated.

In larger godowns, care should be taken that chemicals used to repel or kill insects
and rats do not contaminate food grains.

Food from Animals

When animals are reared at a large scale to obtain food from them, it is called Animal
Husbandry.

Animal husbandry includes taking care of animals, breeding them, and domesticating them
for different purposes such as meat, wool, milk, eggs, honey etc. Types of animal
husbandry popular in India include:

Beekeeping or Apiculture

Cattle farming

Dairy farming

Fish Farming or Aquaculture

Poultry farming

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 Sheep farming

Breeding means mating animals with superior characters to create a new breed (or
offspring that is more useful to us than its parents). Breeding can be of two types:

Inbreeding

Outbreeding

What are the advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding?

Inbreeding allows us to eliminate the harmful recessive genes in a breed and selectively
choose and nurture superior genes. In the case of cattle, a superior female produces more
milk per lactation while a superior male produces superior progeny than other males.

However, continuous inbreeding can reduce the fertility and productivity of animals that are
bred. This is called inbreeding depression. It can be overcome by outbreeding.

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What are the three types of outbreeding programme?

Out-crossing: When animals of the same breed are mated together but they have no
common ancestors (on either side of the pedigree) for four to six generations, it is
called Outcrossing. The resultant offspring is called Outcross.

Cross Breeding: When superior males of one breed are mated with superior males
of another breed, it is called Cross Breeding. This helps scientists to combine the
desirable qualities of the two breeds. In Punjab, Bikaneri ewes were mated with
Marino rams to create a new breed of sheep called Hisardale.

Interspecific Hybridization: When a male and a female of two different species of

animals are mated together, it is called Hybridization. For Example, when a donkey
and a horse is mated, a new breed called Mule is born. (Olympiads)

What are the advantages and disadvantages of hybridization?

Hybridization passes along the favorable traits of the two chosen species. It can also
prolong the survival of a species that is considered threatened or endangered at present.

However, successful breeding through hybridization and finding suitable mates for the
purpose is difficult. Moreover, whether done naturally or through human initiation, the
hybridization often fails to pass on the life-sustaining genes to offspring which means that
most of the offspring do not survive for long after birth.

Green Revolution in India

Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, the second Prime Minister of India, started the Green
Revolution in India with the slogan 'Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan'. His vision was that the soldiers
bear the responsibility of making the country powerful from security point of view while
farmers bear the responsibility to make the country self-sufficient in terms of food and other
agricultural produce.

Eight Main achievements of the Green Revolution are:

Increase in Crop Yield per Hectare: Use of modern agricultural implements

increased the yield or production of crops per hectare.

Increase in Overall Crop Production: The new implements and agricultural methods
not only increased the production of food grains but also of commercial crops such as
jute, cotton, oilseeds etc. Due to Green revolution, the country has become less-
dependent on imports for food and its exports have increased which means that our
country is more self-sufficient now.

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Commercialization of Agriculture: The status of agriculture increased from being
just a means of livelihood to a profit-making enterprise. This led to rapid development
in this field.

Increased Use of Fertilizers and Insecticides: The scientific knowledge about new
agricultural practices helped farmers adopt use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides
which increased the quantity and quality of their crops.

Increase in Irrigation Facilities: Emphasis was laid on making irrigation accessible

to everyone and hence, India has a total irrigated crop area of 82.6 million hectares
which is largest in the world.

Less dependence on Monsoons: Earlier, farmers used to depend on monsoons to

be able to produce a good crop. Natural calamities, pests, diseases, and hails and
storm used to damage crops easily. Now, more and more farmers are using new
scientific methods to produce a healthy crop and keeping it safe.

Multiple Crop Program: Since 1867-68, the multiple crop program has been
introduced which ensures that farmers can produce more than one crop every year
increasing their income considerably.

Rural Electrification: Under Green Revolution, more than 70% of rural India has
already been electrified. The Rural Electrification Corporation was established to
make sure that electricity is provided to farmers for agricultural purposes and the
quality of rural life improves in general.

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Microorganisms CBSE Class 8 Science Notes Chapter
[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/microorganisms-friend-and-foe

Quick Revision:
What are Microbes?
Microbes or microorganisms are tiny organisms which are so small that we cannot see
them with an unaided eye. Some microorganisms can be seen with the help of a
magnifying glass (such as fungus that grows on bread) while some can only be seen
when you use a microscope (such as bacteria and protozoa). Microorganism were first
observed by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek.
Viral, Bacterial, and Protozoan Diseases

Causes Diseases

Viruses Common Ailments: Cold, Cough, and Influenza (or Flu)

Serious Diseases: Polio, Chicken Pox, Measles etc

Bacteria Typhoid and Tuberculosis (TB) etc

Protozoans Dysentery and Malaria etc

Table 1: Microbial Diseases

Microorganisms
There are four major types of microorganisms:

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Fig 1: Types of Microorganisms

Bacteria: These are single-celled organisms with a rigid cell wall. They can only be
seen under a microscope which enlarges images from 100 to 1000 times.

Fig 2: Ultrastructure of a Bacterial Cell

Types of Bacteria (based on their Shapes) and their Examples

Shape of Bacteria Example Image

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 Comma-shaped Bacteria Vibrio Cholerae

Fig 3: Vibrio Cholera

Spherical-shaped Bacteria Staphylococcus and

(Cocci) Streptococcus

Fig 3: Streptococcus

Rod-shaped Bacteria [Link] and Salmonella

(Bacilli)

Fig 4: Salmonella

Spiral-shaped Bacteria Treponema and Borrelia

(Spirilla)

Fig 5: Borrelia

Table 2: Shapes of Bacteria (with Examples)

Fungi: These are non-green plants and hence, cannot make their own food. They
either live as parasites (deriving nutrition from host organisms, for example, Puccinia
which causes wheat leaf rust) or grow on the organic matter (such as bread mould).

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Fig 7: Puccinia triticina

Fig 8: Bread Mould

Fungi, like mushrooms, moulds, mildews, and years, are eukaryotic. It means that they
have a true nucleus.

The main components of fungi are:

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i. Hyphae: They are thread-like filaments which penetrate into substrates, secrete enzymes
to break down nutrients into smaller molecules, and absorb them.

ii. Spores are a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction. They can adapt for dispersal and
survival for extended periods of time in unfavourable conditions.

Algae : These are simple plant- like organisms which are usually aquatic in nature.
They contain a cell wall and chlorophyll and can make their own food by
[Link] can be unicellular or multicellular. Some of the common
examples are diatoms, Chlamydomonas, and seaweed.

Protozoa: Protozoa are unicellular are organisms. Some of them live independently
while others live as parasites. Many of the parasitic protozoans cause diseases in
plants, domestic animals, and human beings. Example of some protozoans are
Amoeba, Plasmodium and Paramecium

Fig 9: Paramecium

How are Viruses different from other microbes?

Viruses are microscopic organisms but they are different from other microbes because they
reproduce only inside the cells of the host organism (which can be a plant, animal, or a
bacterium).

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Fig 10: Types of Viruses

Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. A
complete virus particle is known as Virion.
Virion consists of a nucleic acid surrounded by 'capsid'. Capsid is a protective coat made of
protein. The subunits of this protein called 'Capsomeres'. Viruses can be seen only by an
electron microscope as they are ultramicroscopic in size.

Outside the body of a living organism, they do not show any reaction and hence, can be
crystallized and stored like non-living things.

Where do Microorganisms Live?

Microbes can survive in all kinds of environments – from icy cold climates to hot springs
(any kind of temperature); and deserts to marshy lands (any humidity level). Some live
independently while others live as parasites – inside the bodies of other organisms
(including animals and human beings).

Microorganisms and Us
Some microorganisms are beneficial to us while others are harmful and cause diseases.

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How are bacteria useful to us?

Bacteria are helpful because:

It decomposes organic wastes (such as

vegetable peels, animal remains, and
faeces etc.).

It is used in the preparation of

medicines.

It increases soil fertility by fixing nitrogen.

It is used in the setting of curd and making cheese, pickles, and other food items.

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How is yeast useful to us?

Yeast is used in the baking industry (to make

bread, pastries, and cakes) because it helps in
fermentation. It reproduces rapidly and produces
carbon dioxide during respiration. Bubbles of the
carbon-dioxide gas it produces fill the spaces in the
dough and increases its volume.

It is also used in the commercial production of

alcohol and wine which is done by growing yeast
on natural sugars present in fruit juices and grains
like rice, wheat, and barley.

Antibiotics
What are Antibiotics? What are their uses?

Antibiotics are medicines that can kill or stop the growth of disease-causing
microorganisms. For Example, Penicillin.

Antibiotics are used to:

Cure a variety of diseases (such as

streptomycin, erythromycin, and
tetracycline that are made from bacteria
and fungi),

Cure microbial infection in animals (by mixing antibiotics with the feed of livestock and
poultry), and

Control several plant diseases.

What precautions should be followed while taking antibiotics and why?

Antibiotics should be taken only on the advice of the doctor, and one must complete the
course the doctor prescribes.

Antibiotics taken in wrong doses may make the body resistant to the drug and it may not be
effective in the future. Moreover, antibiotics may also kill the beneficial bacteria in the body.

Please Note: Antibiotics cannot cure cold and flu caused by viruses.

Vaccines

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 Some Definitions to Remember:

Pathogens: Disease-causing
microbes are called Pathogens.
Antibodies: Antibodies are
substances our body produces to
fight disease-causing microbes.
Vaccines: Vaccines are weakened
or dead disease-causing microbes
that are injected in our body to
trigger the production of antibodies.
These antibodies remain in the body
for a long time to protect it against
any attack of disease-causing
microbes.
Vaccination: The process of
protecting the body from pathogens
with the help of vaccines is called
Vaccination.

Name some of the diseases which can be prevented by vaccines

Some of the diseases that can be

prevented by vaccination are:

Cholera,

Hepatitis,

Smallpox, and

Tuberculosis.

One can get necessary vaccines from

nearby hospitals.

How do microbes clean up the environment?

Microbes or microorganisms decompose organic waste and dead remains of plants and
animals and convert them into simpler substances (which can again be used by other plants
and animals) by the process of biodegradation. Thus, they help us in getting rid of harmful
and smelly substances and clean up the environment.

Harmful Microorganisms

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 Some Definitions to Remember:

Communicable Diseases: These are microbial diseases (diseases caused by microbes)

that spread from one infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food or
physical contact, such as cholera, chicken pox, common cold and tuberculosis.
Carriers: Insects and animals that carry disease-causing microbes and transfer them
from one place to other are called carriers or vectors, such as house flies and
mosquitoes.

How do houseflies transfer pathogens?

A housefly may sit on the garbage and animal excreta and the pathogens stick to their
body. When they sit on uncovered food, these pathogens get transferred to the food. When
someone eats this contaminated food, he or she may fall sick.

To avoid this, we must keep the food covered.

Name the carriers of:

Malaria

Female Anopheles mosquito (carries the parasite of malaria called Plasmodium)

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Dengue

Female Aedes mosquito (carries the dengue virus called Flavivirus)

Common Diseases and their Modes of Transmission

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How to prevent diseases that spread through air or contact?

To prevent diseases that spread through the air, keep the patient in complete isolation and
keep his or her personal belongings away from others. Vaccination at the suitable age can
prevent the onset of tuberculosis, chicken pox, polio, and measles.

How to prevent diseases that spread through water or food?

To prevent the spread of polio, cholera, typhoid and hepatitis A, vaccination is effective.
One should also maintain personal hygiene and good sanitary habits and drink boiled
drinking water.

One should also eat properly cooked food to avoid diseases like cholera.

How to prevent diseases that spread through mosquitoes?

We can stop the spreading of diseases caused by mosquitoes (such as malaria and
dengue) by not allowing the mosquitoes to breed. We should keep our surroundings clean
and dry, and not let water collect anywhere - in coolers, tyres, and flower pots etc.

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We should also spray insecticides and use mosquito repellents and mosquito nets to
protect ourselves from mosquito bites.

Common Diseases and the Microorganisms that cause them

Diseases Caused by Microorganisms in Animals

Anthrax: A dangerous disease that affects

human and cattle is caused by a bacterium
called Bacillus Anthracis.

Foot and mouth disease in Cattle: It is caused

by a virus called Foot-and-mouth-disease Virus (FMDV) or Picornavirus.

Diseases Caused by Microorganisms in Plants

Microorganisms can cause diseases in plants and reduce crop yield. Some of the plants in
which they cause diseases are:

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The plants can be protected by using chemicals that kill these microbes.

Common Diseases in Plants caused by Microbes

Citrus Canker is caused by Bacteria and spreads through Air.

Rust of Wheat is caused by Fungi and spreads through Air or Seeds.

Yellow Vein Mosaic of Okra (Bhindi) is caused by Virus and spreads through Insects.

Food Preservation
Why do we need to preserve food?

We need to preserve food because microorganisms that grow on food can sometimes
produce toxic substances which are poisonous to us. If we consume this spoilt food, we can
become seriously ill or die. Hence, we need to preserve food from being spoilt.

Common Methods of preserving food are:

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Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen constitutes 78% of our atmosphere.

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In living organisms, it is found in:

Proteins,

Nucleic Acids,

Chlorophyll, and

Vitamins.

Atmospheric nitrogen cannot be used directly by the plants and animals. It gets fixed by
either lightning or natural nitrogen fixers.

Nitrogen Cycle

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A step-by-step explanation of Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen Fixation: Atmospheric nitrogen is converted by lightning or certain bacteria

like Rhizobium, Azotobacter and blue-green algae (present in soil) into compounds
usable by plants.

Nitrification: Ammonia conversion into nitrites by Nitrosomonas and further

conversion of nitrites into nitrates by Nitrobacter. Plants take up nitrogen in form of
ammonia or nitrates.

Assimilation: Roots of plants absorb these nitrogenous compounds from soils and
plants use them to synthesize proteins and other compounds.

Animals feeding on plants get these proteins and nitrogen compounds.

Ammonification: When plants and animals die, bacteria and fungi present in the soil
convert the nitrogenous wastes into compounds that can be used by plants again.

Denitrification:Nitrates can be converted into nitrogen gas which is released back in

the atmosphere by certain bacteria. Eg. Pseudomonas

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Coal and Petroleum CBSE Class 8 Science
[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/coal-and-petroleum

Figure 1 Classification of Resources

Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas are exhaustible natural resources. They are fossil fuels.

Fossil fuels are fuels that are formed by fossils (or dead remains) of living organisms.

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What are fuels?
A fuel is any substance that releases large amounts of energy in the form of heat and light
when it is burned. For example, coal and petroleum are fuels.

Fuels can be classified as:

Classification Definition Examples

of Fuels

Solid Fuels These fuels exist in a solid state at room For example, coal, firewood,
temperature animal dung cakes,
charcoal, coke

Liquid Fuels These are volatile liquids that produce For example, petrol, diesel,
vapour which burns and produces kerosene
energy

Gaseous These are the fuels that exist in the form For example, natural gas,
Fuels of a gas or as a mixture of different biogas, CNG, coal gas
gaseous fuels.

Why do we need fossil fuels?

Fuels are required for different purposes such as:

1. Transportation: fuels are used to run different vehicles such as cars, trucks,
motorcycles, trains, airplanes etc.

2. Cooking: fuels are needed for cooking. For instance, LPG is used in urban areas
while firewood, coal and cattle dung is used in rural areas.

3. Heating: fuel is also used to generate heat

4. Electricity production: different fuels such as coal, petrol, natural gas and diesel are
used to generate electricity in power plants

5. Industrial usage: many industries use fuels for different purposes such as producing
electricity, running their machinery and heating

6. Rockets and other space vehicles: fuels called propellants are used in rockets that
help in launching the space vehicles

What are the characteristics of a good fuel?

The characteristics of good fuel are:

1. It should be economical.

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 2. It should be available easily

3. It should not emit poisonous gases on burning

4. It should produce large amounts of heat with respect to its mass (it should have a high
calorific value)

5. It should be easy to transport and handle

6. It should not produce a bad odour

7. It should be clean and should not produce many ashes

8. It should not ignite easily at room temperature

Coal

Figure 2 Coal

Coal is a fossil fuel formed from dead plant matter over millions
of years due to heat and pressure.

How is Coal formed?

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Figure 3 Formation of Coal

Over millions of years, coal is formed through different biological and geological
processes on dead and decaying plant matter.

Coal mainly contains carbon. The process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal
is called carbonisation.

Coal comes from a coal mine.

What is the composition of coal?

Coal consists of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen and sulphur (small amount).

What is coal mining?

Coal is extracted from the ground with a process called mining. Coal Mining can
be of two types:

1. Opencast Mining: Mining in which coal is extracted from near the earth’s surface

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 2. Underground Mining: Mining in which coal is extracted from deep inside the earth’s
crust

Different Types Coal

As coal gets older, the carbon content in it is higher. When coal is burnt, it mainly produces
carbon dioxide gas.

Figure 4 Types of Coal

Uses of Coal
Used as fuel to cook food.

Used in thermal power plants to produce electricity.

Used as fuel in various industries.

Once used as fuel to run steam-powered railway engines.

When processed, coal yields coke, coal tar and coal gas which in turn is used by many
industries.

What is destructive distillation?

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Figure 5 Destructive Distillation

It is a process in which coal is heated at very high temperature in the absence of air to
obtain various useful products from it. Consider the diagram below to understand the
process of destructive distillation. Different products obtained through this process are coal
gas, coal tar, coke and liquor ammonia.

Figure 6 Destructive Distillation Process Flow Chart

Major Coal Products

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Figure 7 Coal products

What are hydrocarbons?

Hydrocarbons are the substances that consist of only carbon and hydrogen. Compounds
like methane, butane, and hexane are hydrocarbons that are produced on burning of the
fossil fuels.

What will happen if the coal reserves get depleted?

Coal is being used as a major source of energy in industries as well as rural areas.

Not only this, it serves various other purposes like the synthesis of synthetic oil,
natural gas, coke, coal tar and coal gas.

If the amount of coal gets depleted it would become much difficult for us to produce
energy for various purposes. Hence, we must use coal in an efficient way.

What substances are released on the burning of coal?

1. Carbon dioxide

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 2. Carbon monoxide

3. Sulphur Dioxide

4. Nitrogen

5. Lead

6. Arsenic

7. Mercury

Petroleum

Figure 8 Petroleum

The term 'Petroleum' is derived from two words - 'Petra'

which means 'rock' and 'oleum' which means 'oil'. It is
mined from the rocks under the Earth.

Petroleum (also known as crude oil) is a fossil fuel

formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms.

How is Petroleum and Natural Gas formed?

Figure 9 Formation of petrol and natural gas

When the sea organisms die, their bodies sink to the bottom of the sea. With time,
they get covered by the layers of sand and clay.

Over millions of years, these remains get transformed in petroleum and natural gas
due to high temperature, high pressure, and absence of air.

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 When we dig oil wells, natural gas is above crude oil which in turn is above water. This
happens because gas and oil are lighter than water and do not mix with it.

First Oil Well in the World was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA in 1859.

Second Oil Well in the World was drilled in Makum, Assam, India in 1867 (after eight
years).

In India, the oil is found in:

Assam,

Gujarat,

Mumbai High, and

River basins of Godavari and Krishna.

Figure 10 Oil Resources in India

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Refining of Petroleum
Originally, petroleum is a mixture of many things, such as petrol, diesel, petroleum fas,
paraffin wax, lubricating oil etc.

It is a dark and oily liquid with an unpleasant odour.

Refining of petroleum is the process by which different constituents of petroleum are

separated.

This process takes place in a petroleum refinery.

Constituents of Petroleum and their Uses

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Figure 11 Constituents of Petroleum

Why Petroleum is called ‘black gold?

Petroleum is called 'black god' because it yields several substances that are commercially
successful. The useful substances obtained from petroleum and natural gas are called
'petrochemicals'.

Petrochemicals are used in manufacturing:

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 Synthetic fibres (such as Polyester, Nylon, Acrylic etc.),

Detergents,

Polythene, and

Man-made plastics.

Natural gas also yields Hydrogen gas which is used in the production of fertilisers (such as
urea).

Natural Gas

Figure 12 Natural Gas

Natural gas is a fossil fuel found naturally as a

hydrocarbon gas mixture in the oil wells. Its
main component is methane but it may also
contain varying amounts of other higher
alkanes (a group of elements). Gases like
carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen, and
hydrogen sulphide are also found in natural
gas in small percentages.

Why is Natural Gas important as a fossil fuel?

Natural gas is considered important as this fossil fuel can easily be transported
through pipes.

It is stored as CNG which is used for several purposes and is also used as a starting
material for manufacturing many chemicals and fertilisers.

Natural Gas does not cause pollution and has high calorific value.

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is the natural gas stored under high pressure.

Why is CNG useful?

CNG is used as:

Fuel to generate power

Cleaner fuel for transport vehicles (less polluting than petrol and diesel)

Fuel in homes and industries which can be supplied through pipes.

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Why is CNG considered as a cleaner fuel?

Natural gas is considered a better fuel than coal and petroleum because it is cleaner.

This means that it results in less amount of pollution that the other fossil fuels.

Natural gas emits 50% less carbon dioxide, sulphur and nitrogen oxides in the air.

However, it is not the best solution as there are better sources of energy present
nowadays like solar energy.

In India, vast reserves of natural gas are found in:

Maharashtra,

Rajasthan,

Tripura, and

River Delta of Krishna and Godavari.

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 Figure 13 Natural Gas resources in India

Some Natural Resources are Limited

Fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas cannot be created in the laboratory as
it is not possible to create the natural conditions under which they are formed. Moreover, it
takes thousands of years for them to be formed.

Consequences of the burning of fossil fuels

1. Increase in air pollution: The burning of fossil fuels results in the release of unburnt
carbon particles in the air. These particles act as pollutants and increase air pollution.
Fossil fuels release poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide in
the atmosphere.

2. Global Warming: Fossil fuels when burnt release large amounts of carbon dioxide in
the air. As the amount of carbon dioxide increases it results in an increase in the
global temperature of the earth and leads to global warming.

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Why should we use fossil fuels economically?

1. They are available in limited quantities.

2. Burning these fuels also cause air pollution as well as global warming.

Hence, we should use these fuels economically to make sure that we can use them for a
longer time, the risk of global warming gets reduced, and we can live in a cleaner
environment.

How can we save petrol or diesel while driving?

According to the Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) in India, we can
save petrol or diesel while driving by:

1. Drive at a constant and moderate speed.

2. Maintain tyre pressure at correct levels.

3. Switch off the engine when you are waiting( such as traffic light).

4. Do regular maintenance of your vehicle.

Why fossil fuels can last for 100 years only?

Fossil fuels are exhaustible resources which mean that they are not present in
abundant quantities on the earth.

They take hundreds and thousands of years to replenish.

The rate at which they are being consumed today is increasing at a rapid pace.

It means that more amounts of fossil fuels are being used than it is being replenished.

Hence, scientists claim that they can replenish completely in 100 years.

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Revision Notes for Science Chapter 6 - Combustion and
flame (Class 8th)
[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/combustion-and-flame

Quick Revision:

Remember, when we burn magnesium ribbon in air, it produces heat and light and we get
magnesium oxide.

Chemical Equation for Burning of Magnesium

Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide + Heat and Light

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO + ∆

Similarly, when we burn charcoal in air, it produces carbon dioxide, heat and light.

Chemical Equation for Burning of Coal

Carbon + Oxygen ∆→ Carbon Dioxide + Heat and Light

C + O2 → CO2 + ∆

We use different types of fuels in home, in trade and industry, and to run automobiles.
These include:

charcoal,

CNG,

coal,

cowdung,

diesel,

petrol,

wood etc.

Some of these fuels burn with a flame and some without a flame. In this chapter, we will
study the chemical process of burning and types of flame produced during this process

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What is Combustion?
Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen and generates
heat in the process.

Combustible substances are those substances that undergo combustion. It means that
these substances give off heat and sometimes light (as a flame or glow) when they react
with oxygen.

Inflammable substances are substances which have low ignition temperature and catch
fire easily. They burn with a flame. For example, petrol, LPG etc.

Why do we say that food is fuel for our body?

When we eat food, it gets broken down in simpler substances which react with oxygen and
generate energy (or heat). Hence, food is referred to as ‘fuel’ for our body.

Conditions necessary for the Combustion to take place are:

1. Combustion requires fuel.

Combustion only takes place when there is a fuel which produces heat and light when it
catches fire. For example, petrol and diesel.

2. Combustion requires air.

We can prove it with the help of the following experiment:

A candle keeps burning in open air. However, when we cover it with a glass or a jar, it only
burns until the oxygen inside it is consumed. Once the oxygen is exhausted, the flame of
the candle flickers off.

3. Combustion requires heat.

The substance must reach its ignition temperature to catch fire.

Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire or starts
burning.

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Types of Combustion
Rapid Combustion: Combustion in which a gas burns quickly producing heat and
light in the process. E.g. LPG

Spontaneous Combustion: Combustion in which a material bursts into flames

suddenly without applying heat. E.g. Phosphorus which burns at room
[Link] combustion of coal dust often causes accidental fires in
coal mines. Heat from the sun or lighting may also cause spontaneous forest fires.

Explosion: When a material bursts suddenly to produce heat, light and sound on the
application of heat or pressure, it is called an explosion. E.g. Crackers and fireworks
which release a large amount of gas too.

How do We Control Fire?

We can control the fire by one or more of the following:

Removing the fuel

Cutting off the air supply (or oxygen supply)

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 Cutting off heat or lowering the temperature of the fuel

How do fire extinguishers work?

Fire extinguishers are devices used to put out fires. They either cut off the air supply to fire
or cool off the fuel (below the ignition temperature) or both. The three main types of fire
extinguishers are:

1. ‘Dry Powder’ Fire Extinguisher: This type of fire extinguishers contain a mixture of
baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and sand. When you throw it over the fire, the
baking soda decomposes by its heat to produce carbon dioxide. Since CO2 is heavier
than air, it descends to envelop the burning flame and cuts off its contact with air (and
the oxygen supply).

2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

2. ‘Soda-acid’ Fire Extinguisher: This fire extinguisher is a metallic cylinder which

contains the sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solution. At the bottom of the cylinder, the
concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is placed in a thin sealed glass tube. A fixed wire
gauze surrounds this tube.

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Below the tube, a plunger is placed with its sharp end touching the thin glass tube.

On the top of the cylinder, there is a nozzle which is sealed with wax.

When the plunger hits against the floor, its sharp end breaks the thin glass tube and the
acid inside it reacts with sodium bicarbonate to produce carbon dioxide. CO2 forces the wax
seal open and rushes out of the nozzle to put out the fire in the direction where the nozzle is
pointed.

3. ‘Foam-type’ Fire Extinguisher: Like the soda-acid fire extinguisher, it uses sodium
bicarbonate solution. However, in this case, a substance called Saporin or Turkey
Red Oil is added to the solution to produce foam along with the gas from the nozzle.
Since this foam is lighter than oil, it floats on the surface of the oil and cuts off its air
supply. Hence, it is very effective in putting out oil fires.

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When should we use (or not use) water to extinguish the fire?

When wood, paper and clothes are on fire, we can use water to extinguish them. Water
lowers the temperature of burning material below ignition temperature and thus, the fire
stops burning.

We should not use water when electrical equipment is on fire as water may conduct
electricity and give a shock to people dousing the fire. Also, it should not be used when oil
or petrol catches fire as water is lighter than oil and petrol and sinks down. Oil and petrol
keep floating on the top and keep burning.

What should we do when electrical equipment or inflammable materials (like petrol)

catch fire?

Carbon Dioxide is the best fire extinguisher in such cases. CO2 is heavier than oxygen and
hence, covers the burning material like a blanket and cuts off its oxygen supply. Also, it
does not harm the electrical equipment.

CO2 can be stored as a liquid in cylinders at high pressure. When it is released, it

immediately expands, cools down, and envelopes the fire - bringing down the temperature
of the fuel. One can also pour dry chemicals like sodium bicarbonate (or baking soda) or
potassium carbonate on the fire as they release CO2 near a fire.

Flame
Flame is a hot glowing body of ignited gas which is produced when something is on fire.

Some materials burn with a flame and some do not. Here is a table based on a general
observation:

Materials forming Flame on Burning

Material Forms flame Does not form a flame

Candle Forms flame

Magnesium Does not form a flame

Camphor Forms flame

Kerosene Stove Forms flame

Charcoal Forms flame

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Structure of a Flame

A flame has three zones:

1. Outermost zone is blue in colour and is the hottest part of the flame. This is also the
zone where complete combustion takes place.

2. Middle zone is yellow in colour and is moderately hot. In this zone, partial combustion
takes place.

3. Innermost zone is black in colour and least hot. Here, we can find the unburned wax
vapours of a candle.

Note: Kerosene oil and molten wax vapourise during burning but charcoal does not
produce flame or vapourise when it burns.

Why do goldsmiths blow at the outermost zone of a flame for melting gold and
silver?

The outermost zone of a flame is its hottest part. Gold and silver have high melting points
and hence, goldsmiths blow at the outermost zone of the flame to melt gold and silver
quickly.

What is a Fuel?
Fuels are substances that give us heat which we use for domestic and industrial purposes,
such as wood, kerosene, and petrol.

What will an ideal fuel or good fuel look like?

Ideally, a good fuel is one which:

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 has proper ignition temperature (neither too high nor too low),

does not produce undesirable or poisonous substances and cause pollution,

does not leave behind much ash,

is cheap,

is readily available,

produces a large amount of heat or have high calorific value,

has a moderate rate of consumption,

is easily controllable (can be started or stopped as needed),

is easy to handle and transport, and

has low moisture content (so that it burns easily).

Note: Some fuels are cheaper than others.

Fuel Efficiency
Fuel efficiency of a fuel depends on its calorific value.

The calorific value of a fuel depends on the amount of heat produced by complete
combustion of 1 kg of the fuel. The unit used to measure the calorific value of a fuel is
kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg).

Calorific Value of Common Fuels We Use

If we look at the table, we will see that hydrogen seems to be the most efficient fuel followed
by LPG. CNG and Methane come next, closely followed by Kerosene, Diesel and Methane.
Cow dung cake seems to be the least efficient fuel here.

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Uses of Fuels

Some of the ways in which common fuels are used are:

1. Gasoline is used in cars, scooters and other vehicles we use every day.

2. Natural gas is used in heating systems, water heaters, dryers, and stovetops in our
homes.

3. Oil and natural gas are used in making several things that we use every day.
Hydrocarbons, for example, are used in making plastics, pharmaceuticals and several
other items we use daily.

4. Coal is the primary fossil fuel used in many thermal power plants to produce
electricity.

Types of Fuels
Fuels can mainly be divided into three groups:

Liquid Fuels: Petroleum (which is a fossil fuel), crude oil (from which we get petrol or
gasoline), diesel, kerosene oil etc.

Solid Fuels: Firewood, charcoal, coal (fossil fuel which is mined as steam coke or
soft coke), dung cakes, tallow (animal fat), straw and other agricultural wastes,
paraffin wax, camphor etc.

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 Gaseous Fuels: Most commonly used gas is LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) which we
use as cooking gas at home. Some of the other commonly used gaseous fuels are:

We get CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) from natural oil wells.

Natural gas (or methane) gets released from the putrefying organic matter.

Butane gas is obtained from natural gas.

In the villages, animal dung and farm waste are used to produce biogas. Biogas
is also collected from sewage plants.

When hard coke is heated and converted into coke, coal gas is produced.

Water gas is produced by passing steam over red-hot coke.

Acetylene used a gas produced by adding calcium carbide to water. Its smell is
a bit unpleasant but the flame it produces is so hot that it is used for cutting
metals and welding purposes.

Harmful Effects of Burning Fuels

1. Carbon fuels like wood, coal and petroleum release ash and fine unburnt carbon
particles in the air which can cause respiratory diseases like asthma. These fine
particles are referred to as Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM).

2. Incomplete combustion of fuels (such as coal, gasoline and other fossil fuels) releases
carbon monoxide gas which is very poisonous and can kill people sleeping in the
room where coal is burning. CO combines with haemoglobin in our blood to form
carboxyhemoglobin and renders it incapable of transporting oxygen. These fuels also
release unburnt hydrocarbons, many of which are carcinogenic (cause cancer) and
pose serious health hazards.

3. Carbon dioxide released by most fuels during combustion is causing an imbalance in

the atmosphere. Deforestation is also leading to a situation where there are fewer
trees to absorb the carbon dioxide. This is leading to global warming.

4. Burning of coal and diesel releases sulphur dioxide gas which is corrosive in nature
and causes irritation in nose, throat and airways. It also causes shortness of breath,
wheezing, and a feeling of tightness around the chest. Petrol engines release
gaseous oxides of nitrogen. These sulphur and nitrogen oxides dissolve in rainwater
to form acids and cause acid rain.

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 Global warming is the rising temperature of the Earth's atmosphere which is causing the
melting down of glaciers making the sea levels rise and causing floods in coastal areas.
It is caused due to the elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as CO2
absorbs infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and radiate it back to the atmosphere and
raise its temperature. This is also known as the ‘greenhouse effect’.

Acid Rain refers to the rain of acids that is very harmful to crops, soil, animals, and
buildings. These acids are formed when sulphur and nitrogen oxides dissolve in
rainwater. Acid rains also damage trees at high elevation (such as red spruce that grows
2,000 ft above sea level), causes acidification of lake or stream water, and damage forest
soils. Irreplaceable buildings, statues and sculptures which are part of a nation’s cultural
heritage can get destroyed due to acid rain.

Why do we not burn wood anymore?

Wood is a low-cost fuel and is easily available but burning it releases a lot of smoke which
causes respiratory problems. Moreover, cutting of trees for wood (as fuel) also leads to
deforestation. Hence, people now prefer to use coal or LPG as fuel instead.

Why should we use CNG as automobile fuels?

CNG is a cleaner fuel and causes much less pollution than petrol and diesel. Hence, we
should use CNG-powered vehicles now.

How to Conserve Fuels?

To conserve fuels, we should:

Collect all material required while cooking at one place before switching on the gas,

Check the pressure of tyres regularly,

Choose walking over using cars or motorbikes for short distances, and

Use public transportation for travelling instead of private vehicles.

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Conservation of Plants and Animals CBSE Class 8
Science Notes
[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/conservation-of-plants-and-animals

Quick Revision:
Biosphere: Part of the Earth that supports life is called the biosphere. It is here that all
living organisms exist.

Biodiversity: Variety of organisms that exist on the Earth, their interrelationships, and their
relationship with their environment is called the Biological Diversity and the Biodiversity.

Wildlife Sanctuary: This is a protected area where animals can live in their natural habitat
without any disturbance.

National Park: This area is reserved for wildlife allowing them to freely use the available
habitats and natural resources.

Biosphere Reserve: Biosphere reserves are larger areas of land which aim to conserve
the wildlife as well as the traditional life of the tribal living in the area (allowing them to use
the plant and animal resources to some extent).

Deforestation and Its Causes

Deforestation means clearing of forests for different purposes, such as timber and other
uses of land.

Major reasons for deforestation are:

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Clearing Using wood
woods to as fuel, to
procure make
land for furniture, and
cultivation for industrial
and grow purposes
more food (e.g., wood
for the pulp is used
ever- to make
increasing paper)
population

Using the Forest fires

land for and severe
building droughts also
houses lead to
and deforestation.
factories

Consequences of Deforestation

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Why would deforestation lead to an increase of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere and global warming?
Plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and release oxygen maintaining the
atmospheric balance. Fewer trees mean that less carbon dioxide will get recycled in this
manner.

Carbon dioxide traps heat rays reflected by the Earth which increases in temperature on the
Earth and leads to global warming.

How does deforestation cause droughts and reduction in rainfall?

When trees are cut down, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases
which causes global warming. Moreover, plants absorb water from the soil and release it in
the air through transpiration. It is this moisture in the air which eventually turns into clouds
and returns to Earth as rainfall.

Deforestation and increase in temperature on the Earth disturb the water cycle, which leads
to a reduction in rainfall and droughts.

What is desertification and how is it caused?

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Desertification is the process by which a fertile land turns into a desert. Deforestation is a
major cause of desertification as it exposes the top layer of soil to natural forces like wind,
water and sunlight. With no roots to hold the soil, it gets eroded quickly and the lower, hard
and rocky layers of the soil get exposed. These layers have less humus and are less fertile.
Gradually, fertile lands turn into deserts.

How does deforestation affect the quality of soil?

The forests add humus to the top layer of the soil. Their roots hold the soil together and
allow the surface water to seep into the soil. Due to desertification:

the soil erosion takes place,

physical properties of the soil change and it becomes less fertile (its nutrient content
and texture changes), and

the water holding capacity of the soil decreases which may lead to floods.

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife

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5/19
What is wildlife conservation?

Wildlife Conservation is the practice of protecting endangered plant animal species and
their habitats in an effort to maintain the ecological balance.

How does the government conserve our forests and wildlife?

The government lays down rules, regulations and policies to protect our forests and wildlife.
Besides, it also earmarks rich flora and fauna habitats as protected areas where the
following activities are prohibited:

Cutting down trees

Grazing cattle

Hunting

Plantation and cultivation

Poaching (illegally killing or capturing wild animals)

Biosphere Reserve
A Biosphere Reserve is an area which aims to conserve the biodiversity of the area as
well as its culture. It may contain other protected areas within it. For Example, Pachmarhi
Biosphere Reserve has a national park called the Satpura National Park and two wildlife
sanctuaries called the Bori Wildlife Sanctuary and the Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary.

Biosphere Reserves in India

There are 18 biosphere reserves in India, which are:

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S. Name State
No.

10 Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh

Reserve

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14 Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve Kerala, Tamil Nadu

12 Cold Desert Himachal Pradesh

16 Dibru-Saikhowa Assam

8 Dihang-Dibang Arunachal Pradesh

15 Great Nicobar Andaman and Nicobar Islands

11 Great Rann of Kutch Gujarat

3 Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu

13 Khangchendzonga Sikkim

6 Manas Assam

2 Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve Uttarakhand

1 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Tamil Nadu, Kerala

and Karnataka

4 Nokrek Meghalaya

9 Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh

18 Panna Madhya Pradesh

17 Seshachalam Hills Andhra Pradesh

7 Simlipal Odisha

5 Sundarbans West Bengal

Flora and Fauna

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Flora: Plants found in a particular area are referred to as the flora of the area.

For Example, flora in the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve includes:

Sal Arjun

Teak Silver
Fern

Mango Jamun

Fauna: Animals found in a particular area are referred to as the fauna of the area.

For Example, fauna in the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve includes:

Blue- Wolf
bull

Leopard Barking
Deer

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 Cheetal Chinkara

Endemic Species
Species: A group of living organisms that can interbreed with each other are called a
Species. It means that only members of one species can reproduce offspring that are fertile
and can give birth to future generations. Members of a species look like each other and
share many characteristics.

Endangered Species: Species whose number diminish so much that they might face
extinction (or vanish off the face of the Earth) are known as Endangered Species. There
can be endangered animals as endangered plants.

Endemic Species: Species of plants and animals that are exclusively found in a particular
area are called Endemic to that zone, state or country. The endemic species are not found
anywhere else naturally.

For Example:

Endemic flora of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve includes sal and wild mango.

Sal Wild
Mango

Endemic fauna of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve includes bison, Indian giant squirrel
and flying squirrel.

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 Bison Wild
Mango

Flying Squirrel

Wildlife Sanctuary
Wildlife Sanctuaries are reserved forests where wild animals are protected and provided
with suitable living conditions. Unlike a zoo, animals in wildlife sanctuaries live in their
natural habitat and are free to roam anywhere as they like.

People living in Wildlife Sanctuaries can:

Graze livestock, and

Collect firewood or medicinal plants.

Activities prohibited in wildlife sanctuaries include:

Killing (poaching) animals

Capturing animals

These activities in wildlife sanctuaries are punishable by law.

Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

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Indian wildlife sanctuaries have unique landscapes which include broad-level forests,
mountain forests, and bushlands in deltas of big rivers. They protect several threatened
wildlife species such as golden cat, pink-headed duck, black buck, white-eyed buck, gharial,
marsh crocodile, elephant, rhinoceros, python etc.

Unfortunately, people encroach upon the land of these protected forest areas and destroy
them.

There are 543 wildlife sanctuaries in India, which include as many as 50 tiger reserves
which focus on the conservation of the tiger. The tiger reserves work under Project Tiger.
Jim Corbett was the first tiger reserve of India. It is situated in Uttarakhand and is
also the oldest national park in India.

Project Tiger is a government initiative to protect tigers. Its objective was to ensure the
survival and maintenance of the population of tigers in India.

Similarly, some of these wildlife sanctuaries are called bird sanctuaries as they focus on
protecting birds. Keoladeo National Park, for example, was a bird sanctuary before it
attained the National Park status.

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Some national parks focus on conserving a particular species, For Example, Jawai leopard
sanctuary which is in Rajasthan.

National Park
National Parks are large forest reserves that attempt to preserve the entire ecosystems
within the area including the landscape, flora, fauna, and historic objects of the area.

Satpura National Park is the first Reserve Forest of India. Within this forest, you can
find the finest Indian teak as well as rock shelters which are evidence of the prehistoric
human life in the area.

There are a total of 55 rock shelters in Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve which also feature
rock paintings depicting figures of men fighting with animals, hunting scenes, dancing, and
playing musical instruments. Many tribal are still living in the area.

National Parks in India

There are 104 national parks in India. Top 10 of these national parks include:

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 Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand

Kaziranga National Park, Assam

Gir Forest National Park, Gujarat

Sundarban National Park, West Bengal

Satpura National Park, Madhya Pradesh

Eravikulam National Park, Kerala

Pench National Park, Madhya Pradesh

Sariska National Park, Rajasthan

Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh

Ranthambore National Park, Rajasthan

Why do animals become extinct?

Disturbances in the natural habitat of animals make it difficult for them to survive and hence,
become extinct. For Example, dinosaurs became extinct thousands of years ago.

Why do we need to conserve animals?

Animals, such as lizards, snakes, owls, and bats, play a particular role in an ecosystem and
help in maintaining its balance. They form part of food chains and food webs. We need to
conserve different life forms to make sure that the natural balance does not get disturbed.

What do we mean by an ecosystem?

An ecosystem refers to the living organisms and non-living components of a place,

including plants, animals, microorganisms, climate, soil, river deltas etc.

Red Data Book

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) maintains a record of all the
endangered animals and plants in the world and calls it Red Data Book. India also
maintains its own Red Data Book which keeps a record of endangered plants and animals
found in India.

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The Golden Toad now makes the Extinct as well as the Extinct in the Wild lists of the
IUCN Red List.

There is a Red Data List too, which is also known as IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species or IUCN Red List which classified all known plant and animal species into nine
groups:

Extinct: No known individual of the species is alive.

Extinct in the Wild: No known individual of the species in the wilderness. They exist
only in captivity.

Critically Endangered: Species that are at extremely high risk of being extinct in the
wilderness.

Endangered: Species that are at high risk of being extinct in the wilderness.

Vulnerable: Species that are at high risk of being endangered in the wilderness.

Near Threatened: Species that are likely to become endangered in the near future.

Least Concern: Species which are found in abundance and is not at risk.

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 Data Deficient: Species about which we do not have enough data to assess its
extinction risk.

Not Evaluated: Species which has not yet been evaluated on the criteria adopted by
the IUCN.

Species that fall in the Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable categories are
also referred to as Threatened Species.

Migration

Migration is the movement of birds, animals or humans over long distances to live in a new
location permanently or temporarily.

Migratory birds are birds that fly to far away areas every year to avoid harsh and
inhospitable weather conditions in their natural habitat. They cover long distances to reach
another land and lay their eggs.

Recycling of Paper

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17/19
Why should we recycle paper?

We need to cut 17 full-grown trees to make one tonne of paper. We can easily reuse and
recycle paper for five to seven trees. Reducing our consumption of paper can save trees
and also save water and energy used to manufacture paper.

Besides, it can also help in reducing the use of harmful chemicals that are used to make
paper.

Reforestation
Reforestation is the opposite of deforestation. Here, we plant new trees to restock forests
that have been destroyed.

In India, we have the Forest (Conservation) Act which aims to preserve and conserve
natural forests and meet the basic needs of the people living in or near them.

Reforestation can happen naturally or can be done artificially. If a deforested area is left
undisturbed for some time, the forests grow again. However, we cut more trees than the
ones that grow on their own and hence, we should plant trees to promote reforestation.

Ideally, we should plant as many trees as had been cut down and the new trees should be
of the same species as the earlier ones.

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Padma Shri Jadav 'Molai' Payeng, the Forest Man of India is an environmental activist and
forestry worker. He is from Jorhat, India and single-handedly planted and nurtured a forest
encompassing an area of 1,360 hectares across several decades along the sandbar of the
River Brahmaputra. He was awarded Padma Shri - the fourth highest civilian award in India
- in 2015 for the feat. The forest he planted is called 'Molai forest' after him.

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Revision Notes for Science Chapter 9 - Reproduction in
animals (Class 8th)
[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/reproduction-in-animals

Revision Notes on Reproduction in Animals

Quick Revision
Several processes such as circulation of blood, digestion and respiration are essential
for the survival of human beings and other animals.

Similarly, reproduction is essential to maintain the continuity in the species.

If reproduction in animals does not take place, no similar kind of organisms will be
present on the earth generation of the generation.

Modes of Reproduction in Animals

There are two modes of reproduction in animals:

Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction

Similarities between Reproduction in Plants and Animals

Plants and animals can both undergo the sexual and asexual process of reproduction.

Just like plants, in animals, the males and females have different reproductive organs.

In both the plants and animals, the zygote is formed when the male and female
gametes fuse together and hence the zygote develops into a new individual.

Sexual Reproduction
The type of reproduction that begins with the fusion of male and female gametes is called
Sexual Reproduction.

Reproductive Parts in Humans

Male Reproductive Organs

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Figure 1: Male reproductive organs

The male reproductive system provides the sperm (male gametes) for fertilization. The male
reproductive organs include the following:

Penis

It is a cylinder-shaped organ containing a small opening at its top. It secretes semen which
contains the male gametes or sperms.

Scrotum

It is a sac-like structure present behind the penis. The testicles or testes are present in this
organ. It provides them the right temperature so that they can produce sperms.

Testes

Most males have a pair of testis (testes) or testicles. The testes consist of coiled tube-like
structures that produce sperms. The testes also generate the male sex hormone or the
testosterone that causes puberty in males.

Urethra

It is a tube-like structure that allows the flow of semen that contains sperms outside the
body. The urethra and penis both are also a part of the male urinary system.

Vas Deferens

It is a tube that carries the sperms from the testicles to the urethra.

Prostate Gland

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It a gland located under the urinary bladder. It secretes prostate fluid which makes the one
third content of semen. This fluid contains some enzymes, zinc and citric acid.

Seminal Vesicles

They have a pouch-like structure. They are located above the prostate gland and connect
with the vas deferens. They also secrete a fluid that provides nourishment to the sperms.

Male Sex Hormone or Testosterone

The testes produce testosterone and the pituitary gland controls how much testosterone will
be produced. This hormone is responsible for the development of male sex organs and
development of secondary sexual characters in males during puberty such as deepening of
voice and growth of facial and body hair.

The Sperm Cell

Figure 2: Sperm Cell

The testes secrete millions of sperm cells together. A sperm comprises of a single cell and
has a specific structure with three main parts as given below:

Head: It consists of the nucleus which contains the DNA information of the cell.

Middle Part: It is packed with cell organelles called Mitochondria. The mitochondria are
responsible for producing energy in the cell. Hence, sperm uses this energy to move.

Tail: It allows the sperm cell to travel at a fast pace.

Female Reproductive Ogans

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Figure 3: Female Reproductive Organs

The female reproductive system provides the eggs (female gametes) for fertilization. The
female reproductive organs are:

1. Ovaries

The female reproductive system comprises of a pair of ovaries. These are the main female
sex organs and are responsible for the production of female gametes called Eggs or Ova
(ovum – singular) and female hormones. The ova or female eggs also consist of a single
cell.

Estrogen and Progesterone

These are hormones or chemical substances produced by the ovaries. These hormones
are responsible for the development of the female reproductive organs and the secondary
sexual characteristics in women such as development of breasts and body hair.

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Figure 4: Ovum or Female Egg

2. Oviduct or Fallopian Tubes

These are two funnel-shaped structures that extent from the superior right and left corners
of the uterus to the edge of the ovaries. The ovaries release one egg every month into the
oviducts. The oviducts consist of cilia that carry the ovum from the oviduct to uterus.

3. Uterus

It is an inverted pear-shaped organ that allows the development of the fertilized egg into a
human baby. The uterus connects with an opening called Cervix that connects it to the
vagina.

4. Vagina

It is a muscular tube-like structure that connects with the cervix. It acts as the receptor of
the penis and allows the movement of sperms to the fallopian tubes and uterus. It also
allows delivery of the foetus during the birth of the child.

Menstrual Cycle
When females hit puberty, they start producing mature eggs every month indicating the
ability to reproduce. This process is called menstrual cycle. In this cycle, the ovaries
produce an egg every month that travels to the uterus and attaches to its lining. If the egg is
not fertilized, the uterus sheds its lining and the egg which result in bleeding in the females.
On an average the duration of the menstrual cycle is 28 days. The cycle starts at puberty,
around the age of 10 or 11 years and lasts until the age of 45 to 55 years.

Gametogenesis
It is the process of production of gametes by the male and female primary reproductive
organs. It ocuurs in three phase in both males and females:

Multiplication Phase

Growth or maturation phase

Meiotic Phase

Gametogenesis in males is called Spermatogenesis. It occurs in the testes and results in

formation of sperm cells.

Gametogenesis in females is called Oogenesis. It occurs in the ovaries and results in

production of female eggs or ova.

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Fertilization
Firstly, reproduction in animals begins when the sperm fuses with an ovum. This
process is called Fertilization.

The nuclei of the sperm and egg combine together and form a single nucleus.

As a result, the zygote is formed.

Since the zygote is formed with the fusion of male and female gametes the new
individual possesses the characteristics of both the parents.

Figure 4: Fertilization and Zygote

Fertilization can be of two types:

Internal fertilization External fertilization

The fertilization process takes place inside The fertilization process takes place
the female body outside the body of the females.

Less number of eggs are produced by such A large number of eggs are produced by
females as there are high chances of the such females as the chances of survival of
survival of the offspring. the offspring are very low.

For Example, Cows, Human beings and For Example, Aquatic animals like fishes
hens undergo internal fertilization. and amphibians like frogs undergo external
fertilization.

External Fertilization in Frogs and Toads

The frogs and toads reproduce by laying eggs in a slow stream or ponds.

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 The female frogs first lay hundreds of eggs together in the water.

These eggs are not covered with any hard shell instead there is a jelly-like substance
that guards them all and holds them together.

As the female frogs lay their eggs, the male frogs deposit the sperms over them.

This results in external fertilization when the sperms come in contact with the eggs in
the water.

Though the eggs are large in numbers only a few of them manage to survive.

There are several factors which may hinder the fertilization process such as exposing
to water movement, rainfall, winds and other animals.

Internal Fertilization in Hens

Hens reproduce by laying eggs.

After the formation of the zygote, it keeps on dividing itself and then travels through
the oviduct.

In this process, different layers are formed over the egg that then turns into a hard
shell or covering of the egg.

When this hard shell is formed the hen lays the egg.

Then it takes almost 3 weeks for the embryo to develop into a chick.

In this time period, the hen often sits over the egg to provide it with warmth.

What are test tube babies?

In some women, the oviducts are blocked and hence they are unable to hold the
eggs. This means that these women are not able to bear babies because of blocked
oviducts. However, due to the process of Vitro Fertilization or IVF, the freshly
released eggs of females and the male sperms can be fertilized externally.

The zygote thus formed is allowed to develop for a week outside the female body in
safe conditions and is then placed in the woman's uterus.

In this way, these women can bear babies.

The babies that are born with the IVF process are called Test Tube Babies.

Development of the Embryo

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 The zygote formed after the fertilization process divides itself in a repeated manner
and forms a ball of cells.

These cells then form different groups and each group then starts developing into
different tissues and organs. This structure is called an Embryo.

The embryo embeds itself into the uterus wall and continues to develop and grow.

Soon the body parts such as hands, legs, feet, eyes and ears start developing.

The embryo whose parts can be identified individually is called a Foetus.

The foetus then completely develops and takes birth as a baby.

How is an embryo different from a zygote?

Zygote Embryo

A zygote consists of a single cell. An embryo consists of more than one cell.

It is formed as the fertilization process It is formed after the fertilization process.

occurs.

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 It has no well-defined organs or The body parts and tissues are well defined in
tissues. an embryo.

Based on the way how the organisms give birth to their offspring, they are classified
into two categories:

Viviparous Oviparous

These are These are

the the
organisms organisms
that give that
birth to reproduce
their young by laying
ones eggs.
directly.

For For
Example, Example,
Human Fishes,
beings, Reptiles
Dogs, Amphibians
Cattle,
Cats

Turning into adults from young ones

As individuals are born they continue to grow until they turn into adults.

The young ones may or may not look like the same when they become adults. For
instance, in the case of frogs and silkworms, the adults and young ones are
completely different.

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Figure 6: Life cycle of a frog

What is metamorphosis?

The process in which the young ones undergo drastic changes as they develop into
an adult is called Metamorphosis.

Human beings do not undergo metamorphosis. This is because their body parts
remain the same from the childhood to adulthood.

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Figure 7: Metamorphosis in Silk moth

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

This type of reproduction involves only one parent. It takes place in microscopic animals like
Amoeba and small animals like the hydra.

Budding in Hydra

Just like yeast, reproduction in hydra takes place through the process called
Budding.

The Hydra possesses different bulges on itself called Buds.

These buds develop into individual Hydra. Each Hydra can possess a different
number of buds.

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Figure 8: Budding in Hydra

Binary Fission in Amoeba

The Amoeba divides itself into two individuals and the reproduction takes place in this
way. It is called Binary Fission.

Amoeba consists of only one cell.

As it reproduces the nucleus of the Amoeba divides itself and forms two different
nuclei.

Then the division of the body of the Amoeba takes place and each part receives one
nucleus.

In this way, two Amoebas are produced from a single parent.

Figure 9: Binary fission in Amoeba

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Fragmentation and Regeneration

In some organisms, the parent organism divides itself into different fragments where each
fragment then regenerates and develops into a new organism. This type of asexual
reproduction takes place in Planaria and Starfish. Although, starfishes are capable of sexual
reproduction as well but many times they also reproduce asexually with the process of
fragmentation.

Figure 11: Fragmentation and

Regeneration in Planaria

Parthenogenesis

In this type of asexual reproduction, the female organisms are capable of producing eggs
without fertilization. These eggs develop into a new organism. This type of reproduction can
be seen in some fishes like sharks, some birds, reptiles like lizards and a few insects.
However it cannot be seen in mammals.

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Reaching the Age of Adolescence CBSE Class 8 Revision
Notes
[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/reaching-the-age-of-adolescence

Adolescence and Puberty

Animals, as well as human beings, can reproduce only after a certain age or time
period in their lives after growing up into an adult.

This is because of changes in hormones in their bodies that make them capable of
reproduction.

What is adolescence?

It is a time period in life when the body leads to reproductive maturity and experiences
some changes.

This time period may vary in different individuals.

The adolescence period includes the teenage and therefore adolescents are often
called Teenagers as well.

Adolescent Period in Begins at age around Ends at age around

Boys 11 years 18 or 19 years

Girls 10 or 11 years 18 or 19 years

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Figure 1: Time Periods in Human Life

What is puberty?
Puberty is the time period in life when animals and human beings become capable of
reproduction.

The changes that occur in the body during the adolescent age are an indication that
an individual is reaching puberty.

Changes at puberty

What changes occur in humans at puberty?

Changes Explanation

The height The bones of the legs in the arms of a person start to grow
increases longer and hence a person becomes taller in the puberty age.
suddenly
This increase in height occurs until the age of 18 in both boys
and girls.

However, it is observed that girls grow faster than boys initially.

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Change in the As boys and girls enter into the time period of puberty their
shape of the body body shapes start to change.

The boys generally experience a change in chest and

shoulders as they become wider.

In girls, the area below the waist becomes wider.

However, the changes in boys and girls are different because

the muscle growth in boys is higher than that in girls.

Change in voice A change in voice is accomplished as the body hits puberty,

especially in boys.

The voice box or the larynx develops in boys.

It can also be seen as an enlarged part of the throat in boys

and is named as Adam's Apple.

Boys also experience a hoarse voice for some time due to the
changes in the larynx.

The larynx in girls, on the other hand, is not visible because of

its smaller size.

Increased sweat There are sweat glands and oil glands (called sebaceous
and oil production glands) present in our bodies which start secreting more oil
in the skin and sweat during the puberty age.

Many times girls and boys get acne and pimples on the face
during the excess secretion of these glands.

Development of By the time girls and boys hit puberty the reproductive organs
sex organs are developed completely.

In males, the sperm production begins.

In females, the size of the ovaries increases and it starts

releasing the eggs.

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Mental, emotional During the adolescent age, the brain has the maximum
and intellectual learning power.
maturity
The way of thinking of individuals starts to change.

It is also observed that girls and boys start feeling self-

conscious.

They may also feel a little uncomfortable and insecure due to

sudden changes in the body. However, all these changes are
completely normal.

Figure 2: Adam's Apple in Boys

What happens due to a sudden increase in height of adolescents?

It may not happen that all the parts of the body would grow at the same rate in this
age.

Hence, sometimes the legs and arms of teenagers appear oversized or not in
proportion with respect to their bodies.

But with time everything comes in proportion.

Why height of family members is generally similar?

The height of a person is a characteristic that they receive from their parents.

Hence, in general, the height of a person is similar to the height of a family member.

But it is also recommended that adolescents should eat a proper diet which is rich in
vitamins, minerals and other nutrients that can help in their growth.

What are secondary sexual characters?

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 At puberty, some changes occur in both males and females that distinguish them from
each other. The features that develop in them are called Secondary Sexual
Characters.

In boys some secondary sexual characters are:

facial hair growth

growth of hair on the chest, under the arms and pubic area

Some secondary sexual characteristics in girls are:

development of breasts

the growth of hair under the arms and the pubic area

How the changes in the human body occur at the time of puberty?

What are hormones?

There are endocrine glands present in humans with secrete chemical substances in the
body is called the Hormones. These chemical substances are responsible for changes in
the human body at the time of puberty.

The hormones act as messengers and are responsible for transporting signals for one cell
to another. Hence they evoke responses from various organs of the body and tissues.
Hormones have certain properties or characteristics such as:

They are secreted by the endocrine glands.

They circulate in the body fluids.

They are responsible for regulating the behaviour of the target cells.

They cause long term effects in the body like change in behaviour, change in growth,
development of organs, puberty menopause etc.

Hormones are secreted in limited quantities from time to time whenever they are
required by the body.

Different glands present in the body are responsible for secretion of different
hormones.

The nervous system regulates the flow of hormones in the body.

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The endocrine glands are also called Ductless Glands because they secrete the hormones
directly into the blood. In males, the testes secrete the male hormones or the testosterone.
In females, the ovaries secrete the female hormones or the estrogen.

Figure 3: The Endocrine Glands in Humans

What are pituitary glands?

There are pituitary glands present in the body switch control the production of the hormones
by endocrine glands in both males as well as females.

Role of hormones in initiating the Reproductive Function

The part of the body for which a particular hormone is meant is called the Target Site. The
endocrine glands secrete the hormones in the blood and it reaches the target site. Then the
target site response accordingly.

Figure 4: Hormones initiate puberty

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Reproductive Phase of Life in Humans
The ability of production of gametes in humans last until certain time period only. This time
period varies between males and females.

Reproductive Phase in Females

It begins from the age of 10 to 12 years and lasts until the age of 45 to 50 years.

When females hit puberty, the eggs or ova start getting mature.

One of the ovaries then releases the mature ovum around 28 to 30 days.

The wall of the uterus at this time, when the egg is released, becomes thick to hold
the egg in case if fertilization occurs and the egg develops.

When the fertilization does not take place, the lining of the uterus sheds along with the
egg and the blood vessels.

This results in menstruation or bleeding in females.

The first menstrual flow occurs at puberty and is called the Menarche.

When the menstrual flow stops, it is termed as Menopause.

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 The whole menstrual cycle occurs because of female hormones.

Determining the Sex of the Baby

We know that there are 23 pairs of chromosomes present inside the nucleus of every
human cell.

These chromosomes have a thread-like structure and they always occur in pairs.

The chromosomes help in determining the sex of the child.

Out of the 23 pairs of chromosomes, 2 of them are sex chromosomes called X and
Y.

Females have two X chromosomes and males have one X and one Y chromosome.

The gametes contain only one set of chromosomes that is either an X or a Y.

The egg of the female contains an X chromosome always.

However, the sperm can contain only one of the X and Y chromosomes.

So if the sperm that contains a Y chromosome fertilizes with the egg which contains
the X chromosome, the zygote develops into a male.

On the other hand, if the sperm contains an X chromosome and fertilizers with the egg
which contains X chromosome, the zygote develops into a female.

Hence the sex of the child depends upon the chromosomes of the father and not the
mother.

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Figure 5: Determination of Sex in Humans

Hormones other than Sex Hormones

Other endocrine glands that are present in the human body are:

Glands Hormones Location and Function

Thyroid Thyroxine It is found at the front of the neck, between the windpipes.
It has a brownish-red color and secretes a collection of
hormones called as Thyroid Hormones.
The thyroid hormone controls the rate of metabolism in
body
Lack of Thyroxine results in Goitre

Pancreas Insulin, The Pancreas is almost a 6 inch long gland located

Glucagon behind the stomach.
It produces digestive enzymes, glucagon and insulin.
The insulin maintains glucose level in the blood.
The glucagon prevents the insulin levels from getting too
low in the body.
The insulin activates when the blood glucose levels are
high while the glucagon activates when the blood sugar
levels are low.
Lack of insulin in body leads to diabetes

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 Adrenal Adrenaline Adrenal glands have a size almost of a walnut and are
located above the kidneys.
They secrete more that 150 hormones in the human body
for various purposes.
Adrenaline helps in managing stress as it increases the
blood sugar levels, dilates the pupils, increases the heart
rate, enhances the blood supply to the muscles
It also maintains a balance of salt in the blood.

Pituitary Growth The pituitary gland has a size as small as pea and is
gland hormone located inside the skull.
It is also called as the master gland as it controls the
function of all other glands.
It also secretes prolactin that simulates the production of
milk.
The growth hormone is responsible for the growth of a
person.

Parathyroid Parathormone The parathyroid glands are located behind the thyroid
glands.
The parathormone maintains the level of calcium in the
body.
If they produce excess of hormones it can lead to severe
effects such as kidney stones and brittle bones.

Pineal Melatonin It is also known as the Third Eye, and is located between
Gland the two halves of the brain.
The Melatonin is responsible for the working of the
internal clock of the body. This means it influences the
cardiac rhythm or the sleep-wake cycle of the body.

Role of hormones in completing the life history of insects and frogs

Insects like silk moths and some animals like frogs undergo the process of
metamorphosis which results in drastic changes in their bodies.

The insect hormones control the process of metamorphosis in the insects.

In frogs, thyroid releases thyroxine which controls the process of metamorphosis in

them.

The thyroxine only produces with the help of iodine that is present in the water.

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 If there is a lack of iodine in water the tadpoles would never turn into adult frogs.

Reproductive Health
Factors that lead to overall well being in adolescents:

Figure 6: Reproductive Health in Adolescents

1. Nutritional Health of Adolescents

The adolescent age requires a balanced diet which is rich in nutrients such as
proteins and carbohydrates along with vitamins and essential minerals.

This is needed because the bodies of adolescents are changing and developing at a
rapid rate at this time.

Healthy and nutrition-rich diets are essential for their right growth.

Also, they should avoid foods such as chips, soft drinks and soda as they have low
nutritional value.

Food Item Major Nutrient Function

Pulses and nuts Proteins Growth, repair of body cells.

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 Oranges and Vitamin-C Keep the body healthy by providing
amla resistance.

Sugar and roti Carbohydrates Provide energy

Oils Fats Provide energy

Vegetables Vitamins and keep the body healthy and disease free.
minerals

2. Personal Hygiene

Personal hygiene also plays a role in maintaining the mental and physical well being of
adolescents. Here are a few ways they can maintain their personal hygiene:

Having bath daily as the sweat glands and the oil glands secrete high amounts of
sweat and oil in the skin which can lead to bad odour.

Maintaining cleanliness of the body as there can be chances of getting a bacterial

infection otherwise.

Females should take note of the menstrual cycle and prepare themselves accordingly.

3. Physical Exercise

Exercising not only keep the body fit but also helps in relieving stress and maintaining
mental well being.

Therefore, adolescents should indulge in sports, exercises, walking, cycling and other
physical activities.

4. Say “No” to Drugs

Adolescent age incorporates different changes in the mind and body of the individual.

As a result, the adolescents may feel a little uneasy sometimes.

However, they should understand that this is natural and they should not be worried
about it.

But many times the adolescents are fooled by others by saying that taking drugs
would bring relief to them.

They should always say NO to that as taking drugs can be dangerous for their health.

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 Drugs should be taken only if a doctor prescribed them otherwise not.

This is because the drugs are addictive and once a person takes them they feel like
taking them again and again.

As a result, the mental and physical health of the person starts getting affected due to
drugs.

Also, taking drugs through syringes can cause AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency
Disease).

This disease is caused by a hazardous virus that can get transmitted from an infected
person to another through the use of same syringes.

Along with this, it can transmit through sexual contact or from the infected mother's
milk.

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Revision Notes for Science Chapter 11 - for ce and
pressure (Class 8th)
[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/force-and-pressure

What is a Force?
When a push or pull is applied to an object it is called force.

A force can change the state of an object from rest to motion or vice versa.

To let a force come into play, two or more objects must interact with each other.

Figure 1 Examples of Force

Do magnets also exert a push or pull?

We know that a magnet can attract a piece of iron. Hence, we can say that the magnet pulls
the iron piece towards itself due to its magnetic force. Similarly, when opposite poles of a
magnet repel each other we can say that they are pushing each other away.

Characteristics of forces:

When two forces act in the same direction, the net resultant force on an object is the
sum of these two forces.

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Figure 2 Resultant force is the sum of two forces

When two forces act in opposite directions the net resultant force is the difference of
these two forces. The force has a magnitude which describes its strength.

Figure 3 Forces acting in opposite directions

The force always has a direction in which it is applied and a measure of its strength or
magnitude.

The effects of a force may alter when the direction of the magnitude of the force is
changed.

The effect of more than one forces being applied on an object is calculated by
evaluating the net force acting on that object.

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 If two forces are acting upon each other having equal magnitudes (strength) and in
opposite directions then the net force acting on the object will be zero.

Force can bring different effects to an object’s position, size and shape.

Figure 4 Calculating the force acting upon an object

The SI unit of force is Newton (N).

Force can change the state of motion of an object

The motion of an object

An object is said to be in motion if it is moving by a certain speed in a particular

direction.

If the object is at rest, it means that it is not changing its position with respect to an
observing point. Hence it has zero speed.

When the object starts moving it means that its position is being changed with respect
to an observation point.

In order to move an object from one place to another, a force is required to bring that
object in motion.

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 Not only this, a force applied on to an object can change its speed, bring it to rest or
even change the direction of its motion.

It may bring a combination of these effects as well such as a change in direction of

motion and change in the speed of the motion altogether.

Hence we can say that force can change the state of motion of an object.

Any object cannot move by itself or change its state of motion on its own without the
application of a force.

However, it is not a case that this change of state of motion will take place every time
with every kind of object. For instance, if a person tries to push a very heavy object
such as a wall, it would not at all.

Force can change the shape of an object

Figure 5 Force can change the shape of an object

The shape of an object can be altered if some force is applied on to it. Depending upon the
magnitude of the force that is being applied and the rigidity of the object, the effect on its
shape and size can be observed.

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Types of Forces: On the basis of the nature of the interaction between two or more
objects, forces can be classified as:

Contact forces Non-contact forces

These kinds of forces are applied These kinds of forces are applied when the objects
only when two or more objects do not come in contact with each other and yet are
come in contact with each other. exerting a force upon each other.

Example: Muscular Force, Frictional Example: Magnetic Force, Gravitational Force,

Force Electrostatic Force

Contact Forces

1. Muscular Force

The force that comes into play because of the action of muscles is called muscular force.
For example:

Human beings use muscular force in order to walk.

The expansion and contraction of lungs is because of muscular force

Movement of food along the food pipe

Animals can also exit muscular forces; that's why they can move from one place to
another

Figure 6 Muscular Force applied in Tug-of-War

Figure 7 Muscular Force applied by Animals

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2. Frictional Force

It is the force that is exerted by the surface over an object whenever the object moves on
the surface. Force of friction has the following characteristics:

The force of friction always acts in the opposite direction of the motion of the object.

It leads to generation of heat as two surfaces come in contact with each other. For
example, when we rub our hands together, heat is produced as a result of friction
between our hands.

Frictional force also leads to wear and tear of the surfaces of objects that come in
contact with each other. For example, sole of shoes often gets worn-out due to friction
force that acts between them and the ground as we walk.

Figure 8 Force of Friction acting upon a moving object

3. Air Resistance

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Whenever an object moves or flies in the air, it experiences a force called air resistance.

Figure 9 Air Resistance Experienced by Airplane

Non-Contact Forces

1. Magnetic Force
The force exerted by any magnetic object is called magnetic force.

We know that like magnetic poles always repel each other, that is, they push each
other away.

Also, opposite magnetic poles always attract each other, that is, they pull each other
towards themselves.

Figure 10 Magnetic Force

2. Electrostatic Force

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 The force exerted by a charged particle is called electrostatic force.

We know that like charges always repel or push each other away.

Similarly, opposite charges always attract or pull each other towards themselves.

Figure 11 Electrostatic Forces

3. Gravitational force

It is an attractive force that is applied by the earth on all the objects.

It is also called the force of gravity or gravity that acts upon all the objects that are
present on or near the Earth's surface.

Gravity is a property exhibited by every object present in the universe and not only the
earth. Hence, all the planets, the moons and even the sun have a gravitational force
of their own.

Figure 12 Gravitational Force

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Pressure
Not only the magnitude of the force but the area upon which it acts also affects the
changes it may bring upon an object.

The force acting upon a unit area is called pressure.

Hence, the pressure exerted by an object depends upon its surface area.

If the surface is small, the amount of pressure applied is large, and vice-versa.

The SI unit of Pressure is Pascal (Pa) or N/m2

Figure 13 Relation between Force, Pressure and Area

Examples of relationship between the area and pressure:

Figure 14 Calculating pressure for Different Areas

1. A needle has a pointed end that has a very small surface area. Hence when a large
force is exerted upon the needle with a hammer the pressure on the needle increases
and it easily moves inside the wall.

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 2. Shoulder bags always have broad straps rather than thin straps in order to minimize
the pressure that would be exerted on the shoulders of the career due to the
gravitational force acting upon the bag.

3. Tools that are used for cutting and piercing always have sharp edges because as a
person would apply a force on the tool, its sharp edges would exert more pressure
due to less surface area and the object wood cut down easily.

4. The two tyres of a tractor are wider because it minimizes the pressure exerted by the
tractor on the ground. As a result, it becomes easier to move the tractor on a muddy
field.

5. Camel can walk easily over the sand because it has wide feet which allow them to
walk on sand easily. Human beings, on the other hand, cannot as walk easily on sand
as their feet have less surface area and therefore our feet sink in the sand.

The pressure exerted by liquids and gases

Liquids exert a pressure on the walls of the container in which they are put in.

The pressure that a liquid exerts on the bottom of the container is dependent upon the
height of the liquid in the container.

The liquid exerts equal pressure on different points on the walls of the container
having the same depth.

Figure 15 Pressure Exerted by Liquids

Similarly, gases also exert pressure on the walls of the container. The molecules of a
gas of higher kinetic energy collide with walls applying large force, and as a result
these molecules apply pressure on the walls of the container.

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Figure 16 Pressure exerted by gases
on the walls of a container

Atmospheric Pressure

A layer of gases is present around the earth’s surface. The air present in the
atmosphere exerts a pressure on the earth which is called atmospheric pressure.

The value of atmospheric pressure at the sea level is 101325 Pascal.

The atmospheric pressure keeps on increasing as we move towards the Earth’s

surface.

Figure 17 Atmospheric Pressure Demonstration

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 The amount of atmospheric pressure upon us is quite large due to the large
surface area of the atmosphere around the earth but we do not experience any
of its effects.

This is so because the pressure of the air inside our body is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. There are also fluids present in our body that exert a
pressure inside our body. Hence, our bodies easily obtain a balance with the
atmospheric pressure.

However sometimes at higher altitudes where the atmospheric pressure is low

as compared to that at the Earth’s surface (low altitudes), nose bleeding occurs.

This is so because at that time the blood pressure in our body becomes higher
than the atmospheric pressure outside us.

Figure 18 Variation in Atmospheric Pressure

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13/13
Friction CBSE Class 8 Science Revision Notes
[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/friction

What is Friction?
Friction is a force that comes into play when two surfaces come in contact with each
other.

The Frictional force or the force of Friction acts in the opposite direction of the motion
of the object.

The force of Friction opposes the relative motion between the surfaces of two moving
objects.

Figure 1 Force of Friction

Factors that can affect Friction

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Figure 2 Contact between two surfaces

1. The irregularities of a surface: If we move an object with has an irregular or rough

surface on another surface which is also irregular, the force of Friction will be high in
this case and the movement of the object would be restricted.

2. The regularity of a surface or its smoothness: If the surfaces of either the objects
or are smooth, the force of Friction would be less and the object would move easily
over the surface. Even smooth surfaces have a certain irregularity.

3. If two surfaces are pressed hard: the force of Friction increases between two
surfaces if they are pressed hard and hence the movement of the object becomes
restricted. However, if there is no pressure the object can easily move.

Figure 3 Factors Affecting Friction

Types of Friction

1. Static Friction: The Frictional force that comes into play until an object starts moving
is called static Friction. An object has to overcome the static Friction force in order to
start its movement.

2. Sliding Friction: Sliding Friction comes into play whenever an object moves along
the surface of another object. Such a movement is called ‘slide’. Hence, sliding
Friction is the force that opposes the movement or slide of an object.

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 3. Rolling Friction: When an object is rolling on a surface the force of Friction which
acts upon it is called rolling Friction.

4. Fluid Friction: When an object moves in a fluid, the fluid exerts a fluid Friction upon
the object. It is also called air Friction (when the medium of travel is air) and viscous
Friction (when the medium of travel is water).

Figure 4 Types of Friction

Rolling Friction < Sliding Friction < Static Friction

Advantages of Frictional Force

Frictional force is necessary for various purposes in our daily lives such as:

It allows us to walk on the earth surface.

It allows us to write with a pen on a surface or a paper.

It allows us to fix a nail in the wall.

A moving object would never be able to come to the state of rest without the Frictional
force.

It would not be possible to drive any automobiles on the road without the Friction
force.

It would not be possible to construct any buildings without the Frictional force.

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Figure 5 Advantages of Frictional force

Disadvantages of Frictional Force

Frictional force results in wear and tear of objects such as the moving parts of a
machine, the tyres of a vehicle, sole of the shoes etc.

It also results in the production of heat. In the case of machines, the production of
heat leads to wastage of energy.

The Frictional force also leads to a decrease in the speed of a moving object or some
time stops it.

It can lead to noise pollution in certain cases. For instance, aircrafts produce loud
sound due to the resistance of the air.

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Figure 6 Disadvantages of Frictional force

How can we reduce or increase Friction?

Increasing Friction: Sometimes we need to increase Friction so as to avoid slipping of
objects, for example:

1. The sole of the shoes is grooved so that the Friction between our feet and ground
increases and we can walk safely

2. The tyres are treaded so that they can have a better grip over the ground and allow
the smooth movement of the vehicles.

3. Brake pads are used in bikes to stop them suddenly from moving by increasing the
amount of Friction.

4. Kabaddi players rub their hands with soil which helps in increasing the Friction
between the hands and allows them to have an easy grip of the opponent.

5. Gymnasts also apply a coarse substance so that they can have a better grip due to
increased Friction in their hands.

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Figure 7 Increasing Friction

Reducing Friction: Sometimes in order to have a smooth movement of an object we need

to reduce Friction. For example,

The powder is sprinkled over the carrom board to decrease the Friction between the
board’s surface and the striker. In this way, the surface of the carrom board becomes
smooth.

Grease is used in bicycles and other motors or different parts of a machine to reduce
Friction and increase their efficiency.

Oil is applied on the hinges of the door so that they can move easily.

Figure 8 Decreasing Friction

Applying substances like oil, grease or powder allows in smooth movement as they block
the irregularities of a surface. The substances that can reduce the amount of Friction
between different objects are called lubricants. However, we can never reduce Friction to a
level of zero. There are always some irregularities present on the surface.

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Figure 9 Lubricants

How wheels reduce Friction?

We know that when an object rolls over a surface rolling Friction is produced which
resists its motion on the surface. However, its magnitude is lesser than the static and
sliding Friction.

Wheels are circulating objects that turn around a center point.

The wheels allow an object to roll over a surface rather than allowing them to slide
over the surface.

This results in less Friction and hence easy movement of the object.

Rolling Friction is also used in the parts of machines that are moving continuously.

In this way, the sliding Friction is removed with the help of rolling Friction and therefore
the adverse effects of Friction such as the production of heat or wear and tear of the
mechanical parts are also reduced.

For instance, ball bearings are being used in fans and bicycles to reduce Friction.

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Figure 10 Ball Bearings

Fluid Friction

Figure 11 Fluid Friction

Air, water and other liquids collectively are called fluids. They also exert a Frictional force on
the object that travels through them. Such a Friction is called fluid friction or drag. The
amount of Frictional force by a fluid on an object depends upon the following:

1. The speed of the object with respect to the fluid.

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 2. The nature of the fluid, its viscosity or its tendency to resist the flow.

3. The shape of the object.

Fluid Friction comprises Internal and External Friction:

Fluids comprise of internal Friction that occurs between the molecules of a liquid as
they are also in motion. The viscosity of a liquid, therefore, depends upon the internal
Friction.

An external Friction in fluids is the force exerted by the fluid on the object that flows
through it.

As an object travels in a fluid it loses its energy in order to overcome the fluid
Friction. Hence, things that can easily flow in fluids have special shapes.

For instance, ships and boats have a particular shape that allows them to resist fluid
Friction.

Birds and aeroplanes have a specific shape that allows them to fly in the air.

Fishes also have a specific shape such as a tail and fins that allow them to swim
continuously in water and even prevent the loss of energy due to fluid Friction.

Not only this, all the vehicles are designed in a way that they can resist the fluid
Friction because air is present everywhere.

Figure 12 Objects can resist Fluid Friction because of their special Shape

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Sound CBSE Class 8 Science Notes
[Link]/revision-notes/class-8-science/sound

What is sound?
A sound is a form of energy that is produced when air molecules vibrate in a particular
pattern called waves. Hence, the sound is a wave.

Vibration can be described as a back and forth motion of an object.

Depending upon the vibrations, a sound is produced. Sound cannot be produced

without any vibration.

Figure 1 Production of Sound through Vibrations

Figure 2 Different instruments produce different sounds

How do humans produce sound?

1. Human beings have a voice box or larynx which is present in their throat on the upper
side of the windpipe.

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 2. The larynx has two vocal cords which have a narrow slit between them so that air can
pass through it.

3. As the lungs throw the air out of the windpipe, it passes through the slit and hence
allows the production of sound as the vocal cords start vibrating.

4. The vocal cord muscles also play a role in the production of sound.

5. Their thickness and tightness describe the quality or type of the voice a person has.

6. The vocal cords in males are of length 20 mm and females have 15mm long vocal
cords. Children, on the other hand, have very short length vocal cords. Hence, the
voices, their quality and their type are always different in women, men and children.

Figure 3 Larynx or Voice box

Propagation of sound through a medium

Sound always requires a medium to travel from the source of its production to the
receiver end. Different mediums of propagation of sound are air, liquid and solids.

Sound cannot travel through a vacuum as it lacks any medium of transmission.

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Figure 4 Sound Waves

How sound travels in a medium?

Sound needs some vibration of molecules to travel.

Solids, liquids and gases all have molecules present in them which allow the
propagation of sound.

These molecules or particles in solids, liquids and gases are packed in varied ways.

Solids have tightly packed particles in them and hence they allow fast propagation of
sound through them as the vibrations can be carried easily from one particle to
another.

Liquids have slightly loosely packed particles and hence it takes a little time for sound
to travel in water or through a liquid.

Gases have completely loosely packed particles and hence sound takes the most
time in travelling through the air.

Sound through water travels 4 times faster than through the air.
Sound through solids travels 13 times faster than through the air.

How do we hear?
We know that sounds are produced as waves in the air or any other medium.

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 As these sound waves travel to our ears they convert them into electrical signals or
messages that our brain can understand.

Our ears have a special structure that allows this function.

There are three major parts of the human ear:

Figure 5 The Human Ear

1. The outer ear (Pinna): It catches the sound waves and forwards them to the next
part of the ear, that is, the middle ear.

2. The middle ear: It converts the sound waves into vibrations that then travel to the
inner ear. It can do this with the help of the eardrum. The eardrum is a thin rubber-like
sheet present in the Middle ear. As the sound waves reach the eardrum, it vibrates
and these vibrations propagate to the inner ear.

3. The inner ear (cochlea): It receives the vibrations sent by the eardrum. It contains a
liquid substance and the vibrations that enter the inner ear moves through this liquid.
There are tiny hairs present inside the inner ear that turn these vibrations into signals
for the brain and pass them to the brain through the hearing nerve. As the brain
receives the signal it interprets the sound. However, this whole process is so quick
that we cannot notice it.

Frequency, Time Period and Amplitude of a Sound

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Figure 6 Displacement of Particles
by Production of Sound and
Representation of A Sound Wave

Oscillatory When an object

motion travels in a ‘to and fro’
motion, that is, when
an object vibrates it is
said to have an
oscillatory motion.

Figure 7 Examples
of Oscillatory Motion

Oscillation An oscillation is said

to be the movement of
the object from one
point to another in a
periodic time.

One oscillation is said

to be the movement
between the two
endpoints or extreme
points of the motion of
the object.

Figure 8 Example of
Oscillation

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Frequency The number of
oscillations an object
takes per second is
called its frequency.

The SI unit of
frequency is Hertz
(Hz).

1 Hz = 1 oscillation
per second

20 Hz = 20
oscillations per
second

Figure 9 Frequency
of a sound wave

Time The time taken for

Period one complete
oscillation of a sound
wave is called the
time period of the
sound wave.

Figure 10 Time
Period of a Sound
Wave

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Amplitude The number of
molecules that a
sound wave displaces
from the mean
position creates the
amplitude of the
sound wave.

The amplitude of a
sound wave can be
defined as the
maximum
displacement of the
particles from their
mean position due to
the vibrations.

Figure 11 Amplitude
of a Sound Wave

The loudness of a sound

The loudness of a sound depends upon the amplitude of the sound.

The higher the amplitude, the higher is the displacement of the particles and the
higher is the loudness of the sound.

The loudness of the sound is directly proportional to the square of its amplitude.

The SI unit for measuring the loudness of a sound in decibels (dB).

Pitch of the sound

Every person has a different sound quality.

Also, every musical instrument vibrates to produce a different kind of sound. This
quality of sound is characterized by its Different quality of sounds may have same
pitch and loudness.

The pitch of a sound depends upon the frequency of the sound wave.

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 The pitch would be higher if the frequency of the sound is high.

Different organisms and objects have different type of sound because of varied
pitch:

Sound produced by Pitch of the Sound

Drum Low

Bird High

Lion Low

Man Low

Woman High

Figure 12 Loudness and Pitch of a

Sound

How Loudness and Pitch are different from each other?

Audible and Inaudible sounds

Pitch Loudness

It depends upon the frequency of the The loudness of a sound depends upon the
sound. amplitude of the sound wave.

Pitch of a sound is how our ears react to The loudness of sound also depends upon
the frequency of a sound. the energy of the sound wave.

Pitch of the sound helps in recognizing The loudness of a sound helps in

whether the sound is shriller or flatter. recognizing whether a sound is loud or
feeble.

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 Figure 14 Loudness

Figure 13 Pitch

Sounds that can be heard by human ears are called audible sounds. The range of
audible sounds is from 20 Hz to 20 KHz.

Sounds that cannot be heard by human ears are called inaudible sound. Any sounds
having a frequency less than 20 Hz or greater than 20 KHz are categorized as
inaudible sounds.

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Figure 15 Loudness of Sound from various Sources

The inaudible sounds can be divided into two categories as infrasound and
ultrasound.

Infrasound Ultrasound

The sounds having a The sound waves having a frequency range above 20
frequency range below 20 kilohertz are called ultrasounds.
hertz are called infrasound.

Infrasound cannot be heard Having too high frequency, they cannot be heard by human
by humans. beings as well.

Animals like giraffe, Bats, dogs and cats use ultrasounds to communicate.
rhinoceros and whales use
infrasound to communicate.

Infrasound waves are used Ultrasounds can be used for various purposes such as
to treat myopia in kids identifying abnormalities in the human body or calculating
distances under the water through SONAR.

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Figure 16 Infrasound and
Ultrasound

Noise and Music

Noise can be regarded as an unpleasant sound. Noise consists of sound waves of
varied frequencies which have no particular periodic pattern of repetition. Therefore,
noise is regarded as a mixture of sound waves with irregular frequencies.

Music, on the other hand, is a pleasant sound that has a clear pitch. Musical sound
can be created by arranging and combining different sounds in a particular order. The
frequencies of a musical sound are harmonious in nature.

Figure 17 Noise And Music

Noise pollution
Noise pollution can be defined as the presence of undesirable and unpleasant sounds
in the earth's environment.

Human beings can bear sounds ranging up to 85 decibels only. Above that, any noise
can damage our hearing power.

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 Generally, any sound that has a frequency of more than 30 dB is considered noise.

The unwanted noise causes an adverse effect on the health of the organisms present
on the earth.

According to the World Health Organization, the maximum sound limit that is ideal for
cities is 45 dB only.

However, it has been found that the sound range in many big cities of the world lies up
to 90 dB.

Hence noise pollution is common in many cities today and even rural areas to a great
extent.

Figure 18 Noise Pollution

Causes of noise pollution

1. Transport noise: The sound of the traffic on roads, railways and aircraft leads to
noise pollution. As the number of vehicles such as cars, motorcycles, buses and
trucks is increasing in the cities, especially the Metropolitans, noise pollution is
extremely high there.

2. Industrial noise: Industries, factories and other commercial businesses cause high-
intensity sounds that pollute the environment.

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3. Neighbourhood noise: The noise from the radios, televisions, air conditioners,
coolers, kitchen applications and other electrical appliances used in houses lead to
noise. Not only this, commercialization around the residential areas often leads to
unwanted sounds due to small-scale industries such as printing, car repairing etc.

4. Construction noise: Construction of houses, industries and various architectures

also lead to sound pollution.

5. Political activities: Noise pollution is also created due to the rallies and
demonstrations conducted by various political parties in cities and rural areas.

6. Bursting of crackers and fireworks: People burst crackers on several occasions

such as festivals and ceremonies that lead to sound pollution in the neighbourhoods.

7. Natural sounds: The environment of the earth also sometimes leads to unpleasant
sounds due to lightning, thunderstorms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, sounds of
various animals etc.

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Figure 19 The Noise Thermometer

Effects of Noise Pollution

1. Excessive noise in the surroundings can lead to serious health problems such as
hypertension, lack of sleep or insomnia, anxiety, lack of memory, stress, irritation and
even nervous breakdown.

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 2. It can lead to temporary or permanent hearing loss in human beings as well as
animals.

3. Excessive noise leads to increased blood pressure. It increases cholesterol levels in

the blood and therefore increases the chances of cardiovascular diseases in a person.

4. If sound intensity is more than 180 dB it can lead to the death of a person.

5. Noise pollution also leads to a decrease in the production of digestive juices by our
body.

6. It can affect animals as well and can lead to their death and loss of habitats.
Excessive noise decreases a person's ability to concentrate especially on children and
they are unable to concentrate well on their studies due to neighbourhood noises.

7. Unwanted sounds in the environment can hinder the animals from finding their prey or
their direction of motion.

Prevention of Noise Pollution

1. Factories and other industries should be set up at a distance from residential areas.

2. Silencing devices should be incorporated into heavy vehicles such as aircraft,

industrial equipment, machinery and other home appliances.

3. We should always play television, radio and other music systems at a low sound so
that it does not harm the neighbourhood.

4. Use of horns should be minimized especially near public places such as hospitals,
religious places and schools.

5. Soundproofing systems should be installed in industries, party halls and other

buildings that produce a high amount of unwanted sounds.

6. Trees should be planted in huge numbers as they can absorb unwanted noise from
the environment.

7. People who work in noisy conditions such as industries and mines should be provided
earplugs to protect their ears.

8. People should be made aware of noise pollution its adverse effects so that they can
take an active involvement in preventing it.

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Revision Notes for Science Chapter 14 - Chemical
effects of electric current (Class 8th)

Revision Notes on Chemical Effects of Electric

Current

Conductors and insulators

Figure 1 Conductors and Insulators of Electricity

A conductor is any material or substance that allows electricity to flow through

it.

An insulator is any substance or material that prevents the flow of electricity

through it.

Any substance can be called as a conductor of electricity if it allows movement

of charges through it.

The electrons of the conductors can flow freely (they are delocalized) and
hence can take electric current through them.

Insulators do not allow the flow of charges through them because their
electrons are tightly packed with their particles.
Figure 2 Delocalized Electrons in a Conductor

Some materials can allow a little flow of electricity through them and are called
poor conductors of electricity.

Some materials can allow the complete flow of electricity through them and are
called good conductors of electricity.

Every material may conduct electricity in certain situations. For example, air is a
bad conductor of electricity but in case of thunderstorms and lightning it carries
electric charges through it. Hence, materials are always classifies as good and
poor conductors of electricity rather than conductors and insulators.

Can liquids conduct electricity?

Not all liquids can conduct electricity. However, some of them can be regarded
as good conductors of electricity while others as poor conductors of electricity.

Water containing salts and minerals dissolved in it always conduct electricity.

Distilled water which does not contain any salts cannot conduct electricity.

Any solution of acids or bases can also conduct electricity.

Figure 3 Liquids that are Poor and Good Conductors of Electricity

How do liquids conduct electricity?

Different substances when mixed in water and electricity is passed through

them can break apart and form positive and negative particles or ions in the
water.

These ions can pass the electric current through them.

The more is the number of ions in a liquid the better conductor it is of electricity.

That is why distilled water is a poor conductor of electricity but salt water is a
good conductor of electricity.

However, many compounds do not form any ions on mixing them with water
and therefore they are poor conductors of electricity such as sugar water, oil
and alcohol.
Figure 4 Set up to detect if a liquid can conduct electricity

Why LED bulbs are more suitable for testing the electrical conductivity
of liquids?

The electric current often causes heating effect due to which the filament of the
bulb gets heated up and glows.

However, some liquids are capable of conducting electricity but they are weak
conductors of electricity. Hence current passes through them but it is not that
strong enough to heat up the filament. As a result, the filament would not light
up in the case of such liquids.

However, the LED bulbs can detect the flow of even a small amount of electric
current as well. Hence, LED bulbs are suitable for testing the electrical
conductivity of liquids.

What is electrolysis?

The effect in which components of a compound get split due to passing an electric
current through it is called electrolysis.
Figure 5 Electrolysis Process

What is an electrode?

An electrode is a conductor of electricity that can carry electric current into non-
metals and other poor conductors of electricity.

What is an electrolyte?

A solution that breaks into its ions on passing electricity through it is called an
electrolyte. Electrolytes are used in the process of electroplating.

What are an anode and cathode?

The positively charged electrode is called anode and the negatively charged
electrode is called cathode.

What are anions and cations?

An anion is a negatively charged ion and a cation is a positively charged ion.

Effects of an electric current

Heating effect: electric current causes heating of the electrical equipment. For
example, the filament of a bulb gets heated up due to electric current and
therefore glows.
 Mechanical effect: electric current can lead to generation of mechanical energy
in appliances. For example, fans and motors work due to this effect.

Magnetic effect: electric current can give rise to the magnetic field of a
substance.

Chemical effect: electric current can lead to the production of chemical energy
or chemical reactions.

Chemical effects of electric current

We know that when an electric current passes through solution it ionizes and
breaks down into ions. This is because of chemical reactions that take place when
an electric current passes through a solution. Depending on the nature of the
solution and the electrodes used, the following effects can be observed in the
solution:

1. metallic deposits on the electrodes

2. change in the colour of the solution

3. a release of gas or production of bubbles in the solution

Applications of chemical effects of electric current

Electroplating

Electroplating is a process in which layer of metal is deposited on another

material with the help of electricity.

Electroplating is used in many industries for depositing a layer of metal with

desired characteristics on another metal.

Different metals used for electroplating are Nickel, Copper, Gold Silver, Tin,
Brass, Zinc, Chromium and Platinum.
Process of electroplating

In order to conduct electroplating right electrodes and electrolytes must be

chosen so that metal can deposit over a material.

For instance, if we want to deposit copper on a material we need an electrolyte

that contains copper in it. Similarly, if we need gold on a material we need an
electrolyte that contains gold in it.

Also, we should make sure that the electrode that we are choosing is
completely clean.

The electrodes used are made up of different materials. One of the electrodes is
of the same metal of which the electrolyte solution is. The second electrode
needs to be the material on which we want to coat another metal.

For instance, in case we want to plate copper upon brass, one electrode should
be of Copper and the other electrode should be of Brass and the electrolyte
solution should be any salt which contains copper in it, for example, copper
sulphate solution. Consider the diagram given below that describes the process
of electroplating of copper.

Figure 6 Electroplating of copper on brass

Out of these two electrodes the copper electrode acts as the anode (positive
electrode) and brass electrode acts as the cathode (negative electrode).
 When electricity is passed through the solution, the copper sulphate breaks
down into its ions.

The copper ions (they have a positive charge) get attracted by the brass
electrode while the sulphur ions being negatively charged move towards the
copper electrode.

As a result, copper starts depositing on the brass electrode.

The process of electroplating takes some time to complete.

The amount of time that it will take depends upon the strength of the current
that is being passed through the circuit and also upon the concentration of the
electrolyte.

As these two are increased the speed of the electroplating process also
increases.

Applications of electroplating

Figure 7 Electroplated Objects

Medical equipment is made up of nickel which is harmful to the human body

hence to avoid it from coming in contact with our body a coating of platinum or
gold is applied on the surface of nickel.

Many kitchen equipments, bath taps, parts of cars etc. are covered with
chromium coating. Chromium is an expensive metal hence the objects are
created with the cheaper metal and chromium coating is provided. Thus, to
bring a shining over the objects and prevent them from corrosion chromium
coating is used.
 Jewellery makers often make ornaments of less expensive metals and provide a
coating of gold or silver upon them.

The tin cans that are used to store food are actually made up of iron and have a
coating of tin on them. Iron can easily react with food and spoil it, however, tin
prevents the food from getting reacted with iron and therefore helps in
preventing it from getting spoiled easily.

Bridges and various parts of automobiles are made up of iron because it

provides strength. However in order to prevent iron from getting rusted a
coating of zinc is provided over it. This method is also called galvanization of
iron.

Other applications of Chemical Effect of Electric Current

1. Extracting metals from their ores

Pure metals are extracted from metal ores with the process of electrolysis.
Electricity is passed through the metal ores and they get broken down into an ionic
lattice and thus the metal is obtained separately. For example, metals like
aluminium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and calcium are obtained from their
ores in this way.

Figure 8 Extraction of Aluminium

2. Purification of metals

The method of electrolysis is also used to purify a metal by separating it from the
impurities. The impure metal is used as an anode which first dissolves in the
electrolyte solution and then deposits on the cathode in the pure form. The
impurities of the metal remain in the electrolyte solution only. Metals like
aluminium, zinc and copper are purified in this way.

Figure 9 Purification of Copper using Electroplating

3. Production of compounds

The electrolysis method is used for the production of some compounds. For
example, sodium hydrochlorite

4. Decomposition of compounds

The electrolysis method is also used to decompose a compound into its

constituents. For example, water can be decomposed using the process of
electrolysis to obtain hydrogen and oxygen.
Figure 10 Decomposing water to separate hydrogen and oxygen

You Might Like to Refer:

Some Natural Phenomena CBSE Class 8 Science
Notes

Some Natural Phenomena CBSE Class 8

Science Revision Notes Chapter 15
A Natural Phenomenon is anything that occurs on its own in nature without any
kind of human intervention.

For example, the weather of a place, fog, storms, winds, tides, volcanic
eruptions and cyclones all can be categorized as natural phenomena.

Some natural phenomena can be destructive such as cyclones, thunderstorms,

lightning and earthquakes.

However, there are some ways with which we can protect and prepare ourselves
from these natural disasters.

Figure 1 Examples of Natural Phenomenon

Lightning

Lightning is an electric discharge or an electric spark that occurs in nature on a

major scale. It is caused by the accumulation of charges in the clouds.

It can be deadly and cause the destruction of life and property.

In ancient times people were unaware of the cause of lightning and hence they
were scared of it. Nowadays, scientists have evolved some precautions that can
help us prepare and protect ourselves from this natural phenomenon.

Figure 2 Lightning

The sparks that Greeks knew about

The Greeks were already aware of the electric charges from 600 BC. They knew
that when Amber (a type of resin or synthetic polymer) and fur are rubbed
together, then amber can attract light objects like hair.

Similarly, woollen clothes or polyester clothes also attract hair and can produce
a little spark or crackling sound when they are taken off from the body. This is
because of electric charges.

Benjamin Franklin was an American scientist who in 1752 discovered and

proved that lightning and spark produced from these clothes are all same
things.
What are electric charges?

Figure 3 Electric Charges

We know that every atom comprises of subatomic particles such as electrons,

protons and neutrons.

All these particles share a common property that they carry electric charges.

Electrons have a negative charge on them while protons have a positive charge.

We know that atoms carry a balanced charge however these charges may
sometimes become out of order.

An object will be called electrically neutral if it is carrying a balanced proportion

of positive and negative charges.

An object is called a charged object if there is an imbalance of electrons and

protons in it.

Charging by rubbing

When we rub two objects with each other they get charged due to a transfer of
electrons between them.

For example, if we rub a rubber balloon with animal fur, the balloon is made up
of rubber attracts the electrons from the animal fur.

This results in rubber having an excess of electrons while fur having a shortage
of electrons.
 In the same way, if we rub a plastic comb with dry hair the comb acquires some
charge.

Types of charges and their interaction

Figure 4 Charged objects

We know that charged objects may have a shortage or excess of electrons.

Objects having an excess of electrons are called negatively charged while an

object having a shortage of electrons are called positively charged.

For instance, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth it becomes positively
charged while the silk cloth becomes negatively charged.

These charged objects are now capable of attracting other charged and
uncharged objects.

Objects having the same kind of charges repel each other while objects with
different kind of charges attract each other.

Figure 5 Interaction between Charges

What is an electrostatic force?

The force of attraction or repulsion experienced by charged objects is called

electrostatic force.

Figure 6 Electrostatic Force

What is a static electric charge?

Static charge or static electricity is an electric charge which does not move. Static
charges are a result when two objects are rubbed with each other. When two
surfaces come in contact with each other repeatedly it results in the transfer of
electrons from one material to another. The strength of an electric charge depends
upon different factors such as:

1. The temperature and humidity

2. Properties of the surface such as its material

Figure 7 Static Charges when woollen sweater and balloon are rubbed together

In opposite to static charge, there is an electric current. The electric current results
when the charges flow or move from one point to another. This electric current
results in glowing of bulb or working of all the electrical appliances.
Figure 8 Electric Current

Transfer of charges

Charges can transfer from one object to another with the help of conduction and
induction:

Conduction: when a charged object comes in contact with a conductor it results

in the transfer of charges through the conductor.

Figure 9 Charging by Conduction

Induction: When a charged object is brought near a neutral object, it results in

shifting in the position of the electrons in the other object.
Figure 10 Charging by Induction

The process of induction does not involve any physical contact between the
charged and uncharged object while the process of conduction requires a
physical contact between them.

How the transfer of electric charges leads to conservation of

charge?

The net charge on a neutral object is zero. However, when an object receives some
electrons from another object, the net negative charge on the first object is equal to
the net positive charge of the second object. In this way, charges are conserved
during transfer of charges.

Figure 11 (a) Amber and Cloth both have net zero charge (b) Amber and Cloth are
rubbed together (C) Amber and Cloth together have net zero charge

What is an electroscope?

It is a device which can test if an object is charged or not. Abraham Bennet

developed a gold leaf electroscope in 1787.

Structure of an electroscope

Generally, gold and silver are used to construct an electroscope because they
are good conductors of electricity. Otherwise, copper and aluminium can also
be used.

It consists of a glass jar having a vertical brass rod.

 The rod is inserted into the jar through the cork.

The brass rod has a brass disc or horizontal rod attached to it.

From the other end, two leaves of gold are suspended.

Figure 12 Electroscope

Working of an electroscope

When a charged object touches the brass disc, electric charges get transferred from
the brass rod to the gold leaves. As a result, the gold leaves move away from each
other depicting the presence of charges.
Figure 13 Working of an electroscope

Discharging and Earthing

When a charged object loses its charges it is said to be discharged.

When a charged object transfers its charges to the earth it is called earthing.
Generally, every building is provided with earthing to protect it from electrical
shocks due to leakage of electric current.

Figure 14 How Earthing Protects us form Shock

Figure 15 How Can we get a Shock Without Earthing

Story of Lightning

Figure 16 Lightning

1. During a thunderstorm, the hot air moves upwards while the raindrops fall
downloads.

2. This leads to a separation of charges in the atmosphere.

3. As a result, negative charges get accumulated in the lower ages of the clouds
while positive charges accumulate at the upper edges.

4. The ground is accumulated with a positive charge all over.

5. These charges begin to multiply due to the increase in winds and rainfall.

6. Although the air is a poor conductor of electricity due to heavy charges it is

unable to restrict the electric flow after some time.

7. The negative charges and positive charges meet which results in the production
of electric sparks in the form of a streak of light accompanied by a sound.

8. The streak is called lightning and the whole phenomenon is called electric
discharge. This electric discharge can occur between two or more clouds.
Why does lightning strikes tall buildings easily?

We know that lightning occurs as a streak of charges that fall toward the ground.
Tall buildings and tall trees can easily conduct the charge towards the ground. The
air gap between these buildings and lightning is short hence they are more
susceptible to lightning. That does not mean that short objects would not be
affected by lightning.

Lightning safety

One should not stay at an open place during lightning and thunderstorm. Hence as
soon as we hear any alert about lightning or thunderstorm, we should rush to a safe
place such as a house or a building. If somebody is there in a car or bus, they
should stay inside and keep all the doors and windows closed. One should read
inside the safe place until the storm lasts.

Do's and don'ts for lightning safety

Outdoor Safety

1. One should not stay in an open place such as an open vehicle like a motorbike,
tractor, or open fields, elevated places, or tall trees.

2. One should not carry an umbrella during the storm.

3. If a person is around a forest they should hide under short trees.

4. One should not get near to any poles on metal objects.

5. One should squat low on the ground instead of laying down.

Figure 17 Lightning Safety

Indoor Safety

1. Lightning is an electric discharge hence one should stay away from electrical
wires telephone, cables and metal pipes during a thunderstorm.

2. One may use a cordless phone or a mobile phone in an emergency.

3. One should not come in contact with the running water hence one should avoid
bathing.

4. One should unplug all the electrical appliances in the house, for example TV,
computers or music systems. Electrical lights do not cause any harm and hence
can be kept on.
Figure 18 Lightning Safety

Using a lightning conductor

In order to protect buildings from lightning, a lightning conductor device is used.

When the building is being constructed a metallic rod having height more than
the building is placed in the walls of the building.

One end of the rod is in the air while the other end is buried inside the Earth.

This rod is a conductor and hence during lightning it allows the flow of electric
charges to the ground.
Figure 19 Lightning Conductor

Working of a lightning conductor

The lightning conductor rod consists of pointed ends which are made up of
copper wire.

These copper wires are brought down along the building and are attached to a
metallic plate in the ground.

If lightning hits the building the copper wires carry these charges quickly to the
ground.

Earthquakes

Some natural phenomena such as thunderstorms and cyclones can be

predicted by meteorologists. However, there are certain natural phenomena that
are uncertain and cannot be predicted accurately. One of them is an earthquake.

Earthquake is a natural phenomenon that occurs as shaking or trembling of the

Earth's surface.

It occurs or lasts for a very short span of time.

 The main cause of earthquake is disturbances inside the crust of the earth.

Deep inside the earth, earthquakes occur all the time however they are not
noticeable on the earth’s surface. Sometimes major earthquakes occur on the
earth surface which can be destructive.

Earthquakes can lead to:

Loss of life

Loss of property such as buildings, dams and bridges

Floods

Landslides

Tsunamis

Figure 20 Destruction due to Earthquake

Cause of an earthquake

Earth’s surface is divided into several layers the crust, mantle, inner core and outer
core.
Figure 21 Layers of Earth Surface

The outermost layer of the Earth is divided into several plates. These plates are
always moving.

As they move past each other or collide, disturbances are caused in the earth's
crust. These disturbances are called earthquakes or tremors.

Figure 22 Plates on Earth's Surface

Figure 23 Movement of India's Earth Plates

Other causes of an earthquake can be:

1. Volcanic eruptions

2. When a meteor hits the Earth surface

3. The nuclear explosion under the Earth surface

Although the causes of an earthquake are clear the scientists cannot predict when
the earthquake would occur.

What are seismic zones?

The movement of plates causes an earthquake. Hence the earthquakes are most
likely to occur on their boundaries. The areas that lie on the boundaries of these
plates are called weak zones, seismic zones or fault zones.
Figure 24 Seismic Zones in India

What is the Richter scale?

A scale which is used to determine the magnitude or strength of an earthquake

is called the Richter scale.

Destructive earthquakes have a Richter scale magnitude of more than 7.

A Richter scale is not a linear scale, that is, a magnitude of Richter scale 6 does
not imply that it is one and a half times more destructive than an earthquake
with a magnitude of 4.

It rather means that an earthquake of a magnitude of 6 is 100 times more

powerful than an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.
Figure 25 Richter Scale and its interpretation

What are seismic waves?

The earthquakes produce waves on the earth surface which are called seismic
waves. These waves travel in all the directions on the Earth's surface.

What is Focus of an earthquake?

The focus of an earthquake is a point inside the earth’s surface where the
earthquake originates. It is also called hypocenter.

What is an Epicentre?

The epicentre is a region on the earth’s surface that lies just above the focus of the
earthquake is called epicentre. The earthquake does not originate from the
epicentre.
Figure 26 Map of Earthquake

What is a seismograph?

A seismograph is an instrument which can record the seismic waves.

It contains a metal rod or a pendulum which can vibrate as the earthquake

occurs.

The metal rod is attached to a pen which records the waves on the paper.

Scientists study these waves and then construct a map of the earthquake.

This also helps them in determining the power of the earthquake.

Figure 27 Seismograph

Protection against an Earthquake

The buildings located in the seismic zones should be constructed in a way that they
can handle major tremors. The following measures should be taken by people to
make the houses of buildings quake-safe:

People should always consult architects and engineers before constructing a

new building.

The roofs of the building should be kept light.

Timber or mud should be used in the construction of buildings rather than heavy
materials.

The shelf and cupboard should be fixed to the walls so that they do not fall off
easily.

Things such as photo frames, geysers, clocks and other wall hangings should
be placed in a place that does not harm anybody if they fall off.

Buildings should have firefighting equipment as earthquakes may cause fires.

Figure 28 How buildings can be made Quake-Safe

How can people protect themselves from an earthquake?

Indoors safety measures

1. One should hide under a table until the earthquake stops.

2. One should not stay close to heavy and tall objects.

3. If one is in bed they should cover their head with a pillow instead of getting up.

Outdoor safety measures

1. One should find a place which has no tall buildings around or even trees.

2. If a person is inside a car or a bus they should drive slowly to a clear place and
be inside until the earthquake stops.
Figure 29 Protection against an Earthquake

You Might Like to Refer:

Revision Notes for Science Chapter 16 - Light (Class
8th)

Revision Notes on Light

What makes things visible?

We can see the world through our eyes or our sense of sight. However, we cannot
see anything without the light, that is, in darkness. When light falls upon or is
emitted by an object our eyes detect that light and hence the object becomes visible
to us.

Figure 1 Light makes things Visible

What happens when light falls on a mirror?

We know that light is a form of energy which is responsible for the sense of
sight in the human eyes. Light can be called as a radiation that is emitted,
reflected or absorbed by different objects.

A mirror is a glass having a shiny surface. When light falls on a mirror it is

reflected back. Hence a mirror changes the direction of light that falls upon it.
Figure 2 Light falling on a mirror

The laws of reflection

What is the reflection of light?

Figure 3 Reflection of Light

When light strikes a surface and bounces back, it is called reflection.

Incident ray - The ray of light that falls on the surface is called incident ray.

Reflected ray - The ray of the light that gets reflected back from the surface is
called reflected ray.

Normal - It is an imaginary line that is drawn perpendicular to the reflecting surface

at the point where the incident ray strikes the surface or at the point of incidence.

The angle of incidence (θi) - It is the angle that the incident ray makes with the
normal.
The angle of reflection (θr) - It is the angle that the reflected ray makes with the
normal.

For an incident ray, there is always one reflected ray.

First Law of Reflection

The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are always equal to each other. In
other words, the angle by which a ray of light is incident on a surface will always be
equal to the angle by which it is reflected back from the surface.

The Second Law of Reflection

The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal all lie in the same plane.

Formation of the image by a plane mirror

Figure 4 Formation of Image by Plane Mirror

Consider the figure given above. Here object AB of height ‘h’ is placed at a
distance ‘u’ from the mirror.

When the rays of light from this object fall on the mirror, the image of the object
is formed inside the mirror.

Consider the incident rays that fall on the mirror: AP, AO and BO. These incident
rays are reflected back from the mirror as PA, OC and OB.
 The rays PA and OC are diverging rays hence we can extend them behind the
mirror to find the point of intersection that is A’.

Similarly, the other reflected rays are extended backwards and virtual image A’B’
of height ‘h’ of the object AB is formed on the mirror.

Characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror are the following:

It has the same height as that of the object.

The distance between the image and the mirror and the object and the
mirror is always equal.

The image is erect or upright.

The image is laterally inverted.

It is a virtual image because it is formed by the apparent intersection of

diverging rays.

What is lateral inversion?

When an image is formed in a mirror the, the left side of the object appears at the
right side of the image and vice versa. This is called a lateral inversion.
Figure 5 Lateral Inversion

Regular and Diffused reflection

Regular Reflection Diffused Reflection

When parallel rays of light fall on a When parallel rays of light fall upon an
smooth surface, they are reflected irregular surface, they are reflected back
back as parallel rays only. This is into all the directions. This is called
called regular reflection. diffused reflection.

It is also called specular reflection. It is also called irregular reflection.

It enables us to view different objects

It leads to the formation of an image.
present in our environment.

For example, the image formed by a For example, the reflection of rays of light
plane mirror. through a wall
Illuminated objects - Objects that do not produce light on their own but reflect the
light that falls upon them are called illuminated objects. For example, the moon.

Luminous objects - Objects which can produce light on their own are called
luminous objects. For example, tube light, bulb, the Sun and the Stars.

Figure 6 Luminous and Illuminated Objects

Reflected light can be reflected again

Multiple reflections can be obtained by placing more than one mirrors at certain
angles to each other which results in reflection of light for multiple times between
the reflecting surfaces. This phenomenon is used in certain scenarios such as:

1. In a Periscope to see hidden objects

2. In a kaleidoscope to see beautiful patterns

3. In a barbershop to see the back of the head of a person getting a haircut

Figure 7 Multiple Reflection of Light

What is a Periscope?

A Periscope is an instrument that is used to look at objects that are not in the
line of sight of the observer.

In other words, it is used to see objects that are hidden.

The Periscope works on the phenomena of multiple reflections of light.

Inside the periscope, there are two mirrors that are inclined at an angle of 45

Periscopes are generally used in submarines, tanks and bunkers by the soldiers.

Figure 8 Structure of a Periscope

What is a Kaleidoscope?

Figure 9 Structure of a Kaleidoscope

It is a device that works on the phenomena of multiple reflections with the help
of multiple mirrors.

It has a cylindrical structure with three plane mirrors inside it.

It contains several pieces of beads, broken glass, colourful bangles, pebbles

etc.

The observer can look into the Kaleidoscope from one end and the light enters
into the Kaleidoscope from the other end.

When the light falls upon these objects in the Kaleidoscope, multiple reflections
of these objects are created in the three Mirrors.

This results in the formation of beautiful and colourful patterns.

Since the reflection of light is not always the same the observer never sees a
similar pattern in the kaleidoscope.
Figure 10 Patterns inside a Kaleidoscope

Sunlight - white or coloured

The sun is the biggest source of light on the earth.

The sunlight is white in colour however this white light often disperses into
several colours which results in different colours of the sky at different times of
the day.

The white light consists of seven colours namely VIBGYOR (violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red).

This arrangement of seven colours of a white light is called as Spectrum.

All these colours mixed together and form the white light. However, due to the
reflection of light, the seven colours can split and be seen as separate colours
rather than a single white light.

This phenomenon of the splitting of light into its constituents is called

Dispersion of light.
Figure 11 Dispersion of Light

Examples of dispersion of light:

Formation of rainbow due to the dispersion of white light through the water
droplets.

Passing of Sunlight through a prism

Dispersion of light through the soap Bubbles

Dispersion of light on the CDs

Figure 12

The structure and working of the human eye

Eyes are sensory organs that allow us to see things present in the environment.

The eyes absorb the light rays and form a visual image and transform this
information of the image to the brain.

The eye has a spherical structure which is called the eyeballs. The eyeballs are
attached in the eye socket and various muscles are connected to them called
the eye muscles. These are muscles allow the movement of the eyeballs.

The eyes are protected with eyelids. They prevent an excess of light and dust to
enter into the eyes and therefore save the eyes from any outer objects.
Figure 13 Human Eye

The parts of the human eye

Cornea - It is a transparent covering present on the outer side of the eyes. It

consists of 6 layers. Tear fluid covers cornea and protects the eye.

Iris - It is a dark coloured muscular structure present in the centre of the cornea.
The Iris consists of a small opening call Pupil through which the light enters into
the eye. The Iris has colourful pigments like grey, blue, black, green, brown etc.
The amount of light that enters the eye is controlled by the Iris. In other words,
Iris controls the Pupil.

Lens - It is like a sphere of liquid present inside the eye. The eye lens is located
behind the Pupil which helps in the formation of an image in the eye.

Retina- Retina is a layer located behind the lens at the back of the eye. The eye
lens focuses the light that enters into the eye over the retina. The retina
consists of different Nerve cells that perform different tasks. There are sensory
cells that detect the light. They then transform that information into an electrical
impulse. These electrical impulses are sent to the brain via the optic nerve. Two
types of vision cells in the retina are:

Rods or chopsticks - They get activated in darkness or dim-light and the

responsible for light-dark vision.

Cones - they react to bright light and therefore sense colour in an object.
 Vitreous Chamber - The inner space of the eyeball called the transparent
vitreous chamber consists of a gel-like substance. This substance maintains
the right pressure in the eye and maintains the stability of the eyeball.

Blind spot - There is a point in the eye located at the junction of the retina and
the optic nerve where no sensory cells are present. This spot is therefore called
the blind spot as it does not support any vision.

Persistence of image on the retina

The image that is formed on the retina persists for 1/16th of a second.

Therefore, if one tries to move 16 still images per second of a moving object in
front of our eye it appears as if the object is moving. This is how animation
films and movies work. They are a collection of separate pictures which are
moved in a sequence.

However, this movement is so fast, around 24 pictures in a second, that it

appears as if they are moving.

The vision may decrease with age

Normally a person can see distant and nearby objects through the eyes.

A person with normal eyes can read most comfortable at a distance of 25cm.
However, this distance can decrease with age.

Also sometimes people can see far objects clearly but not the objects that are
nearby (farsightedness or hyperopia).

Similarly, some people can see the nearby objects clearly but not the far objects
(nearsightedness or myopia). Hence they use suitable lenses to correct such
defects.

Sometimes with old age, the lens of the eye can become cloudy or foggy. This
condition is called cataract with results in loss of vision.
 However, this defect can be rectified by removing the old lens from the eye and
inserting an artificial lens at that place.

Defect in Eye Causes

1. Presbyopia solidification of lens fluid

2. Cataract protein structures of lens clubbed together

3. Glaucoma abnormal pressure inside the eye

4. Myopia due to a strong refractive index of the eye

5. Hyperopia due to a weak refractive index of the eye

6. Astigmatism non-uniform curvature of the cornea

How to take care of the eyes?

1. One should go for a regular eye check up.

2. Wear spectacles if the eyesight is found weak.

3. Always study or watch TV in a sufficient light. Excess or insufficient light both

can lead to problems. Insufficient light can cause strain and leads to a
headache.

4. Do not look at the sharp source of light like the sun directly. Excess of light can
damage the eyes.

5. If dust enters into the eye one should not rub them and rather wash them
straightway.

6. Maintain a normal distance while reading or watching TV.

 7. Take a balanced diet to ensure that you get the right nutrients.

What is night blindness?

Night blindness also called nyctalopia is a defect in the vision in which people
cannot view things properly in dim light or at night. It mainly occurs due to the lack
of vitamin A in our body. Hence we should always take foods that are rich in vitamin
A such as broccoli, green vegetables, carrot, milk, eggs, curd, papaya, mango etc.

How can visually impaired people read and write?

Visual impairment is also known as vision loss.

A person with vision loss cannot see at all.

This loss of vision is up to a degree that cannot be corrected using usual means
like using glasses or lenses.

The people who have no eyesight at all develop the other senses of listening
and touching sharply which allows them to do their day to day activities.

However, there are certain resources that have been developed to help such
people:

Non-Optical Aids

They are used to magnify words ensuring appropriate

Visual Aids intensity of light falls upon the eyes so that the person can
recognize the word.

Tactual Aids (using They include Braille writer Slate and Stylus which allow a
sense of touch) person to read and write.
 Auditory Aids
(using sense of They include devices like audio tapes, talking books etc
listening)

They include talking calculators and computers, closed

Electronic Aids circuit televisions, audio CDs, that can help visually
challenged people in listening and writing.

Optical Aids

Bifocal Lenses

Contact Lenses
They all are used to rectify the limitations of the eyes.

Tinted Lenses

Magnifiers

Telescopic They are used to view the chalkboard and class

Aids demonstrations.

Figure 14 Magnifier Optical Aid for Visually impaired

The Braille system

Braille is a tactual aid for visually challenged people that allow them to read and
write.

It was developed by a visually challenged person called Louis Braille. This

system was published by him in 1821 however the present Braille System was
adopted in 1932.

For many common languages including Hindi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu,

Mathematics and scientific notations a Braille code is present.

In the Braille code, there are 63 Dots or 63 Characters.

These are arranged in a cell of two vertical rows having three dots each.

The patterns are embossed on a Braille Sheet that allows a person to read by
touching the pattern. Each character in the Braille system can represent:

1. a letter

2. a combination of letters or a word

3. a grammatical sign

Figure 15 The Braille System for English Alphabets

Eyes of animals have different shapes

1. Crab: Crabs have small eyes but they can look all around with them even behind
them.
 2. Butterflies: Butterflies have big eyes that consist of thousands of small eyes
which allow them to see in the front and at the back.

3. Night owls (Night Birds): Night owls are able to see things more clearly in the
night rather than day time. This is so because the cornea of their eyes is large
with a large pupil which allows light to enter into the eye at night time. However,
their eyes have a large number of rod cells rather than cones that allow them to
see the things at night easily.

4. Kites and Eagles (Day Birds): These birds can see very well during daytime but
have decreased vision at night. This is because they have a large number of
cone cells and a few rod cells.

You Might Like to Refer:

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Science Chapter 1
Crop Production and Management Class 8

Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 13

Q1 :
Select the correct word from the following list and fill in the blanks. float,

water, crop, nutrients, preparation

(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a large scale at a place is called _________.

(b) The first step before growing crops is ________ of the soil.

(c) Damaged seeds would _________ on top of water.

(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _________ and _________ from the soil are essential.

Answer :

(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a large scale at a place is called _ crop _.

(b) The first step before growing crops is _preparation__ of the soil.

(c) Damaged seeds would __float__ on top of water.

(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _ water __ and _ nutrients_ from the soil are essential.

Q2 :

Match items in column A with those in column B.

A B
(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle
(ii) Rabi crops (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iii) Chemical fertilisers (c) Animal excreta, cow dung, urine and
plant waste
(iv) Organic manure (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(e) Paddy and maize

Answer :
A B
(i) Kharif crops (e) Paddy and maize
(ii) Rabi crops (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(iii) Chemical fertilisers (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iv) Organic manure (c) Animal excreta, cow dung, urine and
plant waste

Q3 :
Give two examples of each.

(a) Kharif crop

(b) Rabi crop

Answer :

(a) Kharif crop → Paddy, maize

(b) Rabi crop → Wheat, gram

Q4 :

Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the following.

(a) Preparation of soil (b) Sowing

(c) Weeding (d) Threshing

Answer :

(a) Preparation of soil:

It is the first method to be followed before growing a crop. This method is usually employed for loosening the soil to allow the root to
penetrate deep into it. The loosening of the soil helps in the growth of several soil microbes, earthworms etc., which enrich the soil
with humus and other essential nutrients. Plants require nutrients for their proper growth and functioning. The process of loosening
is called tilling or ploughing the soil. Tilling of soil brings the nutrient-rich soil to the top. This helps the plants to utilize the nutrients
for their growth.

(b)Sowing:

Sowing is another important step in crop production. It is the process of placing the seed in or on the soil for future growth. The
seeds that are selected for growing should be of good quality. This will improve the net yield of the crop. Sowing is usually done with
the help of either a traditional tool or a seed drill. The traditional tool is shaped like a funnel. It was used earlier for sowing seeds.
Nowadays, seed drills that make the use of tractors are used for sowing seeds. This tool disperses seeds uniformly and sows seeds
at proper depth. Sowing by this method saves time and also protects the seeds from birds.

(c)Weeding:

Undesirable plants that grow along with the crop are known as weeds. Weeding is the process of removing these [Link],
Parthenium, etc. are some common weeds. Weeds compete with the crop for nutrients, light, and space. As a result, crop plants
get lesser nutrients, light, and space for their development. This in turn, reduces their productivity. Thus, various weeding methods
are employed.

Some important weeding methods are:

(i) Weeds can be controlled using weedicides. It is a chemical, which is sprayed in the fields to kill all available weeds.
Weedicides are not harmful to crops.

(ii) Tilling before sowing of crops also helps in removing weeds. Tilling uproots the weeds. The best time for removal of
weeds is before they produce flowers and seeds.

(iii) The manual method of removing weeds is with the help of a khurpi. It involves regular uprooting or cutting of weeds close
to the ground.

(d)Threshing:

Threshing is the process of separating grains or seeds from chaff. It is done after harvesting the crop. It is usually carried out with
the help of a machine known as 'Combine'. This machine is a combined harvester and thresher. It harvests plants as well as cleans
grains.

Q5 :

Explain how fertilisers are different from manure.

Answer :

Differences between fertilisers and manure:

Fertiliser Manure
Manure is a natural substance prepared
Fertilisers are commercially available plant by the decomposition of animal excreta
nutrients. and plant wastes.
Manure is known to have a large
They can be organic or inorganic in nature. quantity of organic materials and very little
amount of plant nutrients.
They ensure healthy growth and development
They help in enriching the soil with
of plants by providing them with nitrogen, organic matter and nutrients. phosphorus,
potassium, etc.
The addition of fertilisers to the soil requires
The addition of manure does not require
special guidelines such as dose time, post any special guidelines. addition precautions, etc.,
to be followed.
A fertiliser does not provide any humus to the Manure provides humus to the soil and
soil. increases soil fertility.
Its excessive use causes water pollution. It It protects the environment and helps in cannot
replenish organic matter of soil. recycling farm waste.

Q6 :

What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation which conserve water.

Answer :

Irrigation is the process by which water is supplied to crops at different intervals. The time and frequency of irrigation varies
according to different seasons, crops, and soil types. There are various sources of irrigation such as wells, canals, rivers, dams,
ponds, and lakes.

Two methods of irrigation which help in conservation of water are:

a) Sprinkler system:

This system is more useful on uneven land, having fewer water supplies. In this method, water is supplied using pipes to one or
more central locations within the field. When water is allowed to flow under high pressure with the help of a pump, it gets sprinkled
on the crops.

b)Drip system:
In this system, water is delivered at or near the roots of plants, drop by drop. This is the most efficient method of irrigation as there is
no wastage of water at all. This method is important in areas where water availability is poor.

Q7 :

If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen? Discuss.

Answer :

If wheat is sown in the kharif season (from June to October), then the whole crop might get destroyed because of many factors such
as lack of optimum temperature, adaptability, availability of pests, etc. Kharif season includes the rainy season, which is not
favourable for the growth of wheat crop. Therefore, wheat crop should not be sown during this season.

Q8 :

Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous plantation of crops in a field.

Answer :

Continuous plantation of crops in a field makes the soil poor in certain nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc.
Plants require nutrients for their proper growth and functioning. When a farmer continues to grow crops one after the other, then all
nutrients available in the soil reduce and the crop yield decreases automatically.

Q9 :

What are weeds? How can we control them?

Answer :

Undesirable plants that grow along with crop plants are known as weeds. Xanthium, Parthenium, etc. are some common weeds.
Weeds compete with the crop for nutrients, light, and space. As a result, crop plants get lesser nutrients, light, and space for their
development. This in turn, reduces their productivity. Thus, various weeding methods are employed.

Some important weeding methods are:

i. Weeds can be controlled using weedicides. It is a chemical, which is sprayed in the fields to kill all available weeds. Weedicides are not
harmful to crops.

ii. Tilling before sowing of crops also helps in removing weeds. Tilling uproots the weeds. The best time for the removal of weeds is before
they produce flowers and seeds.

iii. The manual method of removing weeds is with the help of a khurpi. It involves regular uprooting or cutting of weeds close to the ground.

Q10 :

Arrange the following boxes in proper order to make a flow chart of sugarcane crop production.

Answer :

Flow chart of sugarcane crop production:

Q11 :

Complete the following word puzzle with the help of clues given below.

Down

1. Providing water to the crops.

2. Keeping crop grains for a long time under proper conditions.

5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a large scale.

Across

3. A machine used for cutting the matured crop.

4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses.

6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.

Answer :

Down
1. IRRIGATION

2. STORAGE 5.

CROP

Across

3. HARVESTOR 4.

GRAM

6. WINNOWING
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 2
Micro organisms: Friend and Foe

Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 29

Q1 :
Fill in the blanks:

(a) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a _________.

(b) Blue green algae fix _________ directly from air to enhance fertility of soil.

(c) Alcohol is produced with the help of _________.

(d) Cholera is caused by _________.

Answer :

(a) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a _microscope _.

(b) Blue green algae fix __ nitrogen_ directly from air to enhance fertility of soil.
(c) Alcohol is produced with the help of _yeast _.
(d) Cholera is caused by _ bacteria_.

Q2 :

Tick the correct answer:

(a) Yeast is used in the production of

(i) sugar (ii) alcohol

(iii) hydrochloric acid (iv) oxygen

(b) The following is an antibiotic

(i) Sodium bicarbonate (ii) Streptomycin

(iii) Alcohol (iv) Yeast

(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is

(i) female Anopheles mosquito (ii) cockroach

(iii) housefly (iv) butterfly

(d) The most common carrier of communicable diseases is

(i) ant (ii) housefly

(iii) dragonfly (iv) spider

(e) The bread or idli dough rises because of

(i) heat (ii) grinding

(iii) growth of yeast cells (iv) kneading

(f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called

(i) nitrogen fixation (ii) moulding

(iii) fermentation (iv) infection

Answer :

(a) Yeast is used in the production of

(i) sugar (ii) alcohol
(iii) hydrochloric acid (iv) oxygen
(b) The following is an antibiotic

(i) sodium bicarbonate (ii) streptomycin

(iii) alcohol (iv) yeast
(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is

(i) female Anopheles mosquito (ii) cockroach

(iii) housefly (iv) butterfly
(d)The most common carrier of communicable diseases is

(i) ant (ii) housefly

(iii) dragonfly (iv) spider
(e)The bread or idli dough rises because of
(i) heat (ii) grinding

(iii) growth of yeast cells (iv) kneading

(f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called
(i) nitrogen fixation (ii) moulding (iii)
fermentation (iv) infection

Q3 :

Match the organisms in Column I with their action in Column II.

Column I Column II
(i) Bacteria (a) Fixing nitrogen
(ii) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd
(iii) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread
(iv) Yeast (d) Causing malaria
(v) A protozoan (e) Causing cholera
(vi) A virus (f) Causing AIDS
(g) Producing antibodies

Answer :

Column I Column II
(i) Bacteria (e) Causing cholera
Q4 :
Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not, how can they be seen?

Answer :

Micro-organisms are too small to be seen through naked eyes. They can be seen with the help of a magnifying glass or microscope.
For example, fungus that grows on bread is so small that it can be seen only with the help of a magnifying glass or microscope.

Q5 :

What are the major groups of microorganisms?

Answer :

There are five major groups of micro-organisms:

(i) Bacteria - They are single celled disease-causing micro-organisms. They can be spiral or rod- shaped.
(ii) Fungi - They are mostly multicellular disease-causing microbes. Bread moulds are common examples of fungi.
(iii) Protozoa - They mainly include organisms such as Amoeba, Plasmodium,etc. They can be unicellular or multicellular.
(iv) Virus -Viruses are disease-causing microbes that reproduce only inside the host organism.
(v) Algae - They include multicellular, photosynthetic organisms such as Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, etc.

Q6 :

Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.

Answer :

Bacteria such as Rhizobium and certain blue-green algae present in the soil can fix atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into usable
nitrogenous compounds. These nitrogenous compounds can be easily utilized by plants for the synthesis of plant proteins and other
compounds.

Q7 :

Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our lives.

Answer :

Micro-organisms are too small to be seen through naked eyes. However, they are vital to plants and the environment.
Importance of micro-organisms:

They are used in winemaking, baking, pickling, and other food making processes.
Alcoholic fermentation by yeast is widely used in the preparation of wine and bread. A bacterium Lactobacillus, promotes the
formation of curd.
Microbes are used to reduce pollution. For example, decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down dead bodies and excreta
to form inorganic compounds, which can be absorbed by plants.

They are used to increase the soil fertility by fixing the atmospheric nitrogen with the help of bacterium Rhizobium and some other
blue-green algae.

Microbes also play an important role in the preparation of medicines. Antibiotics are chemicals produced by micro-organisms to kill
bacteria. Streptomycin, for example, is an antibiotic.

Certain microbes are also used in the biological treatment of sewage and industrial effluents.

Q8 :

Write a short paragraph on the harms caused by microorganisms.

Answer :

Harmful effects of micro-organisms:

Micro-organisms cause diseases in animals. For example, in humans, bacteria cause diseases such as tuberculosis, cholera,
typhoid, etc. In cattle, the foot and mouth disease is caused by a virus. Also, several microbes cause diseases in plants. For
example, the productivity of wheat, orange, apple, etc. is reduced due to microbial diseases in plants. Certain microbes, on entering
into our body, produce toxic substances. This leads to food poisoning. Some micro-organisms such as fungus spoil our food. For
example, bread when left unused under moist conditions gets spoilt by fungus, producing a white cotton-like growth on the bread.

Q9 :

What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while taking antibiotics?

Answer :

Antibioticsare medicines produced by certain micro-organisms to kill other disease-causing micro-organisms. These medicines are
commonly obtained from bacteria and fungi. Streptomycin, tetracycline, penicillin, etc. are common antibiotics.

Precautions to be taken while using antibiotics:

(i) Antibiotics should be taken under the supervision of a well qualified doctor.
(ii) Course (intake) of antibiotics should be completed as per the prescription given by the doctor.
(iii) Antibiotics should be taken in the right amount and at the right time. A wrong dose of antibiotics makes the drug ineffective. Also,
excessive consumption of drugs may kill the useful bacteria present in our body.
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 5
Coal and Petroleum

Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 62

Q1 :
What are the advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels?

Answer :

The advantages of using compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquified petroleum gas (LPG) as fuels are:
(i) They can be burnt directly.
(ii) They can be transported easily through pipe lines.
(iii) They are clean fuels and do not give smoke when burnt.
(iv) They give a lot of heat energy when burnt.

Q2 :

Name the petroleum product used for surfacing of roads.

Answer :

Bitumen, a petroleum product, is used for surfacing roads.

Q3 :

Describe how coal is formed from dead vegetation. What is this process called?

Answer :

Millions of years ago, dense forests got buried under the soil due to natural processes like storms, floods, and earthquakes. These
got compressed as more and more soil got deposited over them. When they got buried deep in the soil, they were exposed to very
high pressure and temperature. Under these conditions, these slowly got converted into coal. This process of formation of coal from
dead vegetation is called carbonization.

Q4 :

Fill in the banks.

(a) Fossil fuels are ________, ________and _________.

(b) Process of separation of different constituents from petroleum is called _________.

(c) Least polluting fuel for vehicles is __________.

Answer :

(a) Fossil fuels are __coal__, __petroleum__and __natural gas__.

(b) Process of separation of different constituents from petroleum is called __refining__.
(c) Least polluting fuel for vehicles is __compressed natural gas (CNG)__.

Q5 :
Tick True/False against the following statements.

(a) Fossil fuels can be made in the laboratory. (T / F)

(b) CNG is more polluting fuel than petrol. (T / F)

(c) Coke is almost pure form of carbon. (T / F)

(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances. (T / F)

(e) Kerosene is not a fossil fuel. (T / F)

Answer :

(a) Fossil fuels can be made in the laboratory. (F)

(b) CNG is more polluting fuel than petrol. (F)
(c) Coke is almost pure form of carbon. (T)
(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances. (T)
(e) Kerosene is not a fossil fuel. (F)

Q6 :

Explain why fossil fuels are exhaustible natural resources.

Answer :

Fossil fuels require millions of years to form from the dead vegetation and animals that get buried deep inside the Earth. They
require high temperature and pressure for their formation, which cannot be provided in the laboratory. Thus, fossils are limited.
Therefore, the use of fossil fuels at this rate will lead to their exhaustion.

Q7 :

Describe characteristics and uses of coke.

Answer :

Characteristics of coke are:

(i) Tough
(ii) Porous (iii)
Black in colour

Uses of coke:

(i) In manufacture of steel.

(ii) In the extraction of metals (as a reducing agent).

Q8 :

Explain the process of formation of petroleum.

Answer :

Petroleum was formed from dead organisms that got buried in the sea millions of years ago. These dead bodies got covered with
layers of sand and clay. Lack of air, high temperature, and high pressure transformed these dead organisms into petroleum and
natural gas.
Q9 :

The following Table shows the total power shortage in India from 1991 - 1997. Show the data in the form of a graph. Plot
shortage percentage for the years on the Y-axis and the year on the X-axis.

S. No. Year Shortage (%)

1 1991 7.9
2 1992 7.8
3 1993 8.3
4 1994 7.4
5 1995 7.1
6 1996 9.2
7 1997 11.5

Answer :
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 7
Conservation of Plants and Animals
Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 86
Q1 :

Fill in the blanks:

(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is called a __ .

(b) Species found only in a particular area are known as ______.

(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of ____ _ changes.

Answer :

(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is called a sanctuary__.
(b) Species found only in a particular area are known as __endemic__.
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of __climatic__ changes.

Q2 :

Differentiate between the following.

(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve

(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary

(c) Endangered and extinct species

(d) Flora and fauna

Answer :

(a)

Wildlife sanctuary Biosphere reserve

It is an area within which animals are protected It is a large protected area constructed
from possible dangers such as hunting. Their for the conservation of biodiversity.
habitat is also conserved in this area.
It provides protection and suitable living It helps in the conservation of various
conditions to wild animals. life forms such as plants, animals, and
micro-organisms.
Pachmarhi sanctuary is a wildlife sanctuary. Pachmarhi biosphere reserve is a
popular biosphere reserve.
(b)

Zoo Wild life sanctuary

It is a facility in which It is an area within which animals are protected from
animals are kept for public possible dangers such as hunting. Their habitat is also
exhibition. conserved in this area.

It is an artificial habitat. It conserves the natural habitat of animals.

(c)

Endangered species Extinct species

It is a population of species that is on the It is a population of species that no longer
verge of becoming extinct. exists. Hence, it is extinct.

Blue whale, tiger, leopard, etc. are Dodo, passenger pigeon, etc. are examples
examples of endangered species. of extinct species.
(d)

Flora Fauna
It refers to all living plants in a particular It refers to all animals living in a particular area.
area.
Sal, teak, mango, etc. form the flora of Leopard, wolf, wild dog, etc. form the fauna
Pachmarhi biosphere reserve. of Pachmarhi biosphere reserve.

Q3 :

Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following.

(a) Wild animals

(b) Environment

(c) Villages (Rural areas)

(d) Cities (Urban areas)

(e) Earth

(f) The next generation

Answer :

(a) Effects of deforestation on wild animals:

Deforestation is the removal of trees or other vegetation from an area for industrial, agricultural, or other purposes. Trees and other
vegetation form the habitat of many animals. Hence, if the habitat of wild animals is destroyed, then their numbers would
automatically decline.

(b) Effects of deforestation on the environment:

Plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere to perform photosynthesis. If plants are destroyed, then the level of CO 2 in the atmosphere
will rise. As a result, CO2 will trap more heat radiations, thereby adding to global warming. An increase in the temperature of the
Earth will disturb the natural water cycle. As a result, there will be a change in the rainfall pattern. This could lead to floods or
droughts.
(c) Effects of deforestation on villages:

Roots of plants hold soil particles together. In the absence of plants, the top layer of the soil will be easily removed by the action of
high speed winds or water flow. Thus, deforestation increases the chances of soil erosion. As a result, soil loses humus and become
less fertile. Hence, a fertile land, which is a source of living for farmers in villages, gets converted into a desert.

(d) Effects of deforestation on cities:

Deforestation in cities can increase the risk of many natural calamities such as floods and droughts in that area. Also, it can lead to
global warming due to an increase in the level of CO2 in the atmosphere as a result of vehicular and industrial pollution. This
increase in temperature can disturb the natural water cycle of an area (e) Effects of deforestation on the Earth:

As a result of deforestation, chances of desertification, droughts, floods, etc. increase. Deforestation can also increase the level of
CO2 in the Earth. It will lead to an increase in temperature i.e., global warming. As a result, the entire natural water cycle will get
disrupted. This again increases the risk of natural calamities.

(f) Effects of deforestation on the next generation:

Deforestation is slowly changing our environmental conditions. It is responsible for global warming, soil erosion, greenhouse effect,
drought, floods, and many other global problems. As a result, the next generation will have to face severe consequences of
deforestation.

Q4 :

What will happen if:

(a) we go on cutting trees.

(b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.

(c) the top layer of soil is exposed.

Answer :

(a) If we go on cutting trees, the natural habitat of many animals will get completely destroyed. As a result, the biodiversity of
many areas will be severely affected. Also, there will be an increase in the temperature of the Earth as a result of global warming,
which can disturb the natural water cycle. As a result, there will be a change in the rainfall pattern. This could lead to floods or
droughts. This will also increase the risk of soil erosion, desertification, and natural calamities.

(b) The habitat of an animal provides it with necessities such as shelter, food, and protection. If the habitat of an animal is
disturbed, then it will be forced to go to other places in search of food and shelter. The animal could get killed by other animals in
this process.

(c) If the top layer of soil is exposed, then it will gradually expose the lower layer of soil, which is hard and rocky in nature.
This type of soil is less fertile as it contains less humus. Continued soil erosion will make the land barren or infertile.

Q5 :

Answer in brief:

(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity?

(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Why?

(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How?

(d) What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?

(e) What is Red Data Book?

(f) What do you understand by the term migration?

Answer :
(a) Biodiversity refers to the number and variety of various life forms such as plants, animals, and micro-organisms in an area.
Plants and animals depend on each other for survival. This means that the destruction of either of the two will affect the life of the
other. Hence, we need to conserve biodiversity to maintain the balance of nature.

(b) Protected forests are not completely safe for wild animals because people who live near or adjacent to forests use resources
from forests to fulfil their own requirements. In this process, wild animals are killed and sold for lucrative amounts of money.

(c) Tribals gather food, fodder, and fallen branches of trees from forests. Hence, they depend on forests for their daily requirements.
(d) Causes of deforestation:
(i) Forests are cleared for accommodating expanding urban areas and for fulfilling their ever-increasing requirements.
(ii) Forests are destroyed to clear land for crops and cattle grazing.
(iii) Trees are cut down to be used for firewood.
Consequences of deforestation:
(i) Soil erosion
(ii) Loss of biodiversity
(iii) Floods and droughts
(iv) Climate change due to global warming
(v) Disruption of water cycle
(e) Red Data Book is a source book that maintains an international list of all endangered animal and plant species. This book
is maintained by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources).

(f) Migration refers to the movement of an organism or a group of organisms from its natural habitat to another place at a
particular time every year. Organisms migrate from one place to another to avoid inhabitable climatic conditions or for breeding.

Q6 :

In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories and for shelter, trees are being continually cut. Is it justified to cut
trees for such projects? Discuss and prepare a brief report.

Answer :

No. It is not at all justified to cut trees to meet the ever increasing demands of human population. Forests are the habitat of several
organisms including wild animals. They provide us with good quality air as they give out O2 and absorb the harmful CO2 gas from the
atmosphere. In the process, they prevent the excessive heating of the atmosphere. They prevent soil erosion and natural calamities
such as floods and droughts. They increase the fertility of the soil and help conserve biodiversity. The cutting of forests to meet the
demands of growing human population will lead to global warming, soil erosion, greenhouse effect, droughts, floods, and many more
problems. The destruction of forests will disturb the balance of nature. Hence, forests must be conserved.

Q7 :

How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality? Make a list of actions to be taken by you.

Answer :

I can help in maintaining the green wealth of my locality by taking care of the plants and trees growing in or around my locality. I can
plant more and more trees. I can also encourage the people in my locality to plant more trees by informing them about the
importance of growing trees. I can make young children aware of the effects that deforestation has on our environment and on our
planet. I can also ask them to water the plants daily, which will take very little of their time. I believe planting new trees is as
important as taking care of the existing trees.

Q8 :

Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.

Answer :

Deforestation is the removal of trees or other vegetation from an area for industrial, agricultural, or other purposes. Plants or trees
absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. If plants are destroyed, then the level of CO2 in the atmosphere will rise. The high levels of CO2 in
the atmosphere will trap more heat radiations, leading to global warming. This increase in temperature of the Earth will disturb the
natural water cycle. As a result of disruption in the water cycle, there will be a change in the rainfall pattern. The reduced amount of
rainwater can cause droughts.

Q9 :

Find out about national parks in your state. Identify and show their location on the outline map of India.

Answer :

One of the national parks located near Delhi is the Corbett National Park.

Q10 :

Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save paper.

Answer :

Paper should be saved because it takes around seventeen full grown trees to make one tonne of paper. Trees, as we know, are
important to maintain a balance of nature. Therefore, in order to save trees and prevent the impact of their loss on living organisms,
we need to save paper.

Ways by which paper can be saved:

(i) Collect used paper and recycle it.
(ii) Use both sides of a paper for writing.
(iii) Spread awareness about the importance of paper.
(iv) Use paper intelligently.

Q11 :

Complete the world puzzle.

Down
1. Species on the verge of extinction.

2. A book carrying information about endangered species.

5. Consequence of deforestation.

Across

1. Species which have vanished.

3. Species found only in a particular habitat.

4. Variety of plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area.

Answer :

Down

1. ENDANGERED
2. RED DATA BOOK
5. DESERTS
Across
1. EXTINCT
3. ENDEMIC
4. BIODIVERSITY
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 9
Reproduction in Animals
Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 110
Q1 :

Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms.

Answer :

Reproduction is a biological process through which living organisms produce offspring similar to themselves. Living organisms
reproduce to maintain their number and for the continuation of their species. Thus, reproduction ensures the continuation of similar
kinds of individuals.

Q2 :

Describe the process of fertilization in human beings.

Answer :

Fertilization involves the fusion of the male and the female gamete. The male and the female gametes are released from the male
and the female reproductive organs. Sperms or male gametes are released from the male reproductive organ i.e., the penis. These
sperms then enter the female body through the vagina. Then, they travel through the fallopian tubes where they meet the eggs.
Hence, the process of fertilization takes place in the fallopian tubes.

During fertilization, the haploid nucleus of the sperm and that of the ovum fuse with each other to form the zygote. This zygote
divides to form an embryo which in turn develops into a foetus.

Q3 :

Choose the most appropriate answer.

(a) Internal fertilization occurs (i)

in female body.

(ii) outside female body.

(iii) in male body.

(iv) outside male body.

(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process of

(i) fertilization

(ii) metamorphosis
(iii) embedding

(iv) budding

(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is

(i) none

(ii) one

(iii) two

(iv) four

Answer :

(a) (i) Internal fertilization occurs in the female body.

(b) (ii) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process of metamorphosis.

(c) (ii) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is one.

Q4 :

Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).

(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. ( )

(b) Each sperm is a single cell. ( )

(c) External fertilization takes place in frogs. ( )

(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called gamete. ( )

(e) Egg laid after fertilization is made up of a single cell. ( )

(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. ( )

(g) Fertilization is necessary even in asexual reproduction. ( )

(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. ( )

(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. ( )

(j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. ( )

Answer :

(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. (F)

(b) Each sperm is a single cell. (T)

(c) External fertilization takes place in frogs. (T)

(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called gamete. (F)

(e) Egg laid after fertilization is made up of a single cell. (T)

(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. (F)

(g) Fertilization is necessary even in asexual reproduction. (F)

(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. (T)

(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. (T)

(j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. (F)

Q5 :

Give two differences between a zygote and a foetus.

Answer :

Zygote Foetus
It is a fertilized egg formed after the It is a stage of the embryo that shows all the main fusion
of the sperm with the egg. recognizable body parts of a mature organism.
The zygote divides several times to An embryo gradually develops into a foetus. form
an embryo.

Q6 :

Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of asexual reproduction in animals.

Answer :

Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of the male and the female gamete. It requires only
one parent, and the offsprings produced are exact copies of their parents.

Two methods of asexual reproduction in animals are:

(i) Binary fission:

It is a type of asexual reproduction in which a single cell divides into two halves. Organisms that reproduce through binary fission
are bacteria and Amoeba. In Amoeba, the division of cells can take place in any plane. It involves the division of its nucleus into two
nuclei, which is followed by the division of its body into two halves. Each half of the body receives a nucleus.

Binary fission in Amoeba (ii)

Budding:

Budding involves the formation of a new individual from the bulges, known as buds formed on the parent body. This method of
reproduction is common in [Link] Hydra, thecells divide rapidly at a specific site and develop as an outgrowth, called the bud.
These buds, while being attached to the parent plant, develop into smaller individuals. When these individuals become mature
enough, they detach from the parent's body and become independent individuals.

Budding in Yeast

Q7 :

In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get embedded?

Answer :

The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus. The embryo while it is still attached to the uterus gradually develops various
body parts such as hands, legs, head, eyes, etc. The embryo is then called a foetus.
Q8 :

What is metamorphosis? Give examples.

Answer :

Metamorphosis is a biological process of transforming a larva into an adult. This involves relatively sudden and abrupt changes in
the animal's structure. Frogs and insects are examples of organisms showing metamorphosis. The life cycle of a frog has three
distinct stages:

EGG → TADPOLE → ADULT

Life cycle of a frog

The tadpole that emerges from the egg contains gills, a tail, and a small circular mouth. They can swim freely in water. The tadpole
grows and involves abrupt changes in its structure and develops into a mature frog. A tadpole's metamorphosis begins with the
development of limbs, lung development, and finally the absorption of the tail by the body.

Q9 :

Differentiate between internal fertilization and external fertilization.

Answer :

Internal fertilization External fertilization

It involves the fusion of the male and the It involves the fusion of the male and the
female gamete inside the female body. female gamete outside the female body.
Chances of the survival of the offspring are Chances of survival of the offspring are
more. Therefore, a small number of eggs are less. Therefore, a large number of eggs
are
produced. produced.
Humans, cows, hens are organisms showing Fish, frog, starfish are organisms showing
internal fertilization. external fertilization.

Q10 :

Complete the crossword puzzle using the hints given below.

Across

1. The process of the fusion of the gametes.

6. The type of fertilization in hen.

7. The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the body of Hydra.

8. Eggs are produced here.

Down

2. Sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs.

3. Another term for the fertilized egg.

4. These animals lay eggs.

5. A type of fission in amoeba.

Answer :

Across

1. FERTILIZATION

6. INTERNAL

7. BUDS

8. OVARY

Down

2. TESTIS
3. ZYGOTE

4. OVIPAROUS

5. BINARY
.
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 10
Reaching the Age of Adolescence
Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 124
Q1 :

What is the term used for secretions of endocrine glands responsible for changes taking place in the body?

Answer :

Hormones are chemical substances which are secreted by endocrine glands. They are responsible for changes taking place in the
body.

Q2 :

Define adolescence.

Answer :

Adolescence is the time period between the beginning of puberty and adulthood. During this period, the body undergoes several
changes alongside reproductive maturity. It begins around the age of 11 and lasts till 18 or 19 years of age. The period of
adolescence may vary from person to person.

Q3 :

What is menstruation? Explain.

Answer :

Menstruation is the process of the shedding of the uterine lining on a regular monthly basis. It begins at puberty and is the
reproductive cycle of the female body. Every month, the uterus prepares itself to receive a fertilized egg. Therefore, the inner lining
of the uterus becomes thick and is supplied with blood to nourish the embryo. If the egg is not fertilized, then the lining of the uterus
breaks down and gets released in the form of blood through the vagina. This lasts for about two to eight days. This cycle occurs
every month and is known as the menstrual cycle.

Q4 :

List changes in the body that take place at puberty.

Answer :

Changes at puberty:

(i) Sudden increase in height and weight.

(ii) Broadening of shoulders and widening of chest in boys. In girls, the region below waist becomes wider.
(iii) In boys, under the influence of hormones, the larynx becomes prominent, the vocal cords become longer and thicker. These
changes cause the voice to become hoarse.

(iv) Appearance of hair in areas such as underarms, face, hands, and legs.
(v) Appearance of acne as a result of excessive secretion of oil from skin.
(iv) Testis grows and starts producing sperms in males, whereas in females, the ovary enlarges and starts producing matured eggs.

Q5 :
Prepare a table having two columns depicting names of endocrine glands and hormones secreted by them.

Answer :

Endocrine gland Hormones

Testis Testosterone
Ovary Oestrogen
Thyroid Thyroxin
Adrenal Adrenalin
Pancreas Insulin
Pituitary Growth hormone

Q6 :

What are sex hormones? Why are they named so? State their function.

Answer :

Sex hormones are chemical substances produced by sex organs. For example, testosterone is the male sex hormone produced by
the testis, and oestrogen is the female sex hormone produced by the ovary. These hormones affect the sexual features of an
organism. Hence, they are known as sex hormones.

Functions of sex hormones:

Testosterone: This hormone brings about secondary sex characters in boys such as the growth of a beard, the voice becoming
hoarse, development of reproductive organs, etc.

Oestrogen: This hormone is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characters in females such as the enlargement
of breasts, development of female reproductive organs, etc.

Q7 :

Choose the correct option.

(a) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, because (i)
proper diet develops their brains.

(ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking place in their body.
(iii) adolescents feel hungry all the time.

(iv) taste buds are well developed in teenagers. (b) Reproductive age in women starts when their (i) menstruation starts.
(ii) breasts start developing.

(iii) body weight increases.

(iv) height increases.

(c) The right meal for adolescents consists of (i)

chips, noodles, coke.

(ii) chapatti, dal, vegetables.

(iii) rice, noodles and burger.

(iv) vegetable cutlets, chips and lemon drink.
Answer :

(a) (ii) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, because proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking place in their
body.

(b) (i) Reproductive age in women starts when their menstruation starts.
(c) (ii) The right meal for adolescents consists of chapatti, dal, vegetables.

Q8 :

Write notes on - (a)

Adam's apple.

(b) Secondary sexual characters.

(c) Sex determination in the unborn baby.

Answer :

(a) Adam's apple:

In human males, the larynx grows larger during puberty and can be seen as a protruding part of the throat. This protrusion is known
as the Adam's apple. In boys, under the influence of sex hormones, the larynx becomes prominent. As a result, the vocal cords
become longer and thicker, causing the voice to become hoarse. However, in females, the larynx is of a small size and is hardly
visible. Therefore, girls have a high pitched voice, while the voice of boys is low pitched.

(b) Secondary sexual characters are those features that help in distinguishing the male and the female body from each other.
They are physical or behavioural characteristics that appear in humans at the time of puberty.

Secondary sexual characters in boys:

(i) Appearance of moustache and beard.

(ii) Appearance of chest hair.

(iii) Growth of hair in genital area and other parts of the skin.
Secondary sexual character in girls:

(i) Increase in breast size and darkening of the skin of nipples present at the tip of the breasts.
(ii) Growth of hair in genital area and other body parts.
(c) Sex determination in an unborn baby:

The sex of a baby is determined by the type of male gamete that fuses with the female gamete.
All human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in their nuclei. Out of these 23 pairs, the last pair is known as the sex
chromosome.
The human males have 23 pairs of chromosomes including XY sex chromosomes. Therefore, the male gamete has 22
chromosomes and either an X or Y sex chromosome.

Male gametes can be of two types: 22+X or 22+Y

Females have 23 pairs of chromosomes including XX sex chromosomes. Therefore, their gametes can only have 22 chromosomes
and one X sex chromosome.

Type of female gametes: 22+X

Thus, as the mother provides only X chromosome, the sex of the baby is determined by the type of male gamete (X or Y) that fuses
with the X chromosome of the female.

Q9 :

Word game: Use the clues to work out the words.

Across

3. Protruding voice box in boys

4. Glands without ducts

7. Endocrine gland attached to brain

8. Secretion of endocrine glands

9. Pancreatic hormone

10. Female hormone

Down

1. Male hormone

2. Secretes thyroxin
3. Another term for teenage

5. Hormone reaches here through blood stream

6. Voice box

7. Term for changes at adolescence

Answer :

Across

3. ADAM'S APPLE
4. ENDOCRINE
7. PITUITARY
8. HORMONE
9. INSULIN
10. ESTROGEN
Down

1. TESTOSTERONE
2. THYROID
3. ADOLESCENCE

5. TARGET SITE
6. LARYNX
7. PUBERTY
Q10 :

The table below shows the data on likely heights of boys and girls as they grow in age. Draw graphs showing height and
age for both boys and girls on the same graph paper. What conclusions can be drawn from these graphs?

Age (Years) Height (cm)

Boys Girls
0 53 53
4 96 92
8 114 110
12 129 133
16 150 150
20 173 165
Answer :

The graph depicts the relation between the age and height of both boys and girls. During puberty, there is a sudden increase in
height of both boys and girls. On the basis of the above graph, it can be observed that during the age of 4-8 years, girls have less
height as compared to boys. However, as soon as girls reach 12- 13 years, their height shows a sudden increase and becomes
more than boys. In later years, growth in both sexes becomes stable. Growth during puberty is under the control of hormones.
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 11
Force and Pressure
Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 142
Q1 :

Give two examples each of situations in which you push or pull to change the state of motion of objects.

Answer :

Two examples of push force are as follows:

(i) A heavy box at rest is pushed to move it from one room to another. This changes the state of motion of the box.
(ii) A player pushes a football using his foot. This changes the state of motion of the ball.
Two examples of pull force are as follows:
(i) Rope is pulled to draw water from a well. This changes the state of motion of the water bucket.
(ii) A drawer is pulled to open it. This changes the state of motion of the drawer.

Q2 :

Give two examples of situations in which applied force causes a change in the shape of an object.

Answer :

Two examples of forces that cause a change in the shape of an object are as follows:
(i) Squeezing of a plastic bottle changes the shape of the bottle.
(ii) Deformation of clay by pressing it between the hands.

Q3 :

Fill in the blanks in the following statements.

(a) To draw water from a well we have to _________at the rope.

(b) A charged body ________an uncharged body towards it.

(c) To move a loaded trolley we have to _________it.

(d) The north pole of a magnet ________the north pole of another magnet.

Answer :

(a) To draw water from a well we have to __pull__at the rope.

(b) A charged body __attracts__an uncharged body towards it.
(c) To move a loaded trolley we have to __either push or pull__ it.
(d) The north pole of a magnet __repels__the north pole of another magnet.
Q4 :
An archer stretches her bow while taking aim at the target. She then releases the arrow, which begins to move towards the
target. Based on this information fill up the gaps in the following statements using the following terms.

muscular, contact, non-contact, gravity, friction, shape, attraction

(a) To stretch the bow, the archer applies a force that causes a change in its _______.

(b) The force applied by the archer to stretch the bow is an example of ________force.

(c) The type of force responsible for a change in the state of motion of the arrow is an example of a _______force.

(d) While the arrow moves towards its target, the forces acting on it are due to ________and that due to________of air.

Answer :

(a) To stretch the bow, the archer applies a force that causes a change in its __shape__.
(b) The force applied by the archer to stretch the bow is an example of __muscular__force.
(c) The type of force responsible for a change in the state of motion of the arrow is an example of a __contact__ force.
(d) While the arrow moves towards its target, the forces acting on it are due to __gravity__and that due to __friction__of air.

Q5 :

In the following situations identify the agent exerting the force and the object on which it acts. State the effect of the force
in each case.

(a) Squeezing a piece of lemon between the fingers to extract its juice.

(b) Taking out paste from a toothpaste tube.

(c) A load suspended from a spring while its other end is on a hook fixed to a wall.

(d) An athlete making a high jump to clear the bar at a certain height.

Answer :

(a) In squeezing a piece of lemon, we make use of muscular force to extract its juice. This muscular force acts on the lemon.
As a result, the shape of the lemon gets changed.

(b) We use our muscular force to take out paste from a toothpaste tube. The muscular force acts on the toothpaste tube. As a
result, the shape of the tube gets changed.

(c) Here, the suspended load exerts a force on the spring and pushes the spring downwards. As a result, the spring gets
stretched. Hence, its shape gets changed.

(d) An athlete pushes the ground with his feet. His feet exert a muscular force on the ground. This allows him to jump over
the bar. As a result, his state of motion gets changed.

Q6 :

A blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron while making a tool. How does the force due to hammering affect the piece of
iron?

Answer :

When a blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron, he uses his muscular force. This muscular force changes the shape of the iron so
that it can be given a desired shape.
Q7 :

An inflated balloon was pressed against a wall after it has been rubbed with a piece of synthetic cloth. It was found that the
balloon sticks to the wall. What force might be responsible for the attraction between the balloon and the wall?

Answer :

On rubbing an inflated balloon with a piece of synthetic cloth, it becomes charged. A charged body attracts an uncharged body.
When this charged balloon is pressed against a wall, it sticks to the wall. The force acting between the charged balloon and the wall
is the electrostatic force.

Q8 :

Name the forces acting on a plastic bucket containing water held above ground level in your hand. Discuss why the forces
acting on the bucket do not bring a change in its state of motion.

Answer :

We make use of muscular force to hold a bucket of water above the ground. This muscular force acts against the force of gravity
that pulls the bucket towards the ground. The two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Therefore, the net force
on the bucket is zero. Hence, there is no change in its state of motion.

Q9 :

A rocket has been fired upwards to launch a satellite in its orbit. Name the two forces acting on the rocket immediately
after leaving the launching pad.

Answer :

The two forces acting on the rocket are the force of gravity, which pulls the rocket towards the ground, and the force of friction due to
earth's atmosphere, which opposes its motion.

Q10 :

When we press the bulb of a dropper with its nozzle kept in water, air in the dropper is seen to escape in the form of
bubbles. Once we release the pressure on the bulb, water gets filled in the dropper. The rise of water in the dropper is due
to

(a) pressure of water.

(b) gravity of the earth.

(c) shape of rubber bulb

(d) atmospheric pressure

Answer :

(d) The rise of water in the dropper is due to atmospheric pressure.

The rise of water in a dropper is due to atmospheric pressure. When all the air escapes from the nozzle, the atmospheric pressure,
which is acting on the water, forces the water to fill the nozzle of the dropper.
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 12
Friction
Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 155
Q1 :

Fill in the blanks.

(a) Friction opposes the ________between the surfaces in contact with each other.

(b) Friction depends on the _________of surfaces.

(c) Friction produces _________.

(d) Sprinkling of powder on the carrom board ________friction.

(e) Sliding friction is ________than the static friction.

Answer :

(a) Friction opposes the __motion__between the surfaces in contact with each other.
(b) Friction depends on the __nature__of surfaces.
(c) Friction produces __heat__.
(d) Sprinkling of powder on the carrom board __reduces__friction.
(e) Sliding friction is __less__than the static friction.

Q2 :

Four children were asked to arrange forces due to rolling, static and sliding frictions in a decreasing order. Their
arrangements are given below. Choose the correct arrangement.

(a) rolling, static, sliding

(b) rolling, sliding, static

(c) static, sliding, rolling

(d) sliding, static, rolling

Answer :

(c) static, sliding, rolling

Friction comes into play when irregularities present in the surfaces of two objects in contact get interlocked with each other. Static
friction comes into play when we try to move an object which is at rest. Sliding friction comes into play when an object slides over
the surface of another object. In sliding friction, the time given for interlocking is very small. Hence, interlocking is not strong.
Therefore, less force is required to overcome this interlocking. Because of this reason, sliding friction is less than static friction.
Similarly, the area of contact in case of rolling friction is smallest as compared to static or sliding friction. This area of contact
changes gradually because of rolling. Hence, rolling friction is lesser than both static and sliding friction. Thus, the correct sequence
is - static, sliding, rolling.

Q3 :

Alida runs her toy car on dry marble floor, wet marble floor, newspaper and towel spread on the floor. The force of friction
acting on the car on different surfaces in increasing orderwill be
(a) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper and towel.

(b) newspaper, towel, dry marble floor, wet marble floor.

(c) towel, newspaper, dry marble floor, wet marble floor

(d) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, towel, newspaper

Answer :

(a) wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper and towel
Force of friction depends on the nature of surfaces in contact. The rougher the surface, the more is the friction between the surfaces
in contact and vice-versa. Roughness present in the given surfaces can be arranged in an ascending order as wet marble floor, dry
marble floor, newspaper and towel. Hence, the correct sequence of these surfaces when arranged according to the increase in the
force of friction acting on the car is - wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper and towel.

Q4 :

Suppose your writing desk is tilted a little. A book kept on it starts sliding down. Show the direction of frictional force
acting on it.

Answer :

When a book slides on the writing desk, a frictional force acts between the book and the surface of the desk. The direction of
frictional force on the book is opposite to the direction of its motion and acts in upward direction, as shown in the following figure.

Q5 :

You spill a bucket of soapy water on a marble floor accidentally. Would it make it easier or more difficult for you to walk on
the floor? Why?

Answer :

We are able to walk because of the friction present between our feet and the ground. In order to walk, we push the ground in the
backward direction with our feet. The force of friction pushes it in the forward direction and allows us to walk. The force of friction
between the ground and feet decreases when there is soapy water spilled on the floor. Hence, it becomes difficult to walk on the
soapy floor.

Q6 :

Explain why sportsmen use shoes with spikes.

Answer :
Sportsmen use shoes with spikes because these shoes give them a better grip while running. This is because the force of friction
between the shoes and the ground increases with the help of spikes.

Q7 :

Iqbal has to push a lighter box and Seema has to push a similar heavier box on the same floor. Who will have to apply a
larger force and why?

Answer :
Force of friction arises because of interlocking of irregularities on the two surfaces in contact. When a heavy object is placed on the
floor, the interlocking of irregularities on the surfaces of box and floor become strong. This is because the two surfaces in contact
are pressed harder. Hence, more force is required to overcome the interlocking. Thus, to push the heavier box, Seema has to apply
a greater force than Iqbal.

Q8 :

Explain why sliding friction is less than static friction.

Answer :

Friction comes into play when irregularities present in the surfaces of two objects in contact get interlocked with each other. In
sliding, the time given for interlocking is very small. Hence, interlocking is not strong. Therefore, less force is required to overcome
this interlocking. Because of this reason, sliding friction is less than static friction.

Q9 :

Give examples to show that friction is both a friend and a foe.

Answer :

Advantages of friction:
(i) We are able to walk because of friction.
(ii) Friction between the tip of the pen and a paper allows us to write.
Disadvantages of friction:
(i) Tyres and soles of shoes wear out because of friction.
(ii) Friction between the different parts of machines produces heat. This can damage the machines.

Q10 :

Explain why objects moving in fluids must have special shapes.

Answer :

When a body moves through a fluid, it experiences an opposing force which tries to oppose its motion through the fluid. This
opposing force is known as the drag force. This frictional force depends on the shape of the body. By giving objects a special shape,
the force of friction acting on it can be minimised. Hence, it becomes easier for the body to move through the fluid.
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 14
Chemical Effects of Electric Current
Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 180
Q1 :

Fill in the blanks.

(a) Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of ________, _______ and ________.

(b) The passage of an electric current through a solution causes _________ effects.

(c) If you pass current through copper sulphate solution, copper gets deposited on the plate connected to the__________
terminal of the battery.

(d) The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by means of electricity is called_________.

Answer :

(a) Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of __acids__, __bases__ and __salts__.

(The solutions of acids, bases or salts are conducting in nature. They allow the current to pass through.) (b)
The passage of an electric current through a solution causes __chemical__ effects.

(When an electric current passes through a solution, the solution decomposes into its positive and negative ions. This process of
decomposition of the solution is a chemical effect.)

(c) If you pass current through copper sulphate solution, copper gets deposited on the plate connected to the__negative__ terminal
of the battery.

(When an electric current passes through a copper sulphate solution, the solution decomposes into positively charged copper ions
and negatively charged sulphate ions. These positively charged copper ions get attracted towards the plate which is connected to
the negative terminal of a battery.)

(d) The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by means of electricity is called__electroplating__.

Q2 :

When the free ends of a tester are dipped into a solution, the magnetic needle shows deflection. Can you explain the
reason?

Answer :

The deflection in the compass needle shows that current is flowing through the wounded wire and hence, through the circuit. The
circuit is complete since free ends of the tester are dipped in a solution. The solution is certainly a conducting solution. This is the
reason why the compass needle shows a deflection.

Q3 :

Name three liquids, which when tested in the manner shown in Fig. 14.9, may cause the magnetic needle to deflect.
Answer :

Liquids like lemon juice, salt water and vegetable oil allow electricity to pass through them. Hence, these liquids can be used as in
the beaker to show the given effect.

Q4 :

The bulb does not glow in the setup shown in Fig. 14.10. List the possible reasons. Explain your answer.

Answer :

The bulb may not glow because of the following reasons:

(i) Liquid in the beaker is non-conducting. In such case, the electric current would not be able to pass through the liquid.
Hence, the circuit is not complete.

(ii) Electric current in the circuit is very weak. This can happen if the material used for making the circuit is not a good
conductor of electricity or the battery does not have sufficient energy to generate electricity.

Q5 :

A tester is used to check the conduction of electricity through two liquids, labelled A and B. It is found that the bulb of the
tester glows brightly for liquid A while it glows very dimly for liquid B. You would conclude that (i) liquid A is a better
conductor than liquid B.
(ii) liquid B is a better conductor than liquid A.

(iii) both liquids are equally conducting.

(iv) conducting properties of liquid cannot be compared in this manner.

Answer :

(i) Liquid A is a better conductor than liquid B.

The amount of current flowing through a conducting solution depends on the conductivity of the solution. With more conductivity,
more current passes through the solution and vice-versa. Hence, the conductivity of liquid A is more than the conductivity of liquid B.

Q6 :

Does pure water conduct electricity? If not, what can we do to make it conducting?

Answer :

No. Pure water does not conduct electricity. This is because pure water is devoid of any salts. Pure water can conduct electricity
when a pinch of common salt is added to it, as salt solution is conducting in nature.

Q7 :

In case of a fire, before the firemen use the water hoses, they shut off the main electrical supply for the area. Explain why
they do this.

Answer :

Water may conduct electricity. If the electrical supply for the area is not shut off and water is poured over electrical appliances, then
electricity may pass through water and harm the firemen. That is why, in case of a fire, the firemen shut off the main electrical supply
for the area before they use the water hoses.

Q8 :

In case of a fire, before the firemen use the water hoses, they shut off the main electrical supply for the area. Explain why
they do this.

Answer :

Water may conduct electricity. If the electrical supply for the area is not shut off and water is poured over electrical appliances, then
electricity may pass through water and harm the firemen. That is why, in case of a fire, the firemen shut off the main electrical supply
for the area before they use the water hoses.

Q9 :

A child staying in a coastal region tests the drinking water and also the seawater with his tester. He finds that the compass
needle deflects more in the case of seawater. Can you explain the reason?

Answer :
Sea water contains more dissolved salts than the drinking water. Hence, it is more conducting than the drinking water. Because of
this reason, the compass needle deflects more in seawater than in the drinking water.

Q10 :

Is it safe for the electrician to carry out electrical repairs outdoors during heavy downpour? Explain.
Answer :

No. It is not safe to repair electrical appliances outdoors during heavy downpour. This is because rain water contains dissolved salts.
Therefore, rain water can conduct electricity. The electrician may get electrical shocks while working outdoors during rain.

Q11 :

Paheli had heard that rain water is as good as distilled water. So, she collected some rain water in a clean glass tumbler
and tested it using a tester. To her surprise, she found that the compass needle showed deflection. What could be the
reasons?

Answer :

Rain water contains dissolved salts. This makes it a conducting solution. There are no dissolved salts present in the distilled water.
Hence, rain water can allow electricity to pass through it while distilled water cannot.

Q12 :

Prepare a list of objects around you that are electroplated.

Answer :

Examples of electroplated objects are as follows:

(i) Chromium plating is done on different parts of cars, buses and motor cycles to give them shiny appearance.
ii. A fine layer of gold is deposited on the silver ornaments and they are called gold-plated ornaments. ii. Iron used in
constructing a building is coated with a layer of zinc. This protects iron from corrosion and rusting.

Q13 :

The process that you saw in Activity 14.7 is used for purification of copper. A thin plate of pure copper and a thick rod of
impure copper are used as electrodes. Copper from impure rod is sought to be transferred to the thin copper plate. Which
electrode should be attached to the positive terminal of the battery and why?

Answer :

Copper ion is positively charged. It is attracted towards the plate which is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. As
copper ions are transferred to the thin copper plate, this thin pure copper plate must be connected to the negative terminal of the
battery. Consequently, impure copper rod is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 15
Some Natural Phenomena
Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 197
Q1 :

Which of the following cannot be charged easily by friction?

(a) A plastic scale

(b) A copper rod

(c) An inflated balloon

(d) A woollen cloth

Answer :

(b) A copper rod

Only non-conducting materials can be easily charged by friction. Copper is a highly conducting materials. Therefore, a copper rod
cannot be charged easily by friction.

Q2 :

When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth the rod
(a) and the cloth both acquire positive charge.

(b) becomes positively charged while the cloth has a negative charge.

(c) and the cloth both acquire negative charge.

(d) becomes negatively charged while the cloth has a positive charge.

Answer :

(b) The rod becomes positively charged, while the cloth has a negative charge.

When an object is charged by rubbing it against another object, the two objects get oppositely charged. By convention, it is
considered that the charged acquired by the glass rod is positive and charged acquired by the cloth is negative. Therefore, the rod
becomes positively charged and the cloth becomes negatively charged.

Q3 :

Write T against true and F against false in the following statements.

(a) Like charges attract each other. (T / F)

(b) A charged glass rod attracts a charged plastic straw. (T / F)

(c) Lightning conductor cannot protect a building from lightning. (T/F) (d) Earthquakes can be predicted in advance. (T /
F)

Answer :

(a) False

Like charges repel each other. It is the unlike charges that attract each other.
(b) True

A charged glass rod has positive charges on its surface while a charged plastic straw has negative charges on its surface. Since
unlike charges attract each other, a charged glass rod attracts a charged plastic straw.
(c) False

During a lightning, the lightning conductor conducts all the atmospheric charges to the Earth directly, leaving the building safe.
Hence, lightning conductors protect a building from lightning.

(d) False

Although the causes of earthquakes is known, but no instrument could be invented to detect it till now. Hence, earthquakes cannot
be predicted in advance.

Q4 :

Sometimes, a crackling sound is heard while taking off a sweater during winters. Explain.

Answer :

Whena sweater is taken off, the woollen sweater gets charged because of the friction between the sweater and the body. Hence,
one can hear a crackling sound during the given process.

Q5 :

Explain why a charged body loses its charge if we touch it with our hand.

Answer :

When we touch a charged object, our body conducts its charges to the earth. That is why a charged body loses its charge, if we
touch it with our hand. This phenomenon is known as electric discharge.

Q6 :

Name the scale on which the destructive energy of an earthquake is measured. An earthquake measures 3 on this scale.
Would it be recorded by a seismograph? Is it likely to cause much damage?

Answer :

The destructive energy of an earthquake is measured by the Richter scale. This scale has the readings from 1 to 10.

The reading of magnitude 3 on the Richter scale would be recorded by a seismograph.

If the Richter scale gives a reading of magnitude 3, then the earthquake is not likely to cause much damage. Generally, earthquake
of magnitudes higher than 5 is considered destructive in nature.

Q7 :

Suggest three measures to protect ourselves from lightning.

Answer :

Protective measures against lightning are as follows:

(i) Stay in a completely closed place. If you are moving in a car, then remain there until the lightning is over. Close the windows of
the car immediately.

(ii) Do not touch any electrical wires, telephone cables, metal pipes, etc.

(iii) Do not bath in running water. This may cause an electric shock.
Q8 :

Explain why a charged balloon is repelled by another charged balloon whereas an uncharged balloon is attracted by
another charged balloon?

Answer :

The nature of charges present on the surface of charged balloons are similar. Since like charges repel each other, two charged
balloons repel each other. When a charged body is brought near an uncharged body, the uncharged body acquires charges on its
surface caused by the induction of charges. The charges are of opposite nature in relation to the charged body. Since unlike
charges attract each other, a charged body always attracts an uncharged body. Hence, an uncharged balloon is attracted by
another charged balloon.

Q9 :

Describe with the help of a diagram an instrument which can be used to detect a charged body.

Answer :

An electroscope can be used to detect whether a body is charged or not. The following figure shows a simple electroscope.

It consists of a metal rod. At one end of the rod, two leaves of aluminium foil are fixed and at the other end, there is a metal disc.
The leaves of aluminium foil are placed inside a conical flask and the flask is corked to isolate the leaves from air.

When the metal disc is touched with a charged body, the aluminium strips move away from each other. This happens because
some of the charges of the body are transferred to the strips through the metal rod. This method of charging a body is called
charging by conduction. The nature of charges on both the leaves and the charged body are the similar. Hence, both the leaves of
the aluminium foil will move away from each other. If the body was not charged, then the leaves of the foil would remain as they
were before. They would not repel each other.

Q10 :
List three states in India where earthquakes are more likely to strike.

Answer :

The three states in India where earthquakes are more likely to strike are Jammu and Kashmir, Gujrat, and Assam.

Q11 :

Suppose you are outside your home and an earthquake strikes. What precaution would you take to protect yourself?
Answer :

Some of the precautions are as follows:

(i) Try to find an open field away from tall buildings, installations, tall trees, and electric wires and poles.

(ii) If travelling in a bus or a car, then do not come out when an earthquake strikes. Ask the driver to drive in an open field.

Q12 :

The weather department has predicted that a thunderstorm is likely to occur on a certain day. Suppose you have to go out
on that day. Would you carry an umbrella? Explain.

Answer :

No. We should not carry an umbrella in a thunderstorm. During thunderstorms, which are accompanied with lightning, electric
discharge from the clouds can travel through the metallic rod of the umbrella. This may give an electric shock to the person who is
carrying it. Hence, it is not safe to carry an umbrella during lightning.
 NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Science Chapter 16
Light
Exercise : Solutions of Questions on Page Number : 212
Q1 :

Suppose you are in a dark room. Can you see objects in the room? Can you see objects outside the room? Explain.

Answer :

If we are in a dark room, then it is not possible for us to see objects in the room. However, objects outside the room are visible to us.

An object becomes visible when light reaches our eye after being reflected from the object. If there is no light in the room, then the
objects inside the room cannot reflect any light. Hence, we cannot see in a dark room. If there is light present outside the room, then
we can see the objects outside the room.

Q2 :

Differentiate between regular and diffused reflection. Does diffused reflection mean the failure of the laws of reflection?

Answer :

Regular reflection takes place from a smooth or a regular surface. In regular reflection, all reflected rays are parallel to each other
for parallel incident rays. Irregular or diffused reflection takes place from an irregular surface. In diffused reflection, the reflected rays
are not parallel to each other for parallel incident rays. This happens because of the presence of irregular microscopic surfaces.
Hence, parallel incident rays reflect in different directions. However, each ray obeys the laws of reflection. Therefore, laws of
reflections are not violated in diffused or irregular reflections.

Q3 :

Mention against each of the following whether regular or diffused reflection will take place when a beam of light strikes.
Justify your answer in each case.

(a) Polished wooden table (b) Chalk powder

(c) Cardboard surface (d) Marble floor with water spread over it

(e) Mirror (f) Piece of paper

Answer :

(a) Polished wooden table → Regular reflection

A polished surface is an example of a smooth surface. A polished wooden table has a smooth surface. Hence, reflections from the
polished table will be regular.

(b) Chalk powder → Diffused reflection

Chalk power spread on a surface is an example of an irregular surface. It is not smooth. Therefore, diffused reflection will take place
from chalk powder.

(c) Cardboard surface → Diffused reflection

Cardboard surface is also an example of an irregular surface. Hence, diffused reflection will take place from a cardboard surface.

(d) Marble floor with water spread over it → Regular reflection

Marble floor with water spread over it is an example of a regular surface. This is because water makes the marble surface smooth.
Hence, regular reflection will take place from this surface.

(e) Mirror → Regular reflection

Mirror has a smooth surface. Therefore, it will give a regular reflection.

(f) Piece of paper → Diffused reflection

Although a piece of paper may look smooth, but it has many irregularities on its surface. Due to this reason, it will give a diffused
reflection.

Q4 :

State the laws of reflection.

Answer :

Laws of reflection:

(i) The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of iincidence.

(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflective surface at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.

Q5 :

Describe an activity to show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same
plane.

Answer :

Place a plane mirror on the table. Take a paper sheet and make a small hole in its centre. Make sure that the light in the room is not
bright. Hold the sheet normal to the table. Take another sheet and place it on the table in contact with the vertical mirror. Draw a
normal line on the second sheet from the mirror. Now, light a torch on the mirror through the small hole such that the ray of light falls
on the normal at the bottom of the mirror. When the ray from this hole is incident on the mirror, it gets reflected in a certain direction.
You can easily observe the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence on the sheet placed on
the table. This shows that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.

Q6 :

Fill in the blanks in the following.

(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be ____ __ m away from his image.

(b) If you touch your ________ ear with your right hand in front of a plane mirror, it will be seen in the mirror that your right
ear is touched with your _________.

(c) The size of the pupil becomes ________ when you see in dim light.

(d) Night birds have _________ cones than rods in their eyes.

Answer :

(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be __2 __ m away from his image.

(Object distance and image distance are the same from a plane mirror. The image of a person 1 m in front of a mirror is 1 m back to
the mirror. Hence, the image is 1 + 1 = 2 m away from the person.)
(b) If you touch your __left__ ear with your right hand in front of a plane mirror, it will be seen in the mirror that your right ear is
touched with your _left hand_.

(This is because of lateral inversion of images formed in a plane mirror.) (c)

The size of the pupil becomes __large__ when you see in dim light.

(In dim light, the amount of light entering the eye is very little. To increase the amount of light, the pupil expands.) (d)

Night birds have __less__ cones than rods in their eyes.

(Night birds can see in the night, but not in the day. They have on their retina a large number of rod cells and only a few cones.)

Q7 :

Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

(a) Always (b) Sometimes

(c) Under special conditions (d) Never

Answer :

(a) The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. This is the first law of reflection.

Q8 :

Image formed by a plane mirror is

(a) virtual, behind the mirror and enlarged.

(b) virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.

(c) real at the surface of the mirror and enlarged.

(d) real, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.

Answer :

(b) Image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.

The image formed by a plane mirror is of the same size as the object. The image is formed behind the mirror. The image cannot be
obtained on a screen. Hence, it is a virtual image.

Q9 :
Describe the construction of a kaleidoscope.

Answer :

Construction of a kaleidoscope:

Three rectangular mirror strips of dimensions 15cm x 4cm (l x b) are joined together to form a prism (fig a). This prism is fixed into a
circular cardboard tube. The circular cardboard tube should be slightly longer that the prism (fig b). This circular tube is now closed
at one end with a cardboard disc. This disc has a hole in it through which we can see (fig c) .At the other end of the circular tube, a
plane glass plate is fixed. It is important that this glass plate touches the prism mirrors. On this glass plate, several small and broken
pieces of coloured glass are placed. This end is now closed by a round glass plate allowing enough space for the coloured glass
pieces to move (fig d).
Q10 :

Draw a labelled sketch of the human eye.

Answer :

Q11 :

Gurmit wanted to perform Activity 16.8 using a laser torch. Her teacher advised her not to do so. Can you explain the basis
of the teacher's advice?

Answer :
Laser light is harmful for the human eyes, because its intensity is very high. It can cause damage to the retina and lead to blindness.
Hence, it is advisable not to look at a laser beam directly.

Q12 :

Explain how you can take care of your eyes.

Answer :

To protect our eyes, the given points should be taken into account:

(i) Visit an eye specialist regularly.

(ii) Avoid reading in dim light and very bright light.

(iii) Avoid direct exposure of sunlight to the eye.

(iv) Clean your eyes with cold water quickly if dust particles or small insects enter your eye. Do not rub your eyes.

(v) Maintain a distance of at least 25 cm between the book and your eyes while reading.

Q13 :

What is the angle of incidence of a ray if the reflected ray is at an angle of 90° to the incident ray?

Answer :

If the reflected ray is at an angle of 90° to the incident ray, then the angle of incidence is 45 °. According to the law of reflection, the

angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Therefore, the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection both are =
45°.

Q14 :

How many images of a candle will be formed if it is placed between two parallel plane mirrors separated by 40 cm?

Answer :

Infinite or multiple images of the candle will be formed because of multiple reflections between the mirrors. When two mirrors are
placed parallel to each other, then infinite numbers of images are formed.

Q15 :

Two mirrors meet at right angles. A ray of light is incident on one at an angle of 30° as shown in Fig. 16.19. Draw the
reflected ray from the second mirror.

Answer :

The first law of reflection is used to obtain the path of reflected light.

It can be observed that the given ray of light will reflect from the second mirror at an angle 60°.
Q16 :

Boojho stands at A just on the side of a plane mirror as shown in Fig. 16.20. Can he see himself in the mirror? Also can he
see the image of objects situated at P, Q and R?

Answer :

A plane mirror forms a virtual image behind the mirror. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. A cannot
see his image because the length of the mirror is too short on his side. However, he can see the objects placed at points P and Q,
but cannot see the object placed at point R (as shown in the given figure).

Q17 :

(a) Find out the position of the image of an object situated at A in the plane mirror (Fig. 16.21).

(b) Can Paheli at B see this image?

(c) Can Boojho at C see this image?

(d) When Paheli moves from B to C, where does the image of A move?

Answer :

(a) Image of the object placed at A is formed behind the mirror. The distance of the image from the mirror is equal to the distance of
A from the mirror. Image of A is shown in the given figure.
(b) Yes. Paheli at B can see this image.

(c) Yes. Boojho at C can see this image.

(d) Image of the object at A will not move. It will remain at the same position when Paheli moves from B to C.