PADMA SESHADRI BALA BHAVAN SR. SEC.

SCHOOL
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
STD XII AC CIRCUITS NOTES

Why alternating current?

The main reason for preferring use of ac voltage
over dc voltage is that
❖ ac voltages can be easily and efficiently converted from one voltage to the
other by means of transformers.
❖ electrical energy can also be transmitted economically over long distances.
❖ AC circuits exhibit characteristics which are exploited in many devices of
daily use. For example, whenever we tune our radio, we are taking advantage
of a special property of ac circuits.

AC GENERATOR
An ac generator or dynamo produces alternating electrical current from mechanical
energy.
Principle: It is based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. When a coil
is rotated about a vertical axis in a uniform magnetic field in the horizontal
direction, there is an induced current. Change in orientation of the coil gives rise
to change in magnetic flux and hence there is an induced emf.
Theory:
Let N be the number of turns of the coil
A the area enclosed by the coil
B the strength of the magnetic field
and θ the angle the normal to the coil makes with the direction of magnetic field
at any instant t
Magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position is
φB = NABcosθ
If the coil is rotating in a uniform magnetic field with constant angular velocity ω,
then θ = ωt.
Thus φB = NABcosωt
From Faraday’s and Lenz’s law
𝐝𝛗𝐁 d
ε or e = - = -NAB (cos ωt) = NABωsinωt
𝐝𝐭 dt

Construction: The essential parts of an ac generator are

• Armature: ABCD is a rectangular armature coil consisting of a large number
of insulated copper wires wound over a laminated soft iron core.
• Magnets: N and S are the poles of a powerful magnet. The axis of rotation
of the armature is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
• Slip rings R1 & R2: They are two hollow metallic rings to which the ends of
the armature coil are connected and the rotate with the coil.
• Brushes B1 & B2: They are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods. They
are fixed and kept in light contact with the slip rings. The purpose of the

Page 1 of 21
 brushes is to pass on the current from the armature coil to the external
load resistance R.

Working:
• Let the plane of the coil be first in the magnetic field such that magnetic
flux is zero. When rotated in the anticlockwise direction, AB moves outward
and CD inward. The magnetic flux lined with the coil changes and hence
there will be an induced current.
• The direction of induced current can be determined by Fleming’s right hand
rule and it is from A to B and C to D and hence clockwise in the coil. The
direction of current in the external resistor is towards the left as shown.
• After half a rotation the position of AB and CD are as shown. Further
rotating the coil will now have AB moving inward and CD outward.
• The direction of induced current can be determined by Fleming’s right hand
rule and it is now reversed. It is from B to A and D to C and hence again
clockwise in the coil.
• The direction of current in the external resistor is however now towards the
right as shown.
Induced current in the external circuit changes direction after every half a
rotation and it is alternating in nature.

Page 2 of 21
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS
• Instantaneous value of alternating emf e = NABωsinωt
• When sinωt = 1, e is maximum and is represented by e0 and it is called the
peak value of emf or amplitude of emf.
• Peak value e0 = NABω. It is also denoted as em.
• Instantaneous value of emf e = e0sinωt
𝐞 𝐞𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭
• Instantaneous value of current i = = = i0sinωt
𝐑 𝐑
𝐞𝟎
• Peak value of current i0 = = im
𝐑
• Average value of ac emf and current over one complete cycle of ac is
equal to zero.

Mean value of ac: It is that value of steady current which would send the same
amount of charge through a circuit in half the time period (T/2) as that of the
alternating current through the same circuit in the same time.
If Im is the value of steady current then
T
q = Im ------(1)
2
For ac
i = i0sinωt
Charge sent through the circuit in time dt is
dq = idt = i0sinωtdt
Therefore, the total charge sent in time T/2 is
T/2
q = ∫ dq = ∫0 i0sinωtdt
T/2 i0
Thus q = i0 ∫0 sinωtdt = (-cosωt |0 )
T/2
ω
2π
But ω =
T

2π T 𝟐𝐢𝟎
(cos x - cos0) = - 0 (-1 -1) =
i0 i
q =- ----(2)
ω T 2 ω 𝛚

Comparing (1) and (2) we get

𝐓 𝟐𝐢𝟎 𝟐𝐢𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐓
Im = = =
𝟐 𝛚 𝟐𝛑/𝐓 𝛑

𝟐𝐢𝟎
Thus Im =
𝛑
𝟐𝐞𝟎
Mean value of ac emf is em =
𝛑

Note:
• Mean value of alternating current during the negative half cycle of ac from
𝟐𝐢𝟎
T/2 to T is Im = - .
𝛑
• Mean value of alternating emf during the negative half cycle of ac from T/2
𝟐𝐞𝟎
to T is em = - .
𝛑
• Thus, average value over one cycle is zero as the positive and negative values
get cancelled.
• The value of the shaded portion in the graph
𝟐𝐢𝟎
• Positive half cycle =
𝛚
𝟐𝐢𝟎
• Negative half cycle =-
𝛚

Page 3 of 21
Rms value of ac: It is that value of steady current that produces the same
amount of heat in a given resistor R in time T as that of the alternating current
through the same resistor and in the same time T.

If the rms value is represented as Irms then the heat produced in a resistor R in
time T is

H = 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬
𝟐
RT ------(1)

For ac:

i = i0sinωt

Heat produced in the resistor R in time dt is

dH = 𝐢𝟐 Rdt = (𝐢𝟐𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ωt) Rdt

Therefore, the total heat produced in time T is

𝐓
H = ∫ 𝐝𝐇 = ∫𝟎 (𝐢𝟐𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ωt) Rdt
T
Thus H = i20 R ∫0 sin2 ωtdt
T 1 −cos2ωt
H = i20 R ∫0 dt
2
i20 R T i20 R sin2ωt T
H= ∫0 (1 − cos2ωt) dt = (t - |0 )
2 2 2ω

i20 R sin2ωT sin0

H= [( T − 0) − ( − ]
2 2ω 2ω
2π
As ω =
T

𝐢𝟐𝟎 𝐑 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝐱 𝟐𝛑 𝐢𝟐𝟎 𝐑𝐓

H= [𝐓 − ( )] = -----(2)
𝟐 𝟐𝛚 𝟐

Equating (1) and (2) we get

𝐢𝟐𝟎 𝐑𝐓
2
Irms RT =
𝟐

i20
2
Irms =
2
𝐢𝟎
Irms =
√𝟐
𝐞𝟎
Rms value of emf = erms =
√𝟐

Note:

Alternating voltages and currents are measured using ac voltmeters and ammeters
called hot wire meters and they measure rms values of voltage and current. They
are based on heating effect of current.

Page 4 of 21
Phasor diagram
A rotating vector that represents a quantity varying sinusoidally with time is called
a phasor. This vector is imagined to rotate with the angular velocity equal to that
of the quantity.
In the phasor diagram for ac circuits, the peak value of voltage (e0) and current
(i0) are represented as rotating vectors, rotating in the anti-clockwise direction.

The projection of the rotating vector on the vertical axis gives the instantaneous
value of the voltage and current.
Note: In the sine form the projection is taken on the vertical axis and in the
cosine form on the horizontal axis.

AC THROUGH RESISTOR
Instantaneous value of emf ε = ε0sinωt
It can also be written as V = Vmsinωt or
V = V0sinωt or e = e0sinωt
𝛆
Instantaneous value of current i =
𝐑
𝛆𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭
i = = i0sinωt
𝐑
ε0
Here = i0
R
The voltage and the current are in phase when an alternating voltage is applied
to a pure resistor.

a) Phasor diagram:

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b) Variation of resistance with frequency or angular frequency

c) Variation of voltage and current with time:

v = vmsinωt
i = imsinωt

AC THROUGH an ideal INDUCTOR

An ideal inductor is one that offers zero resistance
Instantaneous value of emf e = e0sinωt
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule we get
𝐝𝐢
e0sinωt-L = 0 -----(1)
𝐝𝐭
e0 sinωt
di = dt
L
𝐞𝟎 𝐞𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭
i = ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭𝐝𝐭 = - ------(2)
𝐋 𝛚𝐋
𝐞𝟎
Here = 𝐢𝟎 ----(3)
𝛚𝐋
XL = ωL is called inductive reactance. It is the opposition offered by the
inductor to the flow of alternating current through [Link] unit of inductive
reactance is ohm(Ω).
Substituting (3) in (2) we get
i = -i0cosωt
𝛑 𝛑
cosωt = sin ( - ωt) -cosωt = sin(ωt - )
𝟐 𝟐
𝛑
i = i0sin(ωt - )
𝟐
𝛑
The current lags the voltage by for an alternating voltage applied across an
𝟐
ideal inductor.

a) Phasor diagram

Page 6 of 21
b) Variation of inductive reactance with frequency or angular frequency:
XL = ωL; XL = 2πfL
X L α ω ; XL α f

c) Variation of voltage and current with time:

AC THROUGH A CAPACITOR
Instantaneous value of emf e = e0sinωt
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule we get
q
e0sinωt = ----(1)
C
q = Ce0sinωt
𝐝𝐪 𝐞𝟎
i = = Ce0ωcosωt = cosωt ----(2)
𝐝𝐭 𝟏/𝛚𝐂
𝐞𝟎
Here = 𝐢𝟎 ----(3)
𝟏/𝛚𝐂
𝟏
XC = is called capacitive reactance. It is the opposition offered by the
𝛚𝐂
capacitor to the flow of alternating current through [Link] unit of capacitive
reactance is ohm(Ω).
Substituting (3) in (2) we get
i = i0cosωt
π
cosωt = sin ( + ωt)
2
𝛑
i = i0sin (ωt + )
𝟐
𝛑
The current leads the voltage by for an alternating voltage applied across a
𝟐
capacitor.

a) Phasor diagram

Page 7 of 21
b) Variation of capacitive reactance with frequency or angular frequency:
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2πfC
𝟏 𝟏
XC α ; XC α
𝛚 𝐟

C
∞

c) Variation of voltage and current with time:

LCR series circuit

Consider a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source ε. We take the voltage of
the source to be V= V0sinωt.

If I0 is the peak value of current in the circuit then

V0L = I0XL and it leads the current by π/2.
V0C = I0XC and it lags the current by π/2.
V0R = I0R and it is in phase with the current

Phasor diagram

Page 8 of 21
a) Inductive dominated circuit: XL > XC
When XL > XC, then V0L > V0C and hence the phasor diagram is as shown.

Here V0L-V0C and V0R form the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram and the
resultant is V0 or e0.
The voltage leads the current by φ.
1) V0 = √(𝐕𝟎𝐋 − 𝐕𝟎𝐂 )𝟐 + 𝐕𝟎𝐑
𝟐

2) V0L = I0XL; V0C = I0XC; V0R = I0R

V0 = √(I0XL − I0XC)2 + (I0R)2
V0 = I0√(XL − XC)𝟐 + (R)𝟐
𝐕𝟎
= Z = √(XL − XC)𝟐 + (R)𝟐
𝐈𝟎
𝟏 𝟐
Z = √(𝛚𝐋 − ) + (R)𝟐
𝛚𝐂
Here Z is called the impedance.
Impedance is resistance + reactance and it is opposition offered by an LCR series
circuit to the flow of alternating current. SI unit of impedance is ohm (Ω).

3) Phase difference between the voltage and current is φ and the voltage leads
the current by φ.
𝐕𝟎𝐋 − 𝐕𝟎𝐂 𝐈𝟎 𝐗 𝐋 −𝐈𝟎 𝐗 𝐂 𝐗𝐋 − 𝐗𝐂
tanφ = = =
𝐕𝟎𝐑 𝐈𝟎 𝐑 𝐑

4) Instantaneous value of current is given by

I = I0sin (ωt – φ)

b) Capacitive dominated circuit: XC > XL

When XC > XL, then V0C > V0L and hence the phasor diagram is as shown.

Page 9 of 21
Here V0C -V0L and V0R form the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram and the
resultant is V0 or e0.
The voltage leads the current by φ.
1) V0 = √(𝐕𝟎𝐂 − 𝐕𝟎𝐋 )𝟐 + 𝐕𝟎𝐑
𝟐

2) V0L = I0XL; V0C = I0XC; V0R = I0R

V0 = I0√(XC − XL)𝟐 + (R)𝟐
𝐕𝟎
= Z = √(XC − XL)𝟐 + (R)𝟐
𝐈𝟎
𝟏 𝟐
Z = √( − 𝛚𝐋) + (R)𝟐
𝛚𝐂

3) Phase difference between the voltage and current is φ and the current leads
the voltage by φ.
𝐕𝟎𝐂 − 𝐕𝟎𝐋 𝐈𝟎 𝐗 𝐂 −𝐈𝟎 𝐗 𝐋 𝐗𝐂 − 𝐗𝐋
tanφ = = =
𝐕𝟎𝐑 𝐈𝟎 𝐑 𝐑

4) Instantaneous value of current is given by

I = I0sin (ωt + φ)

LR CIRCUIT
Consider a series LR circuit connected to an ac source ε. We take the voltage of
the source to be V= V0sinωt.

1) V0 = √𝐕𝟎𝐋
𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝐕𝟎𝐑

2) V0L = I0XL; V0R = I0R V0 = I0√(XL)𝟐 + (R)𝟐

𝐕𝟎
= Z = √𝐗 𝟐𝐋 + 𝐑𝟐
𝐈𝟎
Z = √(𝛚𝐋)𝟐 + (R)𝟐
3) Phase difference between the voltage and current is φ and the current leads
the voltage by φ.
𝐕𝟎𝐋 𝐈𝟎 𝐗 𝐋 𝐗𝐋
tanφ = = =
𝐕𝟎𝐑 𝐈𝟎 𝐑 𝐑

4) Instantaneous value of current is given by

I = I0sin (ωt - φ)

CR CIRCUIT
Consider a series CR circuit connected to an ac source ε. We take the voltage of
the source to be V= V0sinωt.

Page 10 of 21
1) V0 = √𝐕𝟎𝐂
𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝐕𝟎𝐑

2) V0C = I0XC; V0R = I0R V0 = I0√(Xc)𝟐 + (R)𝟐

𝐕𝟎
= Z = √𝐗 𝟐𝐂 + 𝐑𝟐
𝐈𝟎
𝟏
Z = √( )𝟐 + (R)𝟐
𝛚𝐂

3) Phase difference between the voltage and current is φ and the current leads
the voltage by φ.
𝐕𝟎𝐂 𝐈𝟎 𝐗 𝐂 𝐗𝐂
tanφ = = =
𝐕𝟎𝐑 𝐈𝟎 𝐑 𝐑

4) Instantaneous value of current is given by

I = I0sin (ωt + φ)

POWER IN ONLY RESISTOR CIRCUIT

There is Joule heating and dissipation of electrical energy when an ac current
passes through a resistor.
Instantaneous voltage e = e0sinωt
Instantaneous current i = i0sinωt
𝐝𝐖
Instantaneous power is = ei = e0sinωt x i0sinωt = e0i0sin2ωt
𝐝𝐭
𝐖
Average power dissipated in one cycle P =
𝐓
dW 2
= e0i0sin ωt
dt
dW = e0i0sin2ωt dt
𝐓
Total energy dissipated = W = ∫ 𝐝𝐖 = ∫𝟎 e0i0sin2ωt dt

T T
W = ∫0 e0i0sin2ωt dt = e0i0 ∫0 sin2ωt dt
e0 i0 T e0 i0 sin2ωt
W= ∫0 (1 − cos2ωt)dt = [t − |𝑇0 ]
2 2 2ω
𝟐𝛑
As ω =
𝐓
e0 i0 sin4π −sin0
W= [(T − 0) − |𝑇0 ]
2 2ω
𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐓
W =
𝟐
𝐖 𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐞𝟐𝟎 𝐢𝟐𝟎 𝐑
Average power dissipated P = = = =
𝐓 𝟐 𝟐𝐑 𝟐
𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐞𝟐𝐫𝐦𝐬
P = = ermsirms = = 𝐢𝟐𝐫𝐦𝐬 R
√𝟐 𝐱 √𝟐 𝐑
(As erms = irmsR and e0 = i0R)

Page 11 of 21
POWER IN ONLY INDUCTOR CIRCUIT
Instantaneous voltage e = e0sinωt
π
Instantaneous current i = i0sin(ωt - ) = -i0cosωt
2
𝐝𝐖 𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭
Instantaneous power is = ei = e0sinωt x -i0cosωt =-
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
𝐖
Average power dissipated in one cycle P =
𝐓
𝐝𝐖 𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭
=-
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭
dW = - dt
𝟐
𝐓 𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭
Total energy dissipated = W = ∫ 𝐝𝐖 = ∫𝟎 - dt
𝟐
𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎
W = -
𝐓
∫𝟎 sin2𝝎𝒕 dt
𝟐
𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛚𝐭 𝐓
W = - [ - |𝟎 ]
𝟐 𝟐𝛚
𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟒𝛑 −𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟎
W = [ ] = 0
𝟐 𝟐𝛚
𝐖
Average power P = = 0
𝐓
The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is zero.

𝛑
The graph shows the current lags the voltage by and that the frequency of
𝟐
power is twice the frequency of the ac source.

FIRST 1/4TH CYCLE: Current i through the

coil entering at A increase from zero to a
maximum value. Flux lines are set up i.e., the
core gets magnetized. ENERGY IS
ABSORBED FROM THE SOURCE.

SECOND 1/4TH CYCLE: Current in the coil is

still positive but is decreasing. The core gets
demagnetized and the net flux becomes zero
at the end of a half cycle. ENERGY IS BEING
RETURNED TO SOURCE.

THIRD 1/4TH CYCLE: Current i becomes

negative i.e., it enters at B and comes out of A.
Since the direction of current has changed,
the polarity of the magnet changes. ENERGY
IS ABSORBED.

Page 12 of 21
 FOURTH 1/4TH CYCLE: Current i
decreases and reaches its zero value when
core is demagnetized and flux is zero.
ENERGY ABSORBED DURING THE
THIRD ¼ CYCLE IS RETURNED TO THE
SOURCE.

POWER IN ONLY CAPACITOR CIRCUIT

Instantaneous voltage e = e0sinωt
𝛑
Instantaneous current i = i0sin(ωt + ) = i0cosωt
𝟐
𝐝𝐖 𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭
Instantaneous power is = ei = e0sinωt x i0cosωt =
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
𝐖
Average power dissipated in one cycle P =
𝐓
𝐝𝐖 𝐞𝟎 𝐢𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭
=
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
e0 i0 sin2ωt
dW = dt
2
T e0 i0 sin2ωt
Total energy dissipated = W = ∫ dW = ∫0 dt
2
𝑒0 𝑖0 T
W= ∫0 sin2𝜔𝑡 dt
2
e0 i0 cos2ωt T
W= [- |0 ]
2 2ω
e0 i0 cos4π −cos0
W=- [ ]=0
2 2ω
𝐖
Average power P = = 0
𝐓
The average power supplied to an capacitor over one complete cycle is zero.
CURRENT THROUGH AN IDEAL INDUCTOR OR CAPACITOR WHICH
CONSUMES NO POWER IS CALLED WATTLESS CURRENT.

𝛑
The graph shows the current leads the voltage by and that the frequency of
𝟐
power is twice the frequency of the ac source.

FIRST 1/4TH CYCLE: The current i flows

from the maximum and reaches 0 at T/4. The
plate A is charged to positive polarity while
negative charge q builds up in B reaching a
maximum at T/4. The voltage VC = q/C is in
phase with q and reaches maximum value at
T/4. ENERGY IS ABSORBED FROM THE
SOURCE DURING THIS QUARTER CYCLE
AS THE CAPACITOR IS CHARGED.
Page 13 of 21
 SECOND 1/4TH CYCLE: The current i
reverses its direction. The accumulated
charge is depleted i.e., the capacitor is
discharged during this quarter cycle. The
voltage gets reduced to zero at T/4.
THE ENERGY ABSORBED DURING THE
FIRST ¼ CYCLE IS RETURNED
DURING THIS QUARTER.

THIRD 1/4TH CYCLE: As i continues to

flow from A to B, the capacitor is
charged to reversed polarity i.e., the
plate B acquires positive and A acquires
negative charge.

THE CAPACITOR ABSORBS ENERGY

DURING THIS 1/4 CYCLE.

FOURTH 1/4TH CYCLE: The current i

reverses its direction and flows from B to A.
The accumulated charge is depleted and the
magnitude of the voltage VC is reduced. VC
becomes zero at T when the capacitor is
fully discharged. ENERGY ABSORBED
DURING 3rd 1/4th CYCLE IS RETURNED
TO THE SOURCE.

THUS, NET ENERGY ABSORBED IS ZERO.

POWER IN LCR SERIES CIRCUIT

Instantaneous voltage e = e0sinωt
Instantaneous current I = I0sin(ωt+φ) [For capacitive dominated]
𝐝𝐖
Instantaneous power = ei = e0sinωt x I0sin(ωt+φ)
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐖
= e0I0sinωt x [sinωtcosφ + cosωtsinφ]
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐖
= e0I0 (sin2ωtcosφ + sinωtcosωtsinφ)
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐖 e0 I0
= ([1-cos2ωt]cosφ + sin2ωtsinφ)
𝐝𝐭 2
e0 I 0
dW = ([1-cos2ωt]cosφ + sin2ωtsinφ)dt
2
T e0 I0
W = ∫ dW = ∫0 ([1-cos2ωt]cosφ + sin2ωtsinφ)dt
2
e0 I0 T T
W= [cos𝜑 ∫0 ([1-cos2ωt] dt + sinφ ∫0 sin2ωt dt ]
2
e0 I0 sin2ωt T cos2ωt T
W= [cosφ ( t - |0 ) + sinφ (- |0 )]
2 2ω 2ω

Page 14 of 21
 e0 I 0 T
W= cosφ
2
𝐖 𝐞𝟎 𝐈𝟎 𝐞𝟎 𝐈𝟎
Average power = = cosφ = cosφ = ermsIrmscosφ
𝐓 𝟐 √𝟐 𝐱 √𝟐
The quantity cosφ is called power factor.

For a capacitive dominated LCR series circuit

𝐗𝐂− 𝐗𝐋
tanφ =
𝐑
𝐑 𝐑
cosφ = =
√(𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 +𝐑𝟐 𝐙
Average power = 𝐏 = ermsirmscosφ
𝐑
𝐏 = ermsIrms
𝐙
𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐬
For an LCR series circuit = 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬
𝐙
Thus P = 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬
𝟐
R
Power is dissipated only in the resistor in an LCR series circuit.

LC OSCILLATIONS
A capacitor and an inductor can store electrical and magnetic energy, respectively.
When a capacitor (initially charged) is connected to an inductor, the charge on the
capacitor and the current in the circuit exhibit the phenomenon of electrical
oscillations similar to oscillations in mechanical systems.

Let a capacitor be charged q0 (at t = 0) and connected to an inductor as shown.

The moment the circuit is completed, the charge on the capacitor starts
decreasing, giving rise to current in the circuit. Let q and i be the charge and
current in the circuit at time t.
From Lenz’s law, the induced emf in L will have polarity as shown.
According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
𝐪 𝐝𝐢
- L = 0 ----(1)
𝐂 𝐝𝐭
dq
But i = - (as charge decreases, current increases)
dt
𝐪 𝐝𝟐 𝐪
Thus + L = 0
𝐂 𝐝𝐭 𝟐

𝐝𝟐 𝐪 𝐪
+ = 0 -----(2)
𝐝𝐭 𝟐 𝐋𝐂
Comparing (2) with the equation of simple harmonic oscillator
𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝟏
+ 𝛚𝟐 x = 0 we get 𝛚𝟐 =
𝐝𝐭 𝟐 𝐋𝐂

𝟏
The natural frequency of LC oscillation is ω =
√𝐋𝐂
𝟏
Frequency f =
𝟐𝛑√𝐋𝐂

Page 15 of 21
 𝐝𝟐 𝐪
Thus equation (2) is + 𝛚𝟐 𝐪 = 0
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
Solving we get q = q0cosωt
𝐝𝐪
Since i = - = q0ωsinωt = i0sinωt
𝐝𝐭

(a) At t = 0, the switch is closed and the capacitor starts to discharge.

(b) As the current increases, it sets up a magnetic field in the inductor and
thereby, some energy gets stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic energy:
𝟏
UB = Li2
𝟐
(c) As the current reaches its maximum value i0 (at t = T/4) all the energy is
𝟏
stored in the magnetic field: UB = L𝐢𝟐𝟎 The capacitor now has no charge and hence
𝟐
no energy.
(d) The current now starts charging the capacitor. This process continues till the
capacitor is fully charged.
(e) At t = T/2 it is charged with a polarity opposite to its initial state The whole
process just described will now repeat itself till the system reverts to its original
state. Thus, the energy in the system oscillates between the capacitor and the
inductor.

ELECTRICAL RESONANCE
An LCR series circuit which admits maximum current for a given frequency of ac is
called series resonant circuit.
Electrical resonance is said to take place in an LCR series circuit when current
amplitude is maximum. This will happen when impedance is minimum i.e. when
capacitive reactance is equal to inductive reactance.
Z = √(𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐
When XL = XC, Z is minimum = R
𝐞𝟎 𝐞𝟎
Thus I0 = =
𝐙 𝐑
The frequency at which XL = XC is 𝜔0 ,
𝟏
𝝎𝟎 L=
𝛚𝟎 𝐂
1
ω20 =
LC
𝟏
Thus 𝛚𝟎 = is equal to the natural frequency of oscillation and it is called
√𝐋𝐂
resonant frequency.
𝟏
Frequency 𝐟𝟎 =
𝟐𝛑√𝐋𝐂
At resonant frequency 𝛚𝟎 :
1) Z is minimum = R
𝐞𝟎
2) Current is maximum I0 =
𝐑

3) Voltage and current are in phase φ = 0

𝐗𝐋− 𝐗𝐂
(As tanφ = = 0 as XL = XC)
𝐑

Page 16 of 21
4) Power factor is unity
(As power factor is cosφ = cos0 = 1)

VARIATION OF CURRENT AMPLITUDE WITH FREQUENCY OF AC SOURCE

• At ω = ω0, impedance is minimum, Z = R and hence current amplitude is
maximum.
• At ω < ω0, capacitive reactance increases, inductive reactance decreases
and hence the difference |XL – XC| increases. As impedance Z =
√(𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐 , it increases and hence current decreases.

• At ω > ω0, capacitive reactance decreases, inductive reactance increases

and hence the difference |XL – XC| increases. As impedance Z =
√(𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐 , it increases and hence current decreases.

For ω < ω0
1 1
ω< ω2 <
√LC LC
1
ωL < XL < XC
ωC
Thus current leads the voltage for ω < ω0

For ω > ω0
1 1
ω> ω2 >
√LC LC
1
ωL > XL > XC
ωC
Thus current lags the voltage for ω > ω0

Sharpness of resonance

1
ω1 and ω2 are frequencies at which the current becomes of its maximum value or
√2
power becomes half. They are called half power points.
ω1 = ω0 – Δω; ω2 = ω0 + Δω
ω2 - ω1 = 2Δω is called the bandwidth
The difference between the frequencies at which the current becomes 1/√2 or
power becomes half the maximum value is called bandwidth.

Page 17 of 21
At ω0
𝐞𝟎
(I0)max = ------(1)
𝐑
At ω2
𝐞𝟎 𝐞𝟎
I0= = 𝟏
------(2)
√𝟐𝐑 √(𝛚𝟐 𝐋 − 𝛚 𝐂)𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐
𝟐

𝐞𝟎 𝐞𝟎
Simplifying I0 = = 𝟏
and cross multiplying we get
√𝟐𝐑 √(𝛚𝟐 𝐋 − 𝛚 𝐂)𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
√(𝛚𝟐 𝐋 − )𝟐 + 𝐑𝟐 = √𝟐R --- Squaring both sides
𝛚𝟐 𝐂
𝟏 𝟐
(𝛚𝟐 𝐋 − ) + 𝐑𝟐 = 2R2
𝛚𝟐 𝐂
𝟏 𝟐
(𝛚𝟐 𝐋 − ) = 𝐑𝟐 -------Taking square root on both sides
𝛚𝟐 𝐂
𝟏
𝛚𝟐 𝐋 − = R
𝛚𝟐 𝐂
As ω2 = ω0 + Δω
𝟏
R = (ω0 + Δω)L -
(𝛚𝟎 + 𝚫𝛚)𝐂
𝟏
Simplifying R = (ω0 + Δω)L - we get
(𝛚𝟎 + 𝚫𝛚)𝐂
𝚫𝛚 𝟏
R = ω0L (1 + ) - 𝚫𝛚
-----(3)
𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝐂( 𝟏 + )
𝛚𝟎
𝟏
As ω0 is the resonant frequency, XL = XC ; 𝛚𝟎 L=
𝛚𝟎 𝐂
𝟏
Substituting 𝛚𝟎 L= in (3) we get
𝛚𝟎 𝐂
𝚫𝛚 𝛚𝟎 𝐋
R = ω0L (1 + ) - 𝚫𝛚
𝛚𝟎 (𝟏+ )
𝛚𝟎
𝚫𝛚 𝚫𝛚 −𝟏
R = ω0L (1 + ) - ω0L (1 + ) ------ (4)
𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎

Using binomial expansion (1 + x )n = 1 + nx in equation (4) we get

𝚫𝛚 𝚫𝛚
R = ω0L (1 + ) - ω0L (1 - )
𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎
R = ω0L + ΔωL - ω0L + ΔωL
R = 2ΔωL
𝐑
Thus bandwidth 2Δω =
𝐋

Smaller the resistance. lesser the bandwidth, sharper the curve.

Greater the resistance, larger the bandwidth , flatter the curve.

Page 18 of 21
Q-factor or quality factor
❖ Resonant circuits are used in the tuning mechanism of a radio or a TV set.
The antenna of a radio accepts signals from many broadcasting stations. The
signals picked up in the antenna acts as a source in the tuning circuit of the
radio, so the circuit can be driven at many frequencies.
❖ To hear one particular radio station, we tune the radio. In tuning, we vary
the capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning circuit such that the resonant
frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the radio
signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the
frequency of the signal of the particular radio station in the circuit is
maximum.
The sharpness or selectivity of a tuning circuit is measured by Q-factor or
Quality factor. Q-factor is the ratio of the resonant frequency to bandwidth.
𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎
Q = = ---(1)
𝛚𝟐 − 𝛚𝟏 𝟐𝚫𝛚
𝐑
Bandwidth 2Δω =
𝐋
𝛚𝟎 𝐋
Thus Q = ---(2)
𝐑
Q factor is also defined as the ratio of the potential drop across an inductor
or capacitor at resonance to the voltage drop across the resistor.
𝟏
As 𝛚𝟎 =
√𝐋𝐂
𝛚𝟎 𝐋 𝟏 𝐋
Q = = √ -----(3)
𝐑 𝐑 𝐂
If the resonance is less sharp, not only is the maximum current less, the circuit is
close to resonance for a larger range Δω of frequencies and the tuning of the
circuit will not be good. So, less sharp the resonance, less is the selectivity of the
circuit or vice versa.
From (2) and (3) we see that lower the value of R, greater is the Q factor and
hence greater is the selectivity of the circuit.

VARIATION OF IMPEDANCE, REACTANCE AND RESISTANCE WITH

FREQUENCY OF AC SOURCE

Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device used for changing the ac voltages.
A transformer that can increase the ac voltages is called a step up transformer
and the one that decreases ac voltages is a step down transformer.
Principle: A transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction i.e. whenever
the magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an emf is induced in the neighbouring
coil.

Page 19 of 21
Construction:
• It consists of a rectangular soft iron core made of laminated sheets, well
insulated from each other.
• Two coils P1P2 (primary coil) with number of turns NP and S1S2 secondary
coil with number of turns NS are wound on the same core.
• The source of alternating emf is connected to the primary coil and the load
resistance is connected to the secondary coil.
• For an ideal transformer, we assume the resistance of the primary and
secondary windings is negligible.

Theory & Working:

The emf of the ac source
e = e0sinωt
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current
produces an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces
an emf in it. The value of this emf depends on the number of turns in the
secondary.
We consider an ideal transformer in which the primary has negligible resistance
and all the flux in the core links both primary and secondary windings.
Let φ be the flux in each turn in the core at time t due to current in the primary
when a voltage is applied to it.
Then the induced emf or voltage es, in the secondary with Ns turns is
𝐝𝛗
es = -NS -----(1)
𝐝𝐭
The alternating flux φ also induces an emf, called back emf in the
primary. This is
𝐝𝛗
eP = -NP -----(2)
𝐝𝐭
Dividing (2) and (1) we get
𝐞𝐏 𝐍𝐏
= ------(3)
𝐞𝐒 𝐍𝐒

If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the power
input is equal to the power output, and since P = ei,
ipep = ises ------(4)
Although some energy is always lost, this is a good approximation, since a well-
designed transformer may have an efficiency of more than 95%.
From equations (3) and (4) we get
𝐞𝐏 𝐍 𝐢
= 𝐏 = 𝐒 -----(5)
𝐞𝐒 𝐍𝐒 𝐢𝐏
Since i and e both oscillate with the same frequency as the ac source, (5) also
gives the ratio of the amplitudes or rms values of corresponding quantities.

Page 20 of 21
𝐞𝐏 𝐍𝐏 𝐢𝐒
= =
𝐞𝐒 𝐍𝐒 𝐢𝐏
❖ If the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the primary (Ns >
Np), the voltage is stepped up (es > ep). This type of arrangement is called
a step-up transformer. However, in this arrangement, there is less current
in the secondary than in the primary (Np/Ns < 1 and Is < Ip).
❖ If the secondary coil has less turns than the primary (Ns < Np), we have a
step-down transformer. In this case, es < ep and Is > Ip. That is, the
voltage is stepped down, or reduced, and the current is increased.
The equations obtained above apply to ideal transformers (without
any energy losses).

Energy losses in a transformer

In actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due to the following reasons:
(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of
the flux due to primary passes through the secondary due to poor
design of the core or the air gaps in the core. It can be reduced by
winding the primary and secondary coils one over the other.

(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some
resistance and so, energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I2R). In high
current, low voltage windings, these are minimized by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the
iron core and causes heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
(iv) Hysteresis: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the
alternating magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core appears
as heat and is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic
material which has a low hysteresis loss like soft iron.
The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long
distances is done with the use of transformers. The voltage output of the
generator is stepped-up (so that current is reduced and consequently, the I2R loss
is cut down). It is then transmitted over long distances to an area sub-station near
the consumers. There the voltage is stepped down. It is further stepped down at
distributing sub-stations and utility poles before a power supply of 240 V reaches
our homes.

*************************************************

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