EMG 2303:Solids and Structural Mechanics I

Lecture Notes Compiled By:

[Link]

May 2011

Students are reminded not to treat these lecture notes as a comprehensive and solely sufficient
material for their studies since the purpose of the notes is not meant to be a substitute for regularly
attending classes, reading relevant textbooks and recommended books. The notes are aimed at
providing a quick reference and a brief guidance for the students.
Expected Outcomes

At the end of this course, you should be able to;

• Solve simple problems relating to elastic stress and strain.

• Determine the mechanical properties of a material by performing a tensile test.

• Design simple uniaxial loaded members such as those with variable cross-sections, non-
uniform loads, thermal stresses and strains.

• Calculate stresses and change in dimensions of thin walled pressure vessels.

• Design and analyze shafts subjected to simple elastic torsion.

• Sketch shear force and bending moment diagrams of beams and understand their impor-
tance in analysis and design.

Course Outline

Concepts of stress and strain: Definition of stress and strain, components of stress, direct
strain, true stress and true strain. Stress and strain in simple shear; elastic stress-strain re-
lationships in simple shear. Behavior of materials under static loading: The tensile test; load
extension diagram; the stress-strain diagram and Engineering properties of materials, Linear
elasticity and Hookes law, elastic limit, 0.2% proof stress, ultimate strength, secant and tan-
gent modulus, stress hysteresis, toughness, ductility, brittleness, upper and lower yield points,
allowable or working stress, safety factor. Tension instability. Elastic constants; Youngs mod-
ulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio, relationships between elastic constants. Volumetric strain.
Analysis of design in simple tension and compression: Deflection of axially loaded structures,
members with variable cross-sections, composite members, non-uniform stresses and strains,
impact loading. Thermal stresses and strains. Statically indeterminate axial members. Analy-
sis of thin-walled pressure vessels: Hoop and longitudinal stresses and strains for cylinder and
sphere, volumetric strain, bulk modulus of contained fluid, and pressure effects. Elastic torsion
analysis: The torsion test, solid and hollow circular shafts, shear stresses, power transmission
and design of shafts, coupling design, shafts of varying cross-section, composite shafts. Torsion
stiffness. Pure shear. Analysis of statically indeterminate shafts. Application to close-coiled
helical springs. Bending of beams: Simply supported beams and cantilevers. Concentrated
loads, distributed loads and couples. Reactions at supports; shear force and bending moment
and their importance for analysis and design. Qualitative and quantitative sketching of shear
force and bending moment diagrams.
Chapter Coverage
1. Stress and Strain;

2. Structures - Analysis of pin-jointed frames;

3. Analysis of thin-walled pressure vessels (cylinders and spheres) - Hoop and longitudinal
stresses and stains, Volumetric strains

4. Torsion in shafts and thin-walled tubes

5. Analysis of close coiled helical springs.

6. Thermal stresses and strains.

7. Simple bending of beams

8. Shear force and bending moment diagrams

Practicals
1. Tensile test.

2. Torsion test.

Prerequisites
• Engineering Mechanics.

• Integral and differential calculus.

Reference Textbooks
1. Stephens, R.C., Strength of Materials: Theory and examples, Edward Arnold Publishers,
1970

2. Gere, J.M., and Timoshenko, S.P, Mechanics of Materials, Chapman and Hall Publishers,
4th Ed., 1991

3. Benham, P.P. and Crawford, R.J., Mechanics of Engineering Materials, Longman Pub-
lishers, 4th Ed., 1990.

4. Case, J., and Chilver L. and Carl, T. F., Strength of Materials and Structures,
Course Policies

Assignments

• Are part of course work and shall constitute 5%.

• Shall be due a week after it is assigned unless otherwise specified.

• The objective of the homework is to train you to use the principles we covered in class.
Please feel free to solve homework in groups or individually.

• Solution to any assignment problem will be posted after homework is collected.

Continuous Assessment Tests (CATS)

• There will be a total of three CATS which will be held at times scheduled on mutual
agreement in class, but within the periods proposed by the Registrar AA.

• Are part of course work and shall constitute 10%.

• Each CAT will be revised in class on the day the marked scripts are returned.

Practicals

• Are part of course work and constitute 15%.

• They shall be done in groups which will be formed alphabetically unless there is a strong
reason not to do so.

• Each student shall submit a practical report two weeks after the practical is done. Col-
lusion will not be accepted and both parties will be penalized.

• Note that marks will be awarded for good conduct in the laboratories. This information
will be obtained from the technician in charge.

End Semester Exam

• University rules and regulations apply.

• Shall constitute 70%

• The objective of exams is to test your understanding of material covered. Therefore,

please do not expect to see one of the homework problems, slightly masked, in the test.
You should not also expect to see something totally new in an exam, as you will not have
enough time to consider it.
 • My experience tells me that your chance of passing an exam is greatly enhanced if you
solve assignments and tutorials regularly.

Therefore the exam constitutes of the Course work and End Semester Exam as;

30% Course work - Assignments (5%), CATS (10%) and Practicals (15%).

70% End Semester Exam.

Contents

Expected Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Course Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Practicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Reference Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Course Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

1 Introduction 1

2 Stress and Strain 2

2.1 Tensile and compressive stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.2 Engineering stress and true stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.3 Engineering strain and true strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.4 Shear stress and strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.4.1 Equality of shear stresses on perpendicular planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.4.2 Sign conventions for shear stresses and strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.5 Poisson’s ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.6 Volumetric strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.7 Tensile test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.7.1 Stress-Strain curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.7.2 Proof stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.7.3 Tangent modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

 2.7.4 Secant modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.7.5 Working stresses and factor of safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.8 Elastic constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.8.1 Young’s Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.8.2 Modulus of Rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.8.3 Bulk Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.9 Strain energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.9.1 Strain energy in tension and compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.9.2 Strain energy in shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.10 General stress-strain relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.10.1 Relations of the elastic constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.11 Tutorial 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Analysis of Structures 26

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.1.1 Overview of statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.1.2 Types of structural and solid body components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.1.3 Types of support for structural components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.2 Pin-jointed frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.2.1 Statical determinacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.2.2 Determination of axial forces in a frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.3 Tutorial 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4 Analysis of thin-walled pressure vessels 41

4.1 Stresses in a thin-walled cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.1.1 Circumferential (Hoop) stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.1.2 Longitudinal stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4.1.3 Circumferential and Longitudinal strains in a thin walled cylinder . . . . 43

 4.1.4 Volumetric strain in a thin-walled cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4.2 Stresses in a thin-walled sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4.2.1 Volumetric strain in a thin-walled sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5 Torsion 48

5.1 Shear stress due to twisting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5.2 Angle of twist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.3 Torsion of a solid shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.4 Torsion of a hollow shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5.5 Torsion in composite shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.6 Torsion in non-uniform shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.7 Torsion of a tapered shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

5.8 Strain energy in torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.9 Tutorial 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

6 Analysis of Close-coiled Springs 60

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

6.2 Axial load on a close coiled spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

6.3 Tutorial 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

7 Thermal Stresses and Strains 65

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

7.2 Thermal stresses in composite bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

8 Bending of Beams 69

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

8.2 Classification of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8.3 Types of Loading and Reactions at Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

8.3.1 Reactions at Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

 8.3.2 Shear Force and Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

8.3.3 Sign Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

8.3.4 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

8.3.5 Relationship of Loading, Shear Forces and Bending Moments . . . . . . . 84

8.4 Tutorial 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Chapter 1

Introduction

Solid and structural mechanics is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the study of the
structures and the machine members under the action of external forces, taking into account
the internal forces created and the resulting deformation.

The principal objective of Solid and Structural mechanics is to determine the stresses, strains
and displacements in structures and machine members due to the loads acting on them, and
subsequently determine the limiting load which the member can stand before failure (excessive
deformation) of the material occurs.

The skills learned in Solids and Structural Mechanics units (which are design units) have a wide
application in design of Machine members and elements, and generally mechanical systems.
Example:

• To design a shaft for power transmission in a machine, one needs to know the maximum
shearing and direct stresses on the shaft during operation due to torque transmitted and
the bending of the shaft respectively. This information helps in proper sizing of the shaft
to ensure that the shaft is not oversized and cant fail during the operation.

• To properly design a robotic manipulator, one needs to know stresses on each link due
to the load transmission. This information helps in proper sizing of the manipulator to
ensure that no link is oversized or can fail during operation.

• Nowadays robots can be actuated using hydraulic power, hence involving hydraulic cylin-
ders. Therefore to properly design a hydraulic cylinder to actuate a robotic link, one
needs to know the maximum stress which can be induced on a cylinder by the internal
hydraulic pressure.

just to mention but a few.

Chapter 2

Stress and Strain

2.1 Tensile and compressive stresses

When a load is applied to a member of a machine or structure, the material distorts.

The stress intensity (the load transmitted per unit area of cross section) is the intensity of
the internal forces produced on the material, and the strain is the measure of the resulting
distortion.

Consider a prismatic bar shown in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Stress-strain concepts

Let;

F the axial force applied at the ends of the bar.

δ the increase in length.

Lo the original length of the bar.

d the diameter of the bar.

The weight of the bar is neglected and it is assumed that the only active forces are the axial
forces at the ends of the bar.

The intensity of the force (stress, denoted as σ) is the force per unit area,
F
σ= (2.1)
A
Equation 2.1 is valid only if the force is uniformly distributed over the cross section. This
condition is realized if the axial force acts through the centroid of the cross section. The units
of stress are N/m2 (P a), but since the values of stress are large N/mm2 (M P a) are usually used.
If the force F stretches the member, then the stress is called tensile stress and is positive. If
the force F compresses the member, then the stress is called compressive stress and is negative.
Since these stresses act in a direction perpendicular to the cross section, they are called normal
stresses.

The bar in figure 2.1 will change in length when loaded axially, becoming longer when stretched
and shorter when compressed. Strain () is defined as the change in length per unit length.
δ
= (2.2)
Lo
Similarly, when F stretches the bar we have tensile strain which is positive, but when F
compresses the bar we have compressive strain which is negative. Strain is dimensionless
quantity although for clarity, units like m/m, mm/m or µm/m are used.

Examples 2.1

Suppose the bar in figure 2.1 has a diameter d = 50mm and original length Lo = 2.0m. When
the load F = 27 × 103 N is applied axially, the bar elongates by 1.4mm. Calculate the normal
stress and strain in the bar.

Solution: Using equation 2.1, stress in the bar is;

F 27 × 103
σ= = 2
= 13.8 × 106 N/m2 = 13.8M P a
A π/4(0.05)

Using equation 2.2, strain in the bar is;

δ 1.4 × 10−3
= = = 0.0007m/m = 700 × 10−6 m/m = 700µm/m
Lo 2.0

Examples 2.2

A circular steel rod of length L and diameter d hangs in a mine shaft and holds an ore bucket
of weight W at its lower end as shown in figure below.

(a) Obtain a formula for the maximum stress σmax in the rod taking into account the weight
of the rod.
(b) Hence or otherwise, calculate the maximum stress if L = 40m, d = 8mm, W = 1.5kN and
the mass density of the steel is γ = 7.85 × 103 Kg/m3 .

Solution: (a) The maximum axial force Fmax in the rod occurs at the upper end and is equal
to;
Fmax = W + Wr
where Wr is the weight of the rod itself and is given by;

Wr = γgVr = γgAL

In which A is the cross sectional area of the rod. Therefore using equation 2.1 the maximum
stress becomes,
Fmax W + γgAL W
σmax = = = + γgL
A A A

(b) To calculate the maximum stress, we substitute numerical values to the equation above,
thus
1.5 × 103
σmax = + 7.85 × 103 (9.81)(40) = 32.92 × 106 P a = 32.92M P a
π/4(0.008)2

2.2 Engineering stress and true stress

Consider a prismatic bar which is stretched until it breaks. In this case the stretching load F
will increase until necking begins, after which it will decrease until the specimen fails.

The engineering stress (σeng ) is defined as the instantaneous load divided by the original area
of the cross section, that is,
Fi
σeng = (2.3)
Ao
Therefore the σeng decreases after the formation of the neck.
On contrary the actual σ −  curve shows a continuous increase in stress even after necking.
This is because the true stress (σt ) at any instant is obtained by dividing the instantaneous
load by the actual area of cross section at that point, that is,
Fi
σt = (2.4)
Ai

2.3 Engineering strain and true strain

Engineering strain is defined as;

δ Lf − Lo
= = (2.5)
Lo Lo
Equation above assumes that the deformation is uniform over specimen length and throughout
the loading process. For ductile materials, the deformation is non-uniform over the specimen
length beyond the elastic limit due to the necking phenomena. Therefore the definition in
equation 2.5 losses meaning in this case. In its place, true strain (t ) is defined for incremental
extension over the original length as,
Z Lf  
dL L 
f
t = = Ln (2.6)
Lo L Lo
Ao Lf
Due to volume consistency Ao Lo = Af Lf which gives Af
= Lo
, hence equation 2.6 becomes,
A 
o
t = Ln (2.7)
Af

Practice: For a circular cross section show that the true strain can be given as,
d 
o
t = 2Ln
df

eng and t can be related as follows,

L 
f
t = Ln
Lo
L + δ   δ 
o
= Ln = Ln 1 +
Lo Lo
= Ln(1 + eng ) (2.8)

2.4 Shear stress and strain

If a piece of material is subjected to equal and opposite forces F which produces a state of
shear as shown in figure 2.2, then the shear stress is defined as the shearing force divided by
the cross sectional area of the plane parallel to the force.
 Figure 2.2: Shear stress and strain

Therefore, shear stress (τ ) is

F F
τ= = (2.9)
A ab

If the deformation in the direction of F is x, then the shear strain can be obtained as,
x
tan φ = (2.10)
c
where c is the perpendicular distance between the applied forces. Since xc is very small then
equation 2.10 can be written as,
x
φ= (2.11)
c
Therefore shear strain (φ) is shown to be the change of right angle in a body when a shearing
force is applied.

2.4.1 Equality of shear stresses on perpendicular planes

Lets consider a small element of material in shear in a form of a cube of unit thickness as shown
in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Small element of material subjected to shear stresses and strains
The prefix convention of the shear stresses is τab where a is the axis perpendicular to the stress
and b is the axis in the direction of the stress.

There are three pairs of complimentary shear stresses: (τxy , τyx ), (τxz , τzx ) and (τyz , τzy ). If we
consider (τxy and τyx ), then summing the moments about the origin, we have;

(τxy × b × 1)a = (τyx × a × 1)b)

τxy = τxy (2.12)

Similarly,

τxz = τzx (2.13)

τyz = τzy (2.14)

2.4.2 Sign conventions for shear stresses and strains

• A shear stress acting on a positive face of an element is positive if it acts in the positive
direction of an axis and negative if it acts in a negative direction of an axis.

• A shear stress acting on a negative face of an element is positive if it acts in the negative
direction of an axis and negative if it acts in a positive direction of an axis.

• A shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces (or
two negative faces) is reduced.

• A shear strain in an element is negative when the angle between two positive faces (or
two negative faces) is increased.

2.5 Poisson’s ratio

When a material is exposed to a longitudinal load, it it will extend in the direction of the
load and contract in the transverse or lateral directions. For instance when a prismatic bar is
loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction (that is contraction
normal to the direction of applied load). This change in shape is depicted in the figure 2.4.
The ratio of the lateral strain (l ) to the axial strain (a ) is known as Poisson’s ratio (ν), thus
l
ν=− (2.15)
a

2.6 Volumetric strain

Since the dimensions of a bar in tension or compression changes when the load is applied, the
volume of the bar changes too. The change in volume divided by the initial volume is called
the volumetric strain (v ).
 Figure 2.4: Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a bar in tension

Consider a small element of an isotropic material cut from a bar in tension,

x
z
Figure 2.5: Volumetric strain

Original volume of the cuboid is,

Vo = xyz
If the changes in the axial dimensions are δx, δy and δz for x, y and z dimensions, then the
final volume of the cuboid is,

Vf = (x + δx)(y + δy)(z + δz)

Therefore the volumetric strain is, Similarly,

Vf − Vo
v =
Vo
(x + δx)(y + δy)(z + δz) − xyz
= (2.16)
xyz
Expanding equation 2.16 and ignoring products of small quantities, we have,
δz δy δx
v = + +
z y x
= z + y + x (2.17)

2.7 Tensile test

This is a very common laboratory experiment of determining mechanical properties of materials.

The test specimen is installed between the two large grips of the testing machine and then
loaded in tension until failure. The machine automatically tabulates and graphs the results in
form of load-extension curve.

2.7.1 Stress-Strain curve

Tensile test results depend upon the size and material of the specimen being tested.

It is unlikely that we will design a structural or machine member with same size with the test
specimens. Therefore we need to express the test results in a form that can be applied to
members of any size. This is achieved simply by converting the results into stress and strains
at various magnitudes of the load then plotting a diagram of stress versus strain.

Such a stress-strain curve is a property of the particular material being tested and conveys
important information about the mechanical properties of the material.

The resulting stress-strain curve depends on the following factors; brittleness or ductility of the
material, whether true stresses/strains or engineering stresses/strains are used.

A ductile material such as mild steel in tension have stress-strain curves as shown in the figure
2.6.

σ
σ eng − ε eng

σ t − εt D

σ ULT
C

σF D
A
σ UYP
σ LYP B

Y .R S.H .R( P.R) N.R

E.R

O
ε
Figure 2.6: Stress-strain curve for a ductile material

Region OA: The curve begins with a straight line from the origin O to point A, meaning that
the relationship between stress and strain in this region is linear and proportional. This
 is the linear elastic region and deformations are recoverable upon load removal. Hooke’s
law is obeyed and the slope os the curve at this region is the Modulus of Elasticity of the
material.

Region AB: This is the yielding region. Point A marks the elastic limit also called Upper Yield
Point and there is sudden drop in stress with further strain, and can only be realized under
circumstances where proper centralization of specimen has been done, tests conducted in
ambient conditions, high strain rates are applied and strain raisers are avoided. Point B
is the Lower Yield Point and there is a marked extension at almost constant load.

Region BC: Once the yield region has been passed, an increasing stress is required to cause
a continued straining, and this behavior is called work-hardening or strain hardening and
the metal in fact becomes harder. The rate of increase of stress is large than the rate
of increase of strain. This region is called plastic region and the resulting deformation
is irrecoverable. The strain energy stored in a specimen over the plastic region is the
toughness of the material.

Point C: This is called the Ultimate Tensile Strength and represents the maximum stress the
specimen can withstand before necking starts.

Region CD: After necking kicks off, further stretching of the specimen is accompanied by a
reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs at point D.

After point C the reduction in area of the specimen becomes clearly visible and a pronounce
necking of the specimen occurs. If the actual cross section area is used to calculate stress, the
true stress-true strain curve (dashed curve) is obtained.

2.7.2 Proof stress

When a material does not show a well defined stress in tension or compression, the proof stress
is required. Its obtained by drawing a line parallel to the linear elastic region of the curve at
the appropriate strain of usually 0.1%.

Therefore proof stress is defined as the stress required to produced a permanent strain of 0.001
on the removal of stress.

2.7.3 Tangent modulus

When there is no well defined linear region in a stress-strain curve, a tangent modulus is used.
A tangent modulus is defined as the slope of a straight line that is tangent to the stress-strain
curve at the origin.
 σ

σY

0.001
ε

Figure 2.7: Proof stress at 0.1% strain

Figure 2.8: Tangent modulus

2.7.4 Secant modulus

In practice, obtaining a tangent modulus involves considerable use of judgement, so this is not
a well defined property.

Secant modulus is defined by drawing a line from the point of 0.3% permanent strain, and
where the line cuts the curve is joined to the origin and the slope of the resulting line gives the
secant modulus.

2.7.5 Working stresses and factor of safety

The working stress in a material is the stress the material carries under normal working condi-
tion.

In design, the maximum allowable working stress on a material is usually less than the stress
at yield point (where the material suddenly becomes plastic) to allow for overloading, non-
uniformity of stress distribution, shock loadings, faults in material and workmanship, etc.

The ratio of the yield stress (σY ) to the maximum working stress (σwmax ) is called the factor
 σ

ε
0.003

Figure 2.9: Secant modulus

of safety (nsf ), i.e

σY
nsf = (2.18)
σwmax

2.8 Elastic constants

Many structural materials behave both elastically and linearly when first loaded. This means
that their stress-strain curves begin with a straight line passing through the origin.

When a material behaves elastically and also have a linear relationship between stress and
strain, it is said to be linearly elastic. This type of behavior is important in engineering, since
by designing structural and machine members to operate in this region we avoid permanent
deformations due to yielding.

In the elastic region, three constants called elastic constants are,

2.8.1 Young’s Modulus

The linear relationship between the stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression
is given by,
σ = E (2.19)
Where σ is the axial stress,  is the axial strain, and E is the constant of proportionality called
the Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity of the material.

The modulus of elasticity is the slope of stress-strain diagram in the linearly elastic region.
From equation 2.19 we have,
σ
E= (2.20)

Since the strain is dimensionless, then the units of the E are N/m2 .
2.8.2 Modulus of Rigidity

A relationship between shear stress and shear strain may be obtained from a torsion test on a
cylindrical bar in which applied torques and angular twists are measured.

Shear stress is proportional to the shear strain within the elastic limit, that is,

τ = Gφ (2.21)

Where τ is the shear stress, φ is the shear strain, and G is the constant of proportionality called
the Modulus of Rigidity of the material.

From equation 2.21 we have,

τ
G= (2.22)
φ
Since the strain is dimensionless, then the units of the G are N/m2 .

2.8.3 Bulk Modulus

When a material is under the action of three equal normal stresses in three mutually perpen-
dicular directions, then this is termed as hydrostatic stress.
σy

σz
σx

Figure 2.10: Hydrostatic stress

For hydrostatic stress,

σx = σy = σz = σh (2.23)

The hydrostatic stress is directly proportional to volumetric strain within the elastic limit, thus
the constant of proportionality is called Bulk Modulus (K),
σh
K= (2.24)
v

2.9 Strain energy

When a material is loaded it deforms and work is done on it. This energy is stored in the
material and is recoverable when the material is unloaded provided that the material remains
elastic. This energy is called strain energy.
The ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and release it when
it is unloaded is called resilience.

2.9.1 Strain energy in tension and compression

Consider an axial load P applied gradually to a tensile specimen thereby producing an extension
δ. If a load-extension curve is plotted for the elastic region, then the work done on deforming
the material or strain energy is represented by the area under the curve, as shown in figure 2.11

Figure 2.11: Strain energy in tension or compression

Strain energy,
1
U = Pδ (2.25)
2
σLo
From equation 2.1 P = σAo . Also from equation 2.2 and 2.19 we have δ = E
. Therefore
equation 2.25 becomes,
1 σLo
U = σAo
2 E
2
σ
= Ao Lo
2E
σ2
= Vo (2.26)
2E

2.9.2 Strain energy in shear

If we assume the load-extension curve in figure 2.11 above to be for a specimen under shear
loading as shown in figure 2.2, then the expression for shear strain energy is obtained as,
1 τ Lo
U = τ Ao
2 G
τ2
= Ao Lo
2G
τ2
= Vo (2.27)
2G
Examples 2.3

A tension specimen of circular cross section tapers uniformly from 20mm to 16mm diameter
over a gauge length of 200mm. When an axial force of 40kN is applied, the extension measured
on this gauge length is 0.4mm.

(a) Find the modulus of elasticity of the material.

(b) Compare the strain energy in this specimen with that in a specimen of the same material
of uniform diameter 18mm carrying the same load.

Solution: (a) The specimen can be represented as shown in figure below,

L0 = 200mm

C
L
X
A d 2 = 20mm

O d1 = 16mm d

B
Y
x
dx D

Using similarity in triangles OAB and OCD,

L L + 0.2
=
0.016 0.02
0.0032
L = = 0.8m
0.02 − 0.016

Using similarity in triangles OAB and OXY ,

L x
=
0.016 d
0.016x
d = = 0.02x
0.8

Stress on the element,

P 40 × 103 127.33 × 106
σ= = 2
= 2
N/m2
Ax π/4(0.02x) x

Extension on the element,

σdx 127.33 × 106 dx
dδx = =
E x2 E
Total extension on the bar is,
Z 1.0  127.33 × 106 dx 
δ =
0.8 x2 E
6 Z 1.0 
127.33 × 10 1
= dx
E 0.8 x2

Note that,
xn+1
Z
xn dx =
n+1

Therefore,

127.33 × 106 h 1 i1.0

δ = −
E x 0.8
127.33 × 106 31.83 × 106
= (0.25) =
E E
6
31.83 × 10
0.0004 =
E
E = 79585 × 106 N/m2 = 79.585GN/m2 (GP a)

(b) From equation 2.25

1
U1 = P δ1
2
1
U2 = P δ2
2
Ratio of strain energy is,
1
2
P δ1 δ1
r= 1 =
2
P δ2 δ2

δ1 = 0.0004m
P Lo 40 × 103 × 0.2
δ2 = = = 0.000395m
A2 E π/4(0.018)2 × 79.585 × 109
0.0004
r = = 1.012
0.000395
=⇒ U1 = 1.012U2

Assignment 1

1. A round bar of length L tapers uniformly from radius r1 at one end to radius r2 at the
other. Show that the extension produced by a tensile load P is,
PL
e=
πEr1 r2
 where E is the Young’s modulus of the material. If r2 = 2r1 compare this extension with
that of a uniform cylindrical bar having a radius equal to the mean radius of the tapered
bar.

2. Show that the volumetric strain of a bar of square cross sectional area undergoing axial
loading is given by,
v = x (1 − 2ν)
where x is the longitudinal strain and ν is the poisson’s ratio.

3. A steel ball of radius r, has equal and parallel flats machined on opposite sides so that
the thickness across the faces is 1.6r. Show that the decrease in thickness when an axial
load W is applied to these faces is given by,
2.197W
e=
πrE
Hint;

W
y
dx

x r

W
2.10 General stress-strain relations

Consider an element of a material shown in figure 2.12 subjected to an uniaxial stress σx . The
σy
corresponding strain system is shown in the figure alongside.

σx
−ν
E

σx
y σx E
σx

σx
x −ν
E
z

Figure 2.12: Uniaxial stress and resulting strains

The uniaxial stress causes an axial strain in the direction of stress, and lateral strains in the
perpendicular directions. The lateral strains are obtained using the Poisson’s ration as shown
in equation 2.15.

A triaxial state of stress σx , σy and σz is shown in the figure 2.13. The resultant strains in the
xyz-directions are shown in the figure alongside.

σy σx σz
−ν −ν
E E E
σy σz
y

x
σx
σx σx σy σz
z −ν −ν
E E E

σz σy σz σx σy
−ν −ν
E E E

Figure 2.13: Triaxial stress and resulting strains

The total strain in the x-direction is composed of the axial strain due to σx , lateral strain due
to σy and a further lateral strain due to σz . Similarly for total strains in the other directions.
Therefore,
1 
x = σx − ν(σy + σz ) (2.28)
E
1  
y = σy − ν(σx + σz ) (2.29)
E
1  
z = σx − ν(σx + σy ) (2.30)
E
There are no lateral strain associated with shear strains. Hence the shear stresses and strains
relate in the same way for both uniaxial and triaxial strain systems, that is γxy = τGxy , γyz = τGyz
and γxz = τGxz .

2.10.1 Relations of the elastic constants

The elastic constants (E, G and K)described in section 2.8 are not independent of each other,
and are related by the following equations,

E = 2G(1 + ν) (2.31)
E
K = (2.32)
3(1 − 2ν)
9GK
E = (2.33)
3K + G

Proofs

Examples 2.4

Show that E = 2G(1 + ν) for an elastic material.

Solution: Consider an element of material subjected to a tensile stress σ in one direction

together with an equal compressive stress σ in a mutually perpendicular direction. This is
shown in figure below

σ σ

σ
If the material is elastic, then x and y caused by the direct stress σ are given as,

1 σ
x = (σ + νσ) = (1 + ν)
E E
1 σ
y = (−σ − νσ) = − (1 + ν)
E E

If the sides of the element are of unit length, the work done in distorting the element per unit
volume is,
1 1 σ
W1 = σx − σy = (x − y )
2 2 2
σh σ σ i
= (1 + ν) + (1 + ν)
2 E E
σ 2σ
h i σ2
= (1 + ν) = (1 + ν)
2 E E

In the state of pure shearing under stresses τ = σ, the shearing strain is give by,
σ
γxy =
G
and the work done per unit volume is,

1 σ2
W2 = σγxy =
2 2G

Since the one state of stress is equivalent to the other, the values of work done are equal,

W1 = W2
2
σ σ2
(1 + ν) =
E 2G
E = 2G(1 + ν)

Practice: During your revision times of this unit, show that, for an elastic material the other
two relations given by equations 2.32 and 2.33 holds.

Examples 2.5

A bar 30cm long is 5cm square cross section for 12cm length, 2.5cm diameter for 8cm length,
and 4cm diameter for the remaining length. If a tensile force of 10kN is applied to the bar,
calculate

(i) Maximum and minimum stresses produced in the bar assuming uniform distribution of load
over the area.

(ii) The total elongation of the bar given E = 210GN/m2 .

 10kN

3
2

1
10kN

Solution: The bar is as shown below,

Part 1 has A1 = 0.052 = 2.5 × 10−3 m2 and L1 = 12 × 10−2 m.

Part 2 has A2 = π4 (0.025)2 = 0.49087 × 10−3 m2 and L2 = 8 × 10−2 m.

Part 3 has A3 = π4 (0.04)2 = 1.25 × 10−3 m2 and L3 = 10 × 10−2 m.

(i) The maximum and minimum stresses are,

P P 10 × 103
σmax = = = = 20.37M P a
Amin A2 0.49087 × 10−3

P P 10 × 103
σmin = = = = 4.0M P a
Amax A1 2.5 × 10−3

(ii) Total elongation,

δt = W2 δ1 + δ2 + δ3
P L1 P L2 P L3
= + +
EA1 EA2 EA3
P h L1 L2 L3 i
= + +
E A1 A2 A3
10 × 103 h 0.12 0.08 0.10 i
= + +
210 × 109 2.5 × 10−3 0.49087 × 10−3 1.25 × 10−3
= 6.152 × 10−6 mm

Examples 2.6

A rectangular plate of uniform thickness has a strain gauge rosette bonded to one surface at
the center as shown in the figure below. It is placed in a test rig which can apply a biaxial force
system along the plate edges. If the measured strains are +0.0005 and 0.0007 in the x and y
directions, (E = 208GN/m2 and ν = 0.3)

(a) The corresponding stresses set up in the plate.

(b) The strain through the plate thickness.

 σy

σx

σx

σy

Solution: (a) For biaxial stress system where σz = 0 equations 2.28, and 2.29 become,
1
x = (σx − νσy )
E
1
y = (σy − νσx )
E
Solving the equations above simultaneously for σx and σy gives,
E(x + νy )
σx =
1 − ν2
(σx − Ex )
σy =
ν
Which gives the stresses as,
208 × 109 (5 × 10−4 + 0.3 × 7 × 10−4 )
σx = = 162.3M N/m2
1 − 0.32
162.3 × 106 − 208 × 109 (5 × 10−4 )
σy = = 194.3M N/m2
0.3

(b) For biaxial stress system where σz = 0 equations 2.30 becomes,

1 
z = − ν(σx + σy )
E
which gives strain through the plate thickness as,
1 
6 6

z = − 0.3(162.3 × 10 + 194.3 × 10 ) = −5.143 × 104
208 × 109

Assignment 2

1. A tensile test has been carried out on a mild steel specimen 10mm thick and 50mm wide
rectangular cross section. An extensometer was attached over a 100mm gauge length and
load extension readings were obtained as follows:
Plot load-extension diagram for specimen and determine: (a) Young’s Modulus (b) Pro-
portional limit stress (c) Yield point stress (d) Ultimate tensile strength (e) Percentage
elongation.
 Load 16 32 64 96 128 136 144 152 158
(kN)
Extension 0.016 0.032 0.064 0.096 0.128 0.137 0.147 0.173 0.605
(mm)
Load 154 168 208 222 226 216 192 185.4
(kN)
Extension 1.181 2.42 7.25 12.0 16.8 22.0 24.0 fracture
(mm)

2. Figure below shows a round steel rod supported in a recess and surrounded by a coaxial
brass tube. The upper end of the rod is 0.1mm below that of the tube and an axial load
is applied to a rigid plate resting on the top of the tube.

(i) Determine the magnitude of the maximum permissible load if the compressive stress in
the rod is not to exceed 110M N/m2 and that in the tube is not to exceed 80M N/m2 .
(ii) Find the amount by which the tube will be shortened if the compressive stress in the
tube is the same as that in the rod.

Esteel = 200GN/m2 and Ebrass = 100GN/m2

P
0.1mm

30mm

45mm
300mm

Steel 50mm Brass

100mm

2.11 Tutorial 1
Q1 A square steel bar of 50mm side and 1m long is subjected to an axial force of 250kN .
Determine the decrease in lateral dimensions due to this load given E = 200GP a and
ν = 0.3. (AN S : 7.5 × 10−3 mm)

Q2 Show that the volumetric strain in an element subjected to a triaxial state of stress is
give by,
1 − 2ν  
v = σx + σy + σz
E
Q3 Determine the shear strain energy stored in a torsion tube subjected to a state of constant
shear stress of 80M N/m2 throughout the wall thickness. Use G = 85GN/m2 . (AN S :
37.6KN m2 /m3 )

Q4 A piston of hydraulic ram is 40cm diameter and the piston rod has a diameter of 6cm. If
the water pressure is 1M N/m2 determine, (E = 200GN/m2 )

(a) The stress in the piston rod. (AN S : 43.5M N/m2 )

(b) The elongation of a 1m length of the piston rod. (AN S : 2.18 × 10−4 m)

when the ram is under pressure from the piston rod side.

Q5 A straight steel bar 1m long and of uniform cross section rotates at 2500rev/min about
an axis at mid-length perpendicular to the length of the bar. Find the maximum stress
and total extension if E = 200GN/m2 and steel density is 7.8 × 103 Kg/m3 .

Q6 The maximum safe compressive stress in a hardened steel punch is limited to 1GN/m2
and the punch is used to pierce circular holes in mild steel 20mm thick.

(a) If the ultimate shearing stress of the plate is 300M N/m2 , calculate the smallest
diameter of the hole that can be pierced. (AN S : 24mm)
(b) If the effective length of the punch is 75mm, calculate the maximum strain energy
stored in the punch during the piercing operation. Assume the modulus of elasticity
for the material of punch to be 200GN/m2 . (AN S : 84.8J)

Q7 A flat steel bar 10m long and 10mm thick tapers from 60mm at one end to 20mm at the
other. Determine the change in length of the bar when a tensile force P = 12kN is acting
along its axis if E = 200GN/m2 . (AN S : 1.648mm)

Q8 Calculate the overall change in length of the tapered rod shown in figure below. It carries
a tensile load of 10kN at the free end, and at the step change in section a compressive load
os 2M N/m evenly distributed around a circle of 30mm diameter. Assume E = 208GP a.
(AN S : −0.035mm).
 70mm

35mm

30mm
600mm
24mm

2MN / m
600mm

12mm

10kN
Chapter 3

Analysis of Structures

3.1 Introduction

Structural mechanics is generally concerned with analyzing the effects of applied loads on a
structure. The applied loads are external to the material of a structure and result in internal
reacting forces, together with deformations and displacements.

Principles of statics which involves the concept of equilibrium of forces is essential.

3.1.1 Overview of statics

A particle is in state of equilibrium if the resultant force and moment acting on it are zero, and
therefore according to Newton’s law of motion, it will have no acceleration and will be at rest.

Therefore a structure is in equilibrium if the resultant of external forces and moments are zero.
This can be expressed in the following equations which are necessary and sufficient conditions
for equilibrium of a body,
X
Fx = 0
X
Fy = 0
X
Fz = 0
X
Mx = 0
X
My = 0
X
Mz = 0

where Fx , Fy and Fz represent the components of force vectors in the x, y and z directions
respectively. Also Mx , My and Mz are the components of moment vectors caused by the external
forces acting in the x, y and z directions respectively.
Forces and moments are vector quantities and may be resolved into components. Consider
firstly a 2-D case,

F
Fy

θ
Fx

Figure 3.1:

The force F can be resolved into two components along the x and y directions as,

Fx = F cos θ
Fy = F sin θ

For a three dimensional case, the force and moment can be resolved as,
y y

Fy My
F M
α α Mx
θ Fx
Mz θ
Fz x x
β β

z z

Figure 3.2:

Where,

Fx = F cos θ
Fy = F sin α
Fx = F cos β
Mx = M cos θ
My = M sin α
Mx = M cos β

Any system of forces can be replaced by a resultant through an a couple about any chosen
point.
 y

x
z

FR
−
Fx
−

A M
−
Fy

Figure 3.3:

Where
X
F̄x = Fx
X
F̄y = Fy
q
FR = F̄x2 + F̄y2
X
M̄ = Mz

3.1.2 Types of structural and solid body components

1. Tie: A slender member which prevents two parts of a structure from moving apart and
it is under tensile force.

2. Strut: A slender member which prevents two parts of a structure from moving towards
each other and is under compressive force.

3. Column: A vertical member which supports some of the mass of the structure.

4. Cable: Flexible string under tension which connects two bodies. It can not supply resis-
tance to bending action.

5. Beam: A member supported horizontally and carries transverse loading. A common

special case is termed as a cantilever where one end is fixed and provides all the necessary
support.

6. Beam-column: Combines the separate functions of a beam and a column.

7. Shaft: A member which transmits torque and twist.

The members described above can have a variety of cross-sectional shapes, some of which are
illustrated in figure 3.5,
 Figure 3.4: Structural components

Figure 3.5: Common cross-sectional shapes for structural members

3.1.3 Types of support for structural components

The applied loading on a framework, beam or column is transmitted to the supports will provide
the required reacting forces to maintain overall equilibrium. Common supports are shown in
figure 3.6,
 A
A M
Rx

Ry

Rx

Ry

Ry

Figure 3.6: Common supports for structural components

3.2 Pin-jointed frames

3.2.1 Statical determinacy

Frames can be categorized as;

1. Statically determinate (Just-stiff ): If the number of equations available from state of

equilibrium is equal to the number of unknown forces including support reactions.

2. Statically indeterminate (Over-stiff ): If the number of equations available from state of

equilibrium is less than the number of unknown forces including support reactions. In
this case, there exist one or more members which should be removed to make the frame
just-stiff.

3. Under-stiff: If there are more equilibrium equations than the number of unknown forces
including support reactions. The system is not a structure but a mechanism, and is not of
practical interest in the preceding analysis. In this case, there exist one or more members
which should be added to make the frame just-stiff.

This can be expressed mathematically as follows; Let

j be the number of joints including support points in a frame.

 m be the number of members on the frame.

r be the number of support reactions on the frame.

Then for,

Under-stiff frame: m + r < 2j

Just-stiff frame: m + r = 2j

Over-stiff frame: m + r > 2j

Examples 3.1

Determine the class of each of the frames below and state which members are required to be
added or removed to make the structure just-stiff.

Solution: (a) Number of members; m = 16 and number of support reactions; r = 3. Therefore,

m + r = 16 + 3 = 19. Number of joints; j = 10, therefore, 2j = 20. The frame is under-stiff
since m + r < 2j. It can be made statically determinate by adding one member.

(b) Number of members; m = 18 and number of support reactions; r = 3. Therefore, m + r =

18 + 3 = 21. Number of joints; j = 11, therefore, 2j = 22. The frame is under-stiff since
m + r < 2j. It can be made statically determinate by adding one member.

(c) Number of members; m = 18 and number of support reactions; r = 3. Therefore, m + r =

18 + 3 = 21. Number of joints; j = 10, therefore, 2j = 20. The frame is over-stiff since
m + r < 2j. It can be made statically determinate by removing one member from the central
hexagon.
3.2.2 Determination of axial forces in a frame

The following assumptions are made when solving for axial forces in frame members,

• Members are pin-jointed, hence they carry only axial forces and these forces may be
determined by considering the equilibrium of various parts of the structure as free bodies.

• The frame is loaded only at the joints.

• The frame is perfect, that is, the frame has got just enough members to ensure that it
remains in equilibrium and doesn’t distort when loaded.

• The weight of the frame members is negligible unless otherwise stated.

• The frame is assumed to be plane, that is, it lies in a xy plane,

There are three methods commonly used to determine the axial forces in frame members,

• Method of resolving the forces at joint, also called the method of joints.

• Graphical method

• Section method

We shall use the method of force resolution in the preceding analysis.

Method of joints

This method is used to determine the internal forces in members of statically determinate
frames only.

It involves isolating each joint of the frame in the form of free body diagram and then by
considering equilibrium equations in each of these joints, the axial forces in the members of the
frame are determined.

When applying this method, it is assumed initially that all the members are in tension. The
sign convention for the frame members is as shown below,

Examples 3.2

Using the method of resolution of forces at the joints, determine the axial forces of the members
in a plane pin-jointed frames shown below,

Solution

(a) Drawing a free body diagram of the whole frame,

 Figure 3.7: Sign convention

(a ) P
(b)
B B D

2m 2m
2m 2m

C F
A C A
2m 2m 2m E 2m

5kN

B B D

2m 2m
2m 2m

A C
R Ax C A
2m 2m 2m E 2m
R Ay RCy R Ay 5kN

Applying the principle of static equilibrium on the structure,

X
Fx = 0
=⇒ RAx = 0
X
Fy = 0
=⇒ RAy + RCy = P (3.1)
Taking moments about point A, and assuming moment in clockwise direction to be positive,
we have
X
MA = 0
−2RCy + P = 0
P
=⇒ RCy = (3.2)
2
Substituting equation 3.2 in equation 3.1, we get,

RAy = P − RCy
P
= P−
2
P
= (3.3)
2

Drawing a free body diagram at joint A,

Applying the principle of static equilibrium,

X
Fy = 0
FAB sin 600 + RAy = 0
−RAy −2RAy
=⇒ FAB = 0
= √
sin 60 3
 
−2 P2 −P
= √ = √
3 3

X
Fx = 0
0
FAB cos 60 + FAC = 0
=⇒ FAC = −FAB cos 600
h −P  1 i P
= − √ = √
3 2 2 3

Drawing a free body diagram at joint B,

 P
FAB cos 60 0 FBC cos 60 0

B 60 0
0
60 0 FBC sin 60 0
FAB sin 60

FBC
FAB
X
Fx = 0
FAB cos 600 − FBC cos 600 = 0
=⇒ FAB cos 600 = FBC cos 600
FBC = FAB
−P
= √
3

Therefore the axial force in member,

P
AB is √
3
(Compressive)
P
BC is √
3
(Compressive)
P
AC is √
2 3
(Tensile)

The values can be proved by applying static equilibrium equations at joint C, that is,

FBC cos 60 0

FBC
FBC sin 60 0
60 0

FAC
RCy

X
Fy = 0
FBC sin 600 + RCy = 0
√
−P  3  P
√ + = 0
3 2 2
=⇒ 0 = 0
 X
Fx = 0
FBC cos 600 + FAC = 0
−P  1  P
√ + √ = 0
3 2 2 3
=⇒ 0 = 0

(b) Drawing a free body diagram of the whole frame,

P

B B D

2m
2m 2m

C F
C A RFx
2m 2m 2m E 2m
RCy R Ay 5kN RFy

Applying the principle of static equilibrium on the whole frame,

X
Fx = 0
=⇒ RF x = 0
X
Fy = 0
=⇒ RAy + RF y = 5000 (3.4)

Taking moments about point F , and assuming moment in clockwise direction to be positive,
we have
X
MF = 0
6RAy − 5000 × 4 = 0
5000 × 4
=⇒ RAy = = 3333.3N (3.5)
6
From equation 3.4, we get,

RF y = 5000 − RAy
= 5000 − 3333.3 = 1666.7N

The only joints at which there are two unknowns are A and F . Lets start at A, and draw a
free body diagram at the joint, Joint
 FAB cos 450

FAB
0
FAB sin 45
45 0
A FAC

R Ay

Joint A

For static equilibrium

X
Fy = 0
FAB sin 450 + RAy = 0
−RAy −3333.3
=⇒ FAB = =
sin 450 sin 450
= −4714N

X
Fx = 0
FAB cos 450 + FAC = 0
 
=⇒ FAC = −FAB cos 450 = − − 4714 cos 450
= 3333.3N

Joint B

FAB sin 450 B

FBD
0
FAB cos 45
45 0

FAB
FBC

For static equilibrium

X
Fy = 0
FAB cos 450 + FBC = 0
 
=⇒ FBC = −FAB cos 450 = − − 4714 cos 450
= 3333.3N
 X
Fx = 0
FAB sin 450 − FBD = 0
 
=⇒ FBD = FAB sin 450 = − 4714 sin 450
= −3333.3N

Joint C
FCD cos 450 FCD
FBC

FCD sin 450

45 0

FAC C FCE

5000N

For static equilibrium

X
Fy = 0
FCD sin 450 + FBC − 5000 = 0
5000 − FBC 5000 − 3333.3
=⇒ FCD = 0
=
sin 45 sin 450
= 2357.1N

X
Fx = 0
FCE + FCD cos 450 − FAC = 0
=⇒ FCE = FAC − FCD cos 450 = 3333.3 − 2357.1 cos 450
= 1666.6N

Joint D

For static equilibrium

X
Fx = 0
FCD sin 450 − FDF sin 450 + FBD = 0
FBD + FCD sin 450 −3333.3 + 2357.1 sin 450
=⇒ FDF = =
sin 450 sin 450
= −2357.1N
 CD

FBD D
FDF sin 450

FDF cos 450

0 0
45 45

FDE

F CD FDF
0
FCD cos 45
0
FCD sin 45

X
Fy = 0
FDE + FCD cos 45 + FDF cos 450 = 0
0

=⇒ FDE = −FCD cos 450 − FDF cos 450

= −2357.1 cos 450 − (−2357.1 cos 450 )
= 0N

Joint E

FDE

FCE E FEF

For static equilibrium

X
Fx = 0
FCE − FEF = 0
=⇒ FEF = FCE
= 1666.6N

Therefore the axial force in member,

AB is 4714N (Compressive)

BC is 3333.3N (Tensile)

AC is 3333.3N (Tensile)

BD is 3333.3N (Compressive)
CD is 2357.1N (Tensile)

CE is 1666.6N (Tensile)

DE is 0

DF is 2357.1N (Compressive)

EF is 1666.6N (Tensile)

3.3 Tutorial 2
Q1 For the plane pin-jointed frames shown below, determine using the method of joint the
support reactions and internal forces in all the frame members indicating whether the
forces are tensile or compressive.

5kN

(a ) (b) D 3kN
B 2m C 2m E
6kN
B
2m E
20kN

A D A F
1m C
10kN

Q2 The framework shown in the figure below is used to support a steel car body weighing
200Kg. When the car body is suspended in (a) air and (b) totally immersed in a plating
bath containing a liquid of density 1000Kg/m3 , calculate the support reactions and the
internal forces in all the members using the method of force resolution at the joints.
Density of steel is 7.8 × 103 Kg/m2 .

A 3m B 3m C 3m D

6m E

G
Chapter 4

Analysis of thin-walled pressure vessels

Thin-walled pressure vessels are those vessels whose wall thickness is less than or equal to one
tenth of the vessel radius. The distribution of stress across the vessel thickness in this case is
assumed to be uniform.

They are made of metal and used generally in engineering as storage containers for liquid,
powder, gas etc. Stresses will arise due to, say uniform internal liquid or gas pressure, eg. in
steam boilers, or pressure due to weight of substances contained.

4.1 Stresses in a thin-walled cylinders

When a thin cylinder is subjected subjected to an internal pressure, stresses are induced,

• on the longitudinal section XX due to the force tending to separate the top and bottom
halves. This stress is called the circumferential or hoop stress

• on the circumferential section Y Y due to the force tending to separate the right and left
ends of the cylinder. This stress is called the longitudinal stress.

Let the internal diameter and length of the cylinder be d and l respectively, the thickness be t
and the internal pressure be p.

4.1.1 Circumferential (Hoop) stress

Consider figure below,

The force tending to separate the top and bottom halves is the pressure multiplied by the
projected area in a direction perpendicular to the diametral plane, that is PC = p × dl. This
 Y

σL

Y
X X σL σθ σL
σθ

σθ

Figure 4.1:

p l

X
X σθ
t d

Figure 4.2:

force is resisted by the stress acting in the longitudinal section XX (σθ ). Therefore,

p × dl = (σθ × tl) × 2
pd pr
σθ = = (4.1)
2t t

4.1.2 Longitudinal stress

Consider figure below,

The force tending to separate the right and left hand halves is the pressure times the area of
2
one end, that is PL = p × πd4 . This force is resisted by the stress acting on the circumferential
 Y

PL
d p

t
Y

Figure 4.3:

section Y Y (σl ). Therefore,

πd2
p× = σl × πdt
4
pd pr
σl = = (4.2)
4t 2t

4.1.3 Circumferential and Longitudinal strains in a thin walled cylin-

der

The hoop and longitudinal stresses can be considered as bi-axial stress system. Therefore,

Hoop strain (θ );

1
θ = (σθ − νσl )
E
1  pr pr 
= −ν
E t 2t
pr ν
= 1− (4.3)
Et 2

Longitudinal strain (l );

1
l = (σl − νσθ )
E
1  pr pr 
= −ν
E 2t t
pr  1 
= −ν (4.4)
Et 2

4.1.4 Volumetric strain in a thin-walled cylinder

When a thin-walled cylinder is exposed to internal pressure, it will experience a change in

dimension θ r and l l in the circumferential and longitudinal directions respectively.
Let the initial volume of the cylinder be Vo = πr2 l, and the final volume of the cylinder be
Vf = π(r + θ r)2 (l + l l). Therefore the volumetric strain (v ) is,

Vf − Vo
v =
Vo
π(r + θ r)2 (l + l l) − πr2 l
=
πr2 l
πr l(1 + θ )2 (1 + l ) − πr2 l
2
=
πr2 l
2
= (1 + θ ) (1 + l ) − 1
= (1 + 2θ + 2θ )(1 + l ) − 1
= 1 + l + 2θ + 2θ l + 2θ + 2θ l − 1
= l + 2θ
pr  1  2pr  ν
= −ν + 1−
Et h 2 Et i 2
pr
= 0.5 − ν + 2 − ν
Et h
pr i
= 2.5 − 2ν (4.5)
Et

4.2 Stresses in a thin-walled sphere

Let the internal diameter be d, the thickness of metal be t and the internal pressure be p. The
force tending to separate the two halves on a section XX is the pressure multiplied by the
2
projected area in the direction perpendicular to XX, that is P = p × πd4

σθ

σθ
σθ
X d t X
σθ σθ
σθ
p

Figure 4.4:
Therefore,

πd2
p× = σθ × πdt
4
pd pr
σθ = = (4.6)
4t 2t

From the symmetry of the spherical shape, we obtain the same equation for the tensile stresses
when we cut though the center of the sphere in any direction whatsoever. Thus we reach
the following conclusion: A pressurized sphere is subjected to uniform tensile stresses σθ in all
directions. This is represented in figure 4.4(b) by the small stress element with stresses σθ
acting in mutually perpendicular directions.

The normal strain in a thin walled sphere is,

1
θ = (σθ − νσθ )
E
σθ
= (1 − ν)
E
pr
= (1 − ν) (4.7)
2Et

4.2.1 Volumetric strain in a thin-walled sphere

On application of internal pressure, the sphere radius will change by θ r.

Let the initial volume of the sphere be Vo = 34 πr3 , and the final volume of the sphere be
Vf = 43 π(r + θ r)3 . Therefore the volumetric strain (v ) is,

Vf − Vo
v =
Vo
4
3
π(r + θ r)3 − 34 πr3
= 4
3
πr3
= (1 + θ )3 − 1
= 1 + 3θ + 32θ + 3θ
= 3θ
3pr
= (1 − ν) (4.8)
2tE

Examples 4.1

A compressed air tank having an inner diameter of 450mm and a wall thickness of 7mm is
formed by welding two steel hemispheres.

(a) If the allowable tensile stress in the steel is 115M P a, what is the maximum permissible
air pressure pall in the tank?
(b) If the normal strain at the outer surface of the tank is not to exceed 0.0003 what is the
maximum permissible air pressure pall in the tank? Assume that Hooke’s law is valid and
that E = 210GP a and Poisson’s ratio for steel is ν = 0.28.

Solution: (a) From equation 4.6, the allowable pressure is,

2tσall
pall =
r
2 × 0.007 × 115 × 106
= = 7.16 × 106 P a
0.225

(b) From equation 4.7, the allowable pressure is,

2tEall
pall =
r(1 − ν)
2 × 0.007 × 210 × 109 × 0.0003
= = 5.44 × 106 P a
0.225(1 − 0.28)

Examples 4.2

A strain gauge is installed in the longitudinal direction on the surface of a cylindrical aluminium
beer can. The radius-to-thickness ratio of the can is 200. When the lid of the can is popped
open, the strain changes by  = 170µm/m. What was the internal pressure p in the can?
Assume E = 70GP a and ν = 0.33.

Solution: The longitudinal strain for a thin walled cylinder is given by equation 4.4, therefore,
EtL
p =
r(1 − ν)
70 × 109 × 170 × 10−6
= = 0.35 × 106 P a
200(1 − 0.33)

Examples 4.3

A thin spherical steel vessel is made up of two hemispherical portions bolted together at flanges.
The inner diameter of the sphere is 300mm and the wall thickness is 6mm. Assuming that
the vessel is a homogeneous sphere, calculate the maximum working pressure for an allowable
tensile stress in the shell of 150M P a. If twenty bolts of 16mm diameter are used to hold the
flanges together, what is the tensile stress in each bolt when the sphere is under full pressure.

Solution: From equation 4.6, the allowable working pressure is,

2tσall
pall =
r
2 × 0.006 × 150 × 106
= = 12.0 × 106 P a
0.15
The force tending to separate the two halves is,

πd2
F = p×
4
12 × 106 × π × 0.32
= = 848.23kN
4

Force per bolt,

848.23
Fb = = 42.41kN
20

Tensile stress per bolt,

42.41 × 103
σb = π 2
= 210.9 × 106 P a
4
× 0.016
Chapter 5

Torsion

One of the common modes of deformation in engineering is that of torsion in which a member
is exposed to a torque about its longitudinal axis resulting in twisting deformation.

A design analysis in twisting deformation is required in order to estimate the shear stress
distribution and angular twist deformations.

When a shaft, either solid or hollow is subjected to pure torque (not accompanied by bending
or axial thrust) loading at its end(s), it experiences pure twisting and thus pure shear stress.

The following assumptions are made when developing stress and strain solutions for a shaft
under pure torque loading,

• The shaft is straight.

• The cross sectional area is constant over the shaft length.

• Plane sections remain plane even after twisting.

• Radii remain straight during twisting.

• Torque is constant over the shaft length.

• Deformation is by relative rotation of adjoining planes.

• The material is homogeneous, elastic and obeys Hooke’s law, ie. the shear stress at any
point is proportional to the shear strain at that point

5.1 Shear stress due to twisting

The shearing stress induced in the shaft produces a moment of resistance, equal and opposite
to the applied torque.
Since radii are assumed to remain straight, it follows that the strain (and hence the stress) is
directly proportional to the radius.

r dA
x

Figure 5.1:

Thus if the stress at the surface of the shaft of radius r is τ , then shear stress on an element of
area dA at a distance x from the axis is xr τ . The shear force on the element is,
x
dF = τ dA
r

Moment of the shear force on the element about the center of shaft is,
x
dM = τ dA × x
r

Therefore total moment of resistance is,

Z
τ
M = x2 dA
r
This moment is equal to the applied torque, T ,
Z
τ
T = x2 dA
r
R
But x2 dA = J where J is the second polar moment of area of the cross section. Hence
τ
T = J
r
or
T τ
= (5.1)
J r

5.2 Angle of twist

Consider figure below,

Due to shear strain in the shaft, the longitudinal element ABCD is distorted into parallelogram
AB 0 CD0 . The angle BAB 0 is the shear strain (φ), and the angle BOB 0 is the angle of twist (θ).
 C
A
φ

D'
D
B'

O
θ B
L
r
T

Figure 5.2:

Length of arc BB 0 is,

BB 0 = rθ = φL

Therefore,
φL
θ =
r
τ
But φ = G
, therefore,

τL
θ =
Gr
Gθ τ
= (5.2)
L r
Which when combined with equation 5.1, we get the general twisting formula as,
Gθ τ T
= = (5.3)
L r J

5.3 Torsion of a solid shaft

In case of a solid shaft, shearing stresses are variable over the cross section of the shaft, with
τmax occurring at rmax = R. The second polar moment of area of a circular cross section about
an axis through the center is,

πR4
J =
2
 Figure 5.3:

Therefore equation 5.3 becomes,

Gθ τmax T
= = πR4
L R 2
πR4 τmax πR3
T = = τmax
2 R 2
πD3
= τmax (5.4)
16

5.4 Torsion of a hollow shaft

Ro

Ri
L

Figure 5.4:

In case of a hollow shaft τmax occurs at rmax = Ro . The second polar moment of area of a
circular cross section for a hollow shaft about an axis through the center is,

π(Ro4 − Ri4 )
J =
2
Therefore equation 5.3 becomes,
Gθ τmax T
= = π(Ro4 −Ri4 )
L Ro
2
π(Ro4− 4
Ri ) τmax
T =
2 Ro
4h 4i
πRo Ri τmax
= 1−
2 Ro4 Ro
πRo3 h Ri4 i
= 1− τmax (5.5)
2 Ro4

Examples 5.1

A solid shaft is required to transmit 50kW at 4rev/s. If the maximum allowable shear stress
is 70M P a, and the maximum allowable shaft twist is 0.50 /m length, calculate the size of the
shaft. Assume G = 100GP a.

Solution: Torque in the shaft,

P 50 × 103
T = = = 1989.4N m
ω 2π × 4

Shaft size based on maximum shear stress allowable,

πD3
T = τmax
16
16T 16 × 1989.4
D3 = =
πτmax π × 70 × 106
D = 0.0525m = 52.5mm

Shaft size based on maximum allowable angle of twist,

T Gθ
=
J L
θ
T = GJ
L
But
θ 0.5
= πrad/m
L 180
and
πD4
J =
32
Therefore,
θ πD4
T = G
L 32
32T 32 × 1989.4
D4 = θ
= 0.5 2
GLπ 100 × 109 × 180 π
D = 0.0694m = 69.4mm

Since the shaft size under the twist criterion is large, then this is taken as the appropriate size,
ie. D = 69.4mm.

5.5 Torsion in composite shafts

A composite shaft is one which consists of two or more materials rigidly fixed together so that
the share the applied torque. If T1 and T2 are the parts of the applied toque T carried by the

Shaft 2

Shaft 1

Figure 5.5:

two materials, then T1 + T2 = T .

The angle of twist of the two parts is the same, that is θ1 = θ2 . Recall that,
Gθ T
=
L J
θ T
=
L GJ
θ1 θ2
And since the length of both parts are equal, then L1
= L2
, therefore,
T1 T2
= (5.6)
G1 J1 G2 J2

5.6 Torsion in non-uniform shafts

In this case the total torque is transmitted by each portion of the shaft, that is,

T1 = T2 = T
 T1
T2

T
D1 D2
T

L1 L2

Figure 5.6:

Therefore,
τ1 πr14 τ2 πr24
=
2r1 2r2
τ1  r 3
2
= (5.7)
τ2 r1

τ1 L1 τ2 L2
Angle of twists, θ1 = Gr1
, and θ2 = Gr2
.

θ1
L1 τ1 Gr2
θ2
= ×
L2
Gr1 τ2
τ1 r2  r2 3 r2
= =
τ2 r1 r1 r1
 r 4
2
= (5.8)
r1

The total deformation θ is due to θ1 over length L1 plus θ2 over length L2 . Therefore,

θ = θ1 + θ2
τ1 L1 τ2 L2
= +
Gr1 Gr2
1 τ1 L1 τ2 L2 

= + (5.9)
G r1 r2
Or in terms of torque, ( Gθ
L
= TJ ),

θ = θ1 + θ2
T L1 T L2
= +
GJ1 GJ2
T L1 L2 

= + (5.10)
G J1 J2

5.7 Torsion of a tapered shaft

Suppose a twisting moment T is applied to a tapered shaft of length L

 L
C
L1
X
A

T d1 d d2

O T

B
Y
x
dx D

Figure 5.7:

Let

τ1 = τmax at the end of radius r1 .

τ2 = τmax at the end of radius r2 .

τ = τmax at a cross section of radius r.

The resisting moment in all cross sections of the shaft must be equal to the applied torque T .
Then,

T1 = T2 = Tr = T
τ1 πr13 τ2 πr23 τ πr3
= = =T
2 2 2
τ1 r13 = τ2 r23 = τ r3 (5.11)

Let dx be the length of the small element at distance x from point O, and having a radius r,
and angle of twist dθ. We know that,
Gθ T 2T
= = 4
L J πr
x(r2 −r1 )
For the element θ = dθ, L = dx, and using similarity on the triangles r = L
, therefore

dθ 2T L4
=
dx Gπx4 (r2 − r1 )4
2T L4
dθ = dx
Gπx4 (r2 − r1 )4
The total angle of twist for the entire length L is given by,
Z L+L1
θ = dθ
L1
L+L1
2T L4
Z h dx i
=
L1 Gπ(r2 − r1 )4 x4
2T L4 h 1 iL+L1
= −
Gπ(r2 − r1 )4 3x3 L1
2T L4 h 1 1i
= − +
3Gπ(r2 − r1 )4 (L + L1 )3 L3
Lr1 Lr2
But L1 = r2 −r1
and L + L1 = r2 −r1
which when substituted in equation just above, we get,

2T L h r3 − r3 i
2 1
θ =
3Gπ(r2 − r1 ) r13 r23
2T L h r12 + r1 r2 + r22 i
= (5.12)
Gπ 3r1 r2

Examples 5.2

A composite shaft of circular cross section O.5m long is rigidly fixed at each end as shown in
the figure below. A 0.3m length is 50mm diameter and is made of bronze to which is joined
the remaining 0.2m length a 25mm diameter made of steel. If the limiting shear stress in the
steel is 55M N/m2 , determine the maximum torque that can be applied at the joint. What is
then the maximum shear stress in the bronze. (Gsteel = 82GP a, Gbronze = 41GP a).

Bronze
Steel
T

0.3m 0.2m

Figure 5.8:

Solution: Since the torque is applied at the joint, then it is shared between the two parts of
the shaft, ie. T = Ts + Tb . Maximum torque that can be carried by the steel part is,
Ts τs
=
Js rs
τs πrs3 55 × 106 × π × 0.01253
Ts = = = 168.7N m
2 2
The angle of the twists for the two shaft parts are equal at the joint, ie. θs = θb . The angle of
twist for the steel part is,
Gs θs τs
=
Ls rs
τs Ls 55 × 106 × 0.2
θs = = = 0.0107rad
Gs rs 82 × 109 × 0.0125

Therefore θb = 0.0107rad, hence the torque carried by the bronze part is,
Gb θb Tb
=
Lb Jb
Gb θb Jb Gb θb πrb4
Tb = =
Lb 2Lb
41 × 10 × 0.0107 × π × 0.0254
9
= = 897.3N m
2 × 0.3
Therefore the total torque that can be applied at the joint is

T = Ts + Tb
= 168.7 + 897.3 = 1066N m

Maximum shear stress in the bronze part is,

τb Tb
=
rb Jb
Tb rb 2Tb
τb = = 3
Jb πrb
2 × 897.3
= = 36.6M P a
π × 0.0253

5.8 Strain energy in torsion

In pure torsion strain energy is given by;

1
U = Tθ
2
Gθ T
But from the general torsion formula L
= J
= τr , we have;

τJ
T =
r
τL
θ =
Gr
Therefore;

1 τJ τL τ2 JL
U = × × = × 2
2 r Gr 2G r
 d
For a solid circular shaft maximum shear stress occurs at the surface of the shaft, that is r = 2
4
and J = πd32
. Therefore;
2
τmax πd4 L 2
τmax πd2 L 2
τmax πd2 L
U = × 2 = × = ×
2G 32 d4 2G 8 4G 4
τ2
= max × V olume (5.13)
4G

5.9 Tutorial 3
Q1 A shaft tapers from a radius r + a at one end toa radius r − a at the other end. If the
shaft is under an axial torque T and a = 0.1r, determine the percentage error in the angle
of twist for a given length, when the twist is calculated on the assumption of a constant
radius r. (Ans : 3.30%)

Q2 A hollow shaft is 50mm outside diameter and 30mm inside diameter. An applied torque
of 1.6kN m is found to produce an angular twist of 0.40 measured on a length of 0.2m of
the shaft. Calculate the value of modulus of rigidity. Calculate also the maximum power
which could be transmitted by the shaft at 200rev/min if the maximum allowable stress
is 65M N/m2 .(Ans : 65M N/m2 and 292kW )

Q3 A hollow shaft is to have an internal diameter di × outside diameter, and is required to

transmit 1500kW at a speed of 2500rev/min. It is to be fitted with a flanged coupling
having 8 bolts on a circle of diameter twice that of the shaft. Assuming allowable shearing
stresses in shaft and bolts of 70M P a and 55M P a respectively, determine the necessary
diameters. (Ans : 46.9mm, 78.2 and 14.54mm)

Q4 A steel shaft ABCD has a total length of 1.3m, made up as follows: AB = 0.3m,
BC = 0.4m and CD = 0.6m. AB is hollow, its outside diameter being 100mm and its
inside diameter dmm. BC and CD are solid, having diameters of 100mm and 88mm
respectively. If equal opposite torques are applied to the ends of the shaft, find to the
nearest 1mm, the maximum permissible value of d for the maximum shearing stress in
AB not to exceed that in CD. If the torque applied to the shaft is 9kN m, what is the
total angle of twist? G = 82GP a (Ans : 75mm, 1.1480 )

Q5 A steel shaft ABCD having a total length of 1.5m is made of three lengths AB, BCa
nd CD each 0.5m long. AB and BC are solid, having diameters of 60mm and 70mm
respectively, and CD is hollow having outside and inside diameters of 70mm and 45mm
respectively. When an axial torque of 2kN m is transmitted from one end of the shaft to
the other, the total angle of twist from A to D is 1.20 . Determine,

(a) the maximum shearing stress in the shaft and state where it occurs. (Ans : 49.4M N/m2
in AB)
 (b) the angle of twist for each of the three lengths AB, BC and CD. (Ans : 0.5480 ,
0.2960 and 0.3560 )
(c) the modulus of rigidity of the material. (Ans : 82.2GP a)

Q6 The maximum safe compressive stress in a hardened steel punch is limited to 1GN/m2
and the punch is used to pierce circular holes in mild steel 20mm thick.

(a) If the ultimate shearing stress of the plate is 300M N/m2 , calculate the smallest
diameter of the hole that can be pierced. (AN S : 24mm)
(b) If the effective length of the punch is 75mm, calculate the maximum strain energy
stored in the punch during the piercing operation. Assume the modulus of elasticity
for the material of punch to be 200GN/m2 . (AN S : 84.8J)

Q7 A composite shaft consists of a steel rod 80mm diameter surrounded by a closely fitting
tube of brass firmly fixed to it. Find the outside diameter of the tube so that when a
torque is applied to the composite shaft, it will be equally shared by the two materials.
If the torque is 16kN m, calculate the maximum shearing stress in each material and the
angle of twist on a length of 3.5m. Gbrass = 40GP a and Gsteel = 80GP a.(Ans : 105.3mm,
79.6M P a and 52.3M P a)

Q8 A round steel rod is surrounded by a close fitting tube of duralumin, the two being secured
fastened together to form a composite shaft. Find the diameter of the steel rod and the
outside diameter of the duralumin tube so that the maximum shearing stresses in the two
materials do not exceed 90M P a and 60M P a respectively when the composite shaft is
subjected to a torque of 0.7kN m. Also calculate the angle of twist on a length of 1.2m.
Gduralumin = 26GP a and Gsteel = 78GP a. (Ans : 18.76mm, 37.52mm and 8.460 )

Q9 A hollow steel shaft with an external diameter of 150mm is required to transmit 1M W at

300rev/min. Calculate a suitable internal diameter for the shaft if its shear stress is not
to exceed 70M P a. Compare the torque-carrying capacity of this shaft with a solid steel
shaft having the same weight per unit length and limiting shear stress. Take G = 80GP a.
(Ans : 112.3mm, and 2.35)
Chapter 6

Analysis of Close-coiled Springs

6.1 Introduction

Springs are directly concerned with theories of torsion, bending and strain energy.

Springs are incorporated in almost all machines to assist in their operation.

The principle function of a spring is to absorb energy , store it for a long or short period of
time, and then release it to the surrounding material. For example, springs in a watch store
energy for a long time, while springs in engine valves store energy for a very short time.

The force required to produce a unit deformation is called the stiffness of the spring.

Helical springs are widely used in engineering and are manufactured in two categories;

• Close-coiled springs - The helix angle is very small and the coils almost touch each. These
are tension helical springs and are designed to resist stretching.

• Open-coiled springs - The helix angle is large and coils are spaced further apart. These
are compression helical springs and are designed to resist being compressed. A typical
use for compression coil springs is in car suspension systems.

NOTE: For more information on springs, a supplement reading material will be provided.

6.2 Axial load on a close coiled spring

Since the obliquity of the wire of a close coiled spring is small, then such a spring under axial
load may be assumed to be subjected to torsion only, the effects of bending and direct shear
being negligible.

Figure ?? shows a close-coiled spring under an axial load W .

Let;

D be the mean diameter of the spring coil

d be the spring wire diameter

N be the number of coils making the spring

L be the length of the wire and is given by L = πDN

δ be the axial deflection of the spring.

The torque on the wire at all sections is;

WD
T =
2

Maximum Shear Stress

The general torsion formular is given as;

T τ
=
J r

The maximum shear stress on the wire material occurs at the surface of the wire, that is r = d2 .
4
Since the wire is of circular cross section then, J = πd
32
. The maximum shear stress on the wire
material is thus;
WD d
2 2
. 8W D
τmax = πd4
= (6.1)
32
πd3

Axial deflection of the spring

Equating the work done by the load to the shear strain energy, we have;
1 1
Wδ = Tθ
2 2
But from general torsion formula, θ can be expressed as;
TL
θ =
GJ
Hence;
1 T 2L
Wδ =
2 2GJ
1  W D 2 πDN 4W 2 D3 N
= 4 =
2 2 G. πd
32
Gd4
Hence the spring axial deflection can be expressed as;
8W D3 N
δ = (6.2)
Gd4
Strain energy

The strain energy is given by;

1 4W 2 D3 N
U = Tθ =
2 Gd4
This can be written as;
 8W D 2 π 2 DN d2
U = ×
πd3 16G
2
τmax πd2
= × πDN ×
4G 4
2 2
τ πd L τ2
= max × = max × V olume (6.3)
4G 4 4G
This corresponds with the strain energy in pure torsion of a solid shaft as represented in equation
5.13

Example 6.1

A close coiled spring is to have a stiffness of 1kN/m in tension, a maximum load of 50N and a
maximum shearing stress of 120M P a. The solid length of the wire (that is, when the coils are
touching) is to be 45mm. Find the diameter of the wire, the mean diameter of the coils and
the number of the coils required. Take G = 50GP a.
W
Solution: Spring stiffness is defined as the load per unit deflection, that is, k = δ
. From the
deflection equation 6.2, we have,
8W D3 N
δ =
Gd4
W Gd4
k = =
δ 8D3 N
50 × 109 d4
1000 =
8D3 N
4
d
= 1.6 × 10−7 (6.4)
D3 N

The maximum shear stress is given by equation 6.1 as,

8W D
τmax =
πd3
8 × 50D
120 × 106 =
πd3
D
= 942477.8 (6.5)
d3

The solid length according to the definition is;

Ls = nd
N d = 0.045 (6.6)
Equations 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 can be solved simultaneously for d, N and D.
0.045
From equation 6.6 we have; d = N
which when substituted in equations 6.4 and 6.5 leads
to;

D3 N 5 = 25.63 (6.7)

and,

DN 3 = 85.88
85.88
D = (6.8)
N3
Substituting equation 6.8 in equation 6.7 we can solve for N .
 85.88 3
3
N 5 = 25.63
N
N5 25.63
9
=
N 85.883
N = 12.54

Hence the number of coils are N = 13.

Therefore, the mean coil diameter D and the wire diameter are;
85.88 85.88
D = = = 0.0436m = 43.6mm
N3 12.543
0.045 0.045
d = = = 0.0036m = 3.6mm
N 12.54

6.3 Tutorial 4
Q1 A composite spring has two close-coiled helical springs in series. Each spring has a mean
coil diameter of 8 times the diameter of its wire. One spring has 20 coils and a wire
diameter of 2.5mm.

(a) Find the diameter of the wire of the other spring if it has 15 coils and the stiffness
of the composite spring is 1.25kN/m. (Ans : 1.97mm)
(b) Find the greatest axial load that can be applied to the spring and the corresponding
extension for a maximum shearing stress of 300M P a. (Ans : 57.2N, 0.0458m)

Q2 The spring load against which a valve is opened is provided by an inner helical spring
arranged within and concentric with an outer helical spring. Both springs are of steel,
close-coiled, and the free length of the inner spring is 6mm longer than that of the outer
spring. The outer spring has 12 coils of mean diameter 25mm, diameter of the wire 3mm
and an initial compression of 5mm when the valve is closed.

(a) Find the stiffness of the inner spring if the greatest force required to open the valve
10mm is 150N .(Ans : 4018.6N/m)
(b) If the diameter of the inner spring is 16mm and the wire diameter is 2mm, determine
the number of coils it has. (Ans : 10Coils)

Take G = 80GP a.
Chapter 7

Thermal Stresses and Strains

7.1 Introduction

Consider a bar of length Lo at a temperature To . Let the coefficient of linear expansion of the
material making the bar be α. If the bar is subjected to a temperature increase of say ∆T and
the bar is completely free to expand, then its length will increase by α∆T × Lo . Hence the new
length of the bar after thermal expansion becomes,

Lf = Lo + α∆T × Lo = Lo (1 + α∆T )

If this expansion is prevented then the situation is as if a bar of length Lo (1+α∆T ) is compressed
to a length Lo . Hence compressive strain and consequently, compressive stresses are induced
on the bar. The compressive strain is given as;
α∆T × Lo α∆T
 = =
Lo (1 + α∆T 1 + α∆T

Since α∆T is very small compared to one, then it can be neglected and equation above becomes;

 = α∆T

and therefore the compressive stress induced on the bar can be approximated as;

σ = E = Eα∆T

7.2 Thermal stresses in composite bars

Consider a composite bar consisting of a solid circular bar denoted as 1 contained inside a
circular tube 2, as shown in figure 7.1. The materials of the bar and the tube have different
coefficients of linear expansion, denoted as α1 and α2 respectively, and assumed that α1 > α2 .
 Figure 7.1:

Let XX be the initial level of the composite bar and let YY and ZZ be the final levels of the
tube and bar respectively after a temperature rise of ∆T as shown in Figure 7.1(a).

If both parts are free to expand, the extension of material 1 (the bar) would be;

δ1 = Lo α1 ∆T

and the extension of material 2 (the tube) would be;

δ2 = Lo α2 ∆T

If the ends of the bar and the tube are rigidly attached to each other, then the tube is forced
to extend a distance say e2 and a bar is forced to compress a distance say e1 as shown in the
Figure 7.1(b).

It is these forced changes in lengths e1 and e2 which produce stresses in the materials.

From figure 7.1, we have;

δ1 − δ2 = e1 + e2
σ1 Lo σ2 Lo
Lo α1 ∆T − Lo α2 ∆T = +
E1 E2
σ σ2 
1
Lo ∆T (α1 − α2 ) = Lo + (7.1)
E1 E2

Since there is no external force applied to the composite bar, then the tensile force in the tube
must be equal to the compressive force in the bar. If we let this force be P , then,

σ2 A2 = σ1 A1 = P
P
⇒ σ2 = (7.2)
A2
P
σ1 = (7.3)
A1
Substituting equations 7.2 and 7.3 in equation 7.1 leads to;
 P P 
Lo ∆T (α1 − α2 ) = Lo +
A1 E1 A2 E2
 1 1 
= P Lo +
A1 E1 A2 E2

Therefore the force P which is induced by the temperature change ∆T if the ends of the two
members are rigidly attached to each other is given as;
∆T (α1 − α2 )
P = 1
A1 E1
+ A21E2

This force is the one which induces thermal direct stresses on the materials.

Example 7.1

A bar of brass 25mm diameter is enclosed in a steel tube 50mm external diameter and 25mm
internal diameter. The bar and tube are initially 1m long and are rigidly fastened together at
both ends. find the stresses in the two materials when the temperature rises from 150 C to 950 C.
Take the Young Modulus for steel and brass to be 200GP a and 100GP a respectively, and the
coefficients of linear expansion for steel and brass to be 11.6 × 10−6 /0 C and 18.7 × 10−6 /0 C
respectively.

Solution: Let subscript s and b denote the steel and brass material respectively. Therefore,
Es = 200GP a, Eb = 100GP a, αs = 11.6 × 10−6 /0 C and αb = 18.7 × 10−6 /0 C.

The temperature change is; ∆T = 95 − 15 = 800 C. Since the coefficient of linear expansion of
brass if higher than that of steel, then the force induce due to the temperature change is,
∆T (αb − αs )
P = 1
Ab Eb
+ As1Es

But,

π(0.0252 )
Ab Eb = × 100 × 109 = 49.09 × 106 N
4
π(0.052 − 0.0252 )
As Es = × 200 × 109 = 294.52 × 106 N
4
Therefore;

80 × 10−6 (18.7 − 11.6)

P = 1 1 = 23899.5N
49.09×106
+ 294.52×106

Stress on brass bar is;

P 4P 4 × 23899.5
σb = = 2 = = 48.7M P a
Ab πd π × 0.0252

Stress on steel tube is;

P 4P 4 × 23899.5
σs = = 2 2
= = 16.23M P a
As π(do − di ) π(0.052 − 0.0252
Chapter 8

Bending of Beams

8.1 Introduction

Structural members are usually classified according to the type of loads that they support.
Examples:

1. Axially loaded bar - supports forces having their vectors directed along the longitudinal
axis of the bar.

2. A bar in Torsion - Supports torques (or couples) having their moment vectors directed
along the axis or moments about the axis of the bar

3. Beam - defined as a structural member subjected to lateral loads i.e. forces or moments
having their vectors perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar.

Bending implies deformation of a bar produced by loads perpendicular to its axis as well as
moment couples acting in a plane passing through the axis of the bar.

Figure 8.1: Beams loaded by lateral forces

Beams that lie on a single plane are referred to as planar structures. If all loads act on that
same plane and if all deflections occur in that plane, the plane is referred to as the plane of
bending
8.2 Classification of Beams

Beams are usually classified according to the manner in which they are supported:

1. Simply (or freely) Supported Beam

A beam with a pin or knife edge support at one end and a roller support at the other
end.
A pin support prevents translation at the end but does not prevent rotation. A pin
support is capable of developing both horizontal and vertical reactions (HA and RA ).
A roller support prevents translation in the vertical direction but not in the horizontal
direction. Hence this support can develop a vertical reaction (RB ). The axis of the beam
is free to rotate about B.

P2 P2
P1
P1
θ θ
HA

RA RB

P2 P2
P1
P1
θ θ

Figure 8.2: A simply supported Hbeam with its free body diagram
A

2. Cantilever Beam R A
R B

A cantilever beam is fixed (clamped) at one end and free at the other end. At the fixed
support, the beam can neither translate nor rotate whereas at the free end it may do
both. Consequently, both moment and force reactions may exist at the fixed support.

RA

Figure 8.3: Cantilever beam

3. Overhanging Beam
The beam is simply supported at points A and B but projects beyond the roller support
at B. The overhanging segment BC is similar to a cantilever beam except that the beam
axis may rotate at point B.
The above 3 types of beams are known as statically determinate beams as the reactions
of these beams at their supports can be determined by use of the equations of static
equilibrium and the reactions are independent of the deformation of the beams.
 P M1 P
M1

P M1 P
RA RB

Figure 8.4: Cantilever beam

4. Fixed Beam
RA
A beam whose both ends are rigidly fixed or built in into its supporting walls or columns
P M1 P

RA

Figure 8.5: Built-in beam

5. Continuous Beam
A beam which has more than two supports. Supports at the extreme left and right are
called end supports and all other supports are called intermediate supports.

Figure 8.6: Continuous beam

The last two types of beams are known as statically indeterminate beams as their reactions at
the supports cannot be determined by the use of equations of static equilibrium.

When drawing sketches of beams, we identify the supports by conventional symbols such as
those shown above. These symbols indicate the manner in which the beam is restrained, and
 RA RB

hence the nature of the reactive forces and moments. They do not represent the actual physical
construction.

8.3 Types of Loading and Reactions at Supports

There are several types of loads that can act on a beam:

1. Concentrated Load
When the load is applied
P
over a very small area, it may
P
be idealized as a concentrated
M
1 M 1
load which is a single force.

RA RB

Figure 8.7: Concentrated load

2. Distributed force
When the load is spread along the axis of a beam, it is represented as a distributed load.
Distributed loads are measured by their intensity, which is expressed in units of force per
unit distance (e.g Newtons per metre).
- A uniformly distributed load has a constant intensity q per unit distance.

Figure 8.8: Uniformly distributed load

- A varying load has an intensity that changes with distance along the axis of the beam
e.g. linearly varying load with an intensity that varies linearly from q1 to q2
The resultant of a distributed load is equal to the area of the loading diagram and has
its line of action through the centroid of the loading diagram.

3. Couple
A couple consists of two forces of equal magnitude acting in opposite directions and
 Figure 8.9: Varying distributed load

separated by a definite distance. A couple has a rotational effect only. The moment of a
couple is equal to the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between
the lines of action of the forces.

M1

Figure 8.10: Moment of a couple

8.3.1 Reactions at Supports

Finding the reactions of beams at the supports is usually the first step in the analysis of a
beam. Once the reactions are known, the shear forces and bending moments can be found.

If a beam is supported in a statically determined manner, all reactions can be found from free
body diagrams and equations of static equilibrium.

Example 8.3.1. Obtain the reactions at the supports of the simply supported beam beam shown
in figure 8.11. P1 = 500N , P2 = 1KN , q = 200N/m, l = 4m, a = 1m

Solution

Draw the free body diagram and apply equations of static equilibrium.
For horizontal equilibrium,
X
FH = 0 ⇒ RAH − P1 cos60o = 0 (8.1)
RAH = P1 cos60o = 500cos60o (8.2)
RAH = 250N (8.3)
 M1

Figure 8.11:

Figure 8.12:

To find the vertical and horizontal reactions, we write equations of moment equilibrium about
points A and B.
X l a
MB = 0 ⇒ RAV l − (P1 sin60o )(l − a) − P2 − qa = 0 (8.4)
2 2
P1 sin60o (l − a) P2 l qa2
RAV = + + (8.5)
l 2l 2l
500sin60o (4 − 1) 1000 × 4 200 × 12
= + + (8.6)
4 2×4 2×4
RAV = 849.76N (8.7)
X l a
MB = 0 ⇒ −RB l + (P1 sin60o )(a) + P2 − qa(l − ) = 0 (8.8)
2 2
P1 sin60o (a) P2 l l − a 
2
RB = + + qa (8.9)
l 2l l
500sin60o (1) 1000 × 4 200 × (1)(7)
= + + (8.10)
4 2×4 2×4
RAV = 783.25N (8.11)
Example 8.3.2. Obtain the moment reaction and the force reaction for the cantilever beam
shown in figure 8.13.

Figure 8.13:

Solution

Draw the free body diagram and apply equations of static equilibrium.

Figure 8.14:

Draw the free body diagram and apply equations of static equilibrium.

Figure 8.15:

To obtain the reaction force at support, apply vertical equilibrium equation:

X l
FV = 0 ⇒ RA − q (8.12)
4
ql
RA = (8.13)
4
To obtain the moment reaction at the support A, use the equation of equilibrium of moments:
X ql  l
MA = 0 ⇒ MA − l− (8.14)
4 6
5ql2
M1 = (8.15)
24

8.3.2 Shear Force and Bending Moment

When a beam is loaded by forces or couples, stresses and strains are created throughout the
interior of the beam. To determine these stresses, and strains, we must first find the internal
forces and internal couples that act on cross-sections of the beam.

Example

Consider a cantilever beam carrying a point load at the free end. Cut through the beam at a
cross-section aa, a distance x from the free end.

Figure 8.16:

The free body diagram is held in equilibrium by the force P and by the stresses that act over
the cut cross-section. These stresses represent the action of the right hand part of the beam on
the left hand part. The resultant of these stresses acting on the cross-section can be reduced
to a shear force V and a bending moment M .

For a statically determinate beam, these stress resultants can be calculated from equations of
static equilibrium:
X
FV = 0 ⇒ P −V =0 or V =P (8.16)
X
M = 0 ⇒ M − Px = 0 or M = Px (8.17)

8.3.3 Sign Conventions

Shear Force

A shear force having an upward direction to the left hand side of a section or downward to the
right hand side of the section will be taken as positive.

A negative shear force will be one that has a downward direction to the left of the section or
upward direction to the right of the section.

Figure 8.17:

Bending Moment

A bending moment causing concavity upwards will be taken as positive and called sagging
bending moment. A bending moment causing convexity upwards will be taken as negative and
called a hogging bending moment

Figure 8.18:

8.3.4 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

In the design of beams, it is important to know how the shear forces and bending moments
vary thought the length of the beam. Graphs in which the shear force and bending moment
are plotted as ordinates and the distance x along the beam is plotted as the abscissae are
called shear force and bending moment diagrams respectively. These diagrams assist in the
design of beams based on bending stress which is maximum at the x-section where the bending
moment is maximum.

Cantilever Beam with concentrated Load

Figure 8.19:

At section xx,
X
FV = 0 ⇒ V +P =0 (8.18)
∴ V = −P (8.19)
at x = 0, V = −P (8.20)
at x = 0, V = −P (8.21)

Mx + P x = 0 ⇒ Mx = −P x (8.22)
at x = 0, Mx = 0 (8.23)
at x = l, Mx = −P l (8.24)
Cantilever Beam with Uniformly Distributed Load

At section xx,

V = −qx (8.25)
at x = 0, V = 0 (8.26)
at x = l, V = ql (8.27)

x x2
M = −qx = −q (8.28)
2 2
at x = 0, M = 0 (8.29)
l2
at x = l, M = −q (8.30)
2

Figure 8.20:
Simply Supported beam with Concentrated Load

Obtain the reactions at the supports.

X Pb
MB = 0, ⇒ P b − RA l = 0 ∴ RA = (8.31)
l
X Pa
MA = 0, ⇒ P a − RB l = 0 ∴ RB = (8.32)
l

At 0 < x < a, (8.33)

Pb
V − RA = 0, ⇒ V = RA = (8.34)
l
X Pb
Mx = 0 ⇒ M − RA x = 0, M = RA x = x (8.35)
l

At a < x < l, (8.36)

Pb P Pa
V + P − RA = 0, ⇒ V = −P + = − (l − b) = − (8.37)
X l l l
Mx = 0 ⇒ M − RA x + P (x − a) = 0, (8.38)
Pb
M = RA x − P (x − a) = x − Px + Pa (8.39)
l
(l − x)
M = P x − Px + Pa (8.40)
l
Pa
= Px − x − Px + Pa (8.41)
l
Pa
= (l − x) (8.42)
l

Simply Supported Beam with a Uniformly Distributed Load

At section xx,
X l
MB = 0, ⇒ RA − ql = 0 (8.43)
2
ql
RA = (8.44)
2
X l
MA = 0, ⇒ RB − ql = 0 (8.45)
2
ql
RB = (8.46)
2
 Figure 8.21:
X
Fv = 0 ⇒ RA − qx − v = 0 (8.47)
V = RA − qx (8.48)
l 
V = q −x (8.49)
2
X x
Mx = 0 ⇒ M − RA x + qx (8.50)
2
qx2
M = RA − (8.51)
2
q
M = (lx − x2 ) (8.52)
2
The shape of the S.F. and B.M. diagram is parabolic and is symmetrical about the midpoint.
 Figure 8.22:

Combined Loading on an overhang Beam

Sketch the SF and BM diagram for the simply supported overhang beam shown indicating the
principle values.
For 0 < x < 1,
X
Fv = 0 ⇒ V − 2 = 0 (8.53)
V = 2KN (8.54)
X
Mx = 0 ⇒ M − 2x = 0 (8.55)
M = 2x (8.56)
atx = 0, M = 0; at x = 1, M = 2KN m (8.57)
 Figure 8.23:

For 1 < x < 5

X
Fv = 0 ⇒ V + 5 − 2 = 0 (8.58)
V = −3KN (8.59)
X
Mx = 0 ⇒ 2x − 5(x − 1) = 0 (8.60)
M = 5 − 3x (8.61)
at x = 5, M = −10KN m (8.62)
5
f or m = 0, x = m (8.63)
3
For 5 < x < 7,
X
Fv = 0 ⇒ V − 2 + 5 − 13 + 5(x − 5) = 0 (8.64)
V = 35 − 5x (8.65)
X (x − 5)
Mx = 0, ⇒ M − 2x + 5(x − 1) − 13(x − 5) + 5(x − 5) =0 (8.66)
2
M = 35x − 2.5x2 − 122.5 (8.67)
at x = 7, M = 0 (8.68)

Highlights
1. For point loads on beams, the SF diagram shows horizontal straight lines and BM dia-
grams show inclined straight lines.

2. For UDL on beams, the SF diagram shows inclined straight lines l while BM diagrams
show parabolic curves.

3. The bending moment is maximum when

dM
= 0 (8.69)
dx
or V = 0 (8.70)

8.3.5 Relationship of Loading, Shear Forces and Bending Moments

Distributed loads

An element of a beam is used in deriving the relationship between loads, shear forces and
bending moments. For equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction,

Figure 8.24:
 X
Fv = 0 ⇒ V − qdx − (v + dv) = 0 (8.71)
V − qdx − V − dV = 0 (8.72)
dV
= −q (8.73)
dx
Z B Z B Z B
or dV = − qdx ⇒ VB − VA = − qdx (8.74)
A A A

This implies that the change in shear force between two points along the axis of the beam is
equal to the negative of the total load between these points.
Considering moment equilibrium,
X
M = 0 (8.75)
dx
−M − qdx − (V + dV )dx + M + dM = 0 (8.76)
2
dM
−V dx + dm = 0 ⇒ =V (8.77)
dx
Z B Z B
dM = V dx (8.78)
A A
Z B
MB − MA = V dx (8.79)
A

The change in BM between the two points is equal to the area of the shear force diagram
between points A and B.

Concentrated Load

Figure 8.25:

Considering equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction,

V − (V + dV ) − P = 0 (8.80)
V − V − dV − P = 0 (8.81)
dV = −P (8.82)
- At the point of application of a concentrated load, the shear force changes abruptly by an
amount equal to P.
Taking moments about LHS,
dx
−M −P − (V + dV )dx + M + dM = 0 (8.83)
2
dx
−P − V dx − dV dx + dM = 0 (8.84)
2
dM = V dx + dV dx (8.85)
dM
= V + dV = V − P (8.86)
dx
Since the length dx of the element is infinitesimally small, dx
2
' 0. At the point of application
of the load, the rate of change of the bending moment decreases abruptly by an amount equal
to P .

8.4 Tutorial 5
1. A beam ABC is 9m long and supported at B and C 6m apart as shown in figure 8.26.
The beam carries a linearly distributed load aver the portion BC together with an applied
counterclockwise couple of moment 80KNm at B and a uniformly distributed load of
10KN/m over AB. Sketch the shear force and bending diagrams of the beam.

Figure 8.26:

2. Figure 8.27 shows a simply supported beam of length 9 m which is used to support part
of a machinery in a textile industry. The loading can be translated into a uniformly
distributed load of 800 N/m together with a couple of 4.2 kN·m as shown.

(a) Determine the support reactions at A and B.

(b) Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams.

3. A simply supported beam, 8m long is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of intensity
60kN/m over a span of 4m and a clockwise moment of a couple of magnitude 240kNm as
shown in Figure 8.28.
 Figure 8.27:

Figure 8.28:

(a) Determine the support reactions.

(b) Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams.

4. Figure 8.29 shows an overhanging beam carrying a distributed load and concentrated loads
as shown. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams and hence determine:

(a) the magnitude and position of the maximum bending moment.

(b) the position(s) of point(s) of contra-flexure if any.

Figure 8.29:

5. A simply supported beam of negligible weight carries a linearly varying distributed load
in addition to concentrated loads as shown in figure 8.30;

(a) sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams and indicate all principal
values.
(b) determine the location(s) of zero shear force and the value of the bending moment
at this point(s).
Figure 8.30: