MECH2310: Thermodynamics

Chapter 4
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF
CLOSED SYSTEMS

Prof. Baoling Huang

Department of Mechanical Engineering/ HKUST
 Objective
• s Examine the moving boundary work or P dV work commonly
encountered in reciprocating devices such as automotive engines and
compressors.
• Identify the first law of thermodynamics as simply a statement of the
conservation of energy principle for closed (fixed mass) systems.
• Develop the general energy balance applied to closed systems.
• Define the specific heat at constant volume and the specific heat at
constant pressure.
• Relate the specific heats to the calculation of the changes in internal
energy and enthalpy of ideal gases.
• Describe incompressible substances and determine the changes in
their internal energy and enthalpy.
• Solve energy balance problems for closed (fixed mass) systems that
involve heat and work interactions for general pure substances, ideal
gases, and incompressible substances.
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 • Thermodynamics of biological systems

Why study moving boundary work?

Working process of a
simplified automobile
engine.

● In devices,
● Automobile engine
● Piston-cylinder device
● Compressor
● Work is the mechanism for energy interaction
between a system and its surroundings (not
directly driven by temperature difference)

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Moving Boundary Work
Moving boundary work (P dV work): Quasi-equilibrium process:
The expansion and compression work A process during which the system
in a piston-cylinder device. remains nearly in equilibrium at all
times.
Wb is positive>for expansion
-

Wb is negative> for compression

-

Constant volume>Wb=0-

The work associated

with a moving
boundary is called
A gas does a boundary work.
differential
amount of work
SWb as it forces
the piston to
move by a
differential
amount ds. 0
 The boundary
work done
during a process
depends on the
path followed as
well as the end
states.

The area under the process

curve on a P-V diagram
represents the boundary work. The net work done Itvew)
during a cycle is the
difference between
the work done by
the system and the FVew)
work done on the
system.
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 Example
● A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150 oC. As a
result of heat transfer to the surroundings, the
temperature and pressure inside the tank drop to 65 oC
and 400 kPa, respectively. Determine the boundary
work done during this process. Assume the heat
capacity of air is 1 kj/K, determine the heat
transferred to the surrounding.
W =
8

E = Q -
W

E = Q
55k]
E =

Q-20T
= /(15-65/
= 85 S

0
0

0
 Example
● A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 5 kg of
steam at 400 kPa and 200 oC. Heat is now transferred to
the steam until the temperature reaches 250 oC. if the
piston is not attached to a shaft and its mass is constant,
determine the work done by the steam during this
process. 53434/x5 0
59820
-

40010
.

N
.
=

= 121 72k]
.

0
0
 PV)
Example W=

·
1010 4) In .

/
= -
55 ,
4k]
● A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.4 -

m3 of air at 100 kPa and 80 oC. The air is

- -
-

now compressed to 0.1 m3 in such a way -

that the temperature inside the cylinder

remains constant. Determine the work done
during this process. P
Spdr
,
w= Pr mRY =

p =
z
= Stdv
40 1
0 .
.
v
=
CStdv al de
= cir
= 10010 .

4)(n)) 0
0
0
 Polytropic, Isothermal, and Isobaric processes
Polytropic process: C, n (polytropic exponent) constants

Schematic and
PV" = Constant
n = 1 isothermal
P-V diagram for ,

a polytropic nFl polytropic

,

process.

What is the boundary

work for a constant-
volume process?

Polytropic
process

Polytropic and for ideal gas

When n = 1
(isothermal process)

Constant pressure process

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 Example
● A piston-cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of gas initially at 200
kPa. At this state, a linear spring that has a spring constant of
150 kN/m is touching the piston but exerting no force on it. Now
heat is transferred to the gas, causing the piston to rise and to
compress the spring until the volume inside the cylinder doubles.
If the cross-sectional area of the piston is 0.25 m2, determine
● (a) the final pressure inside the cylinder,
● (b) the total work done by the gas, and
● (c) the fraction of this work done against the spring to
compress it. 05 0
+320/x005
.

200 X- -
V =0 . w
-25
=
0 .
25

p =
2
=
= 0 2 .

13kJ
-

=
y A = 120kN I
= /5rX . L

05
=
30k
0
P=
.

200 +120
06 Pf
=

25
- (120/10 05/
=
. . 5

= 0 2m . = 320kN - 120kX
= 3k] ↑ = Quotiz
F= /50X0 2 .

= 320km
= 30kN
0
0
0
Energy Balance For Closed Systems
Energy balance for any system
undergoing any process

Energy balance
in the rate form

The total quantities are related to the quantities per unit time is

Energy balance per

unit mass basis
Energy balance in
differential form

Energy balance
for a cycle

Whet ,
out
=
Wont-Win 0
Energy balance when sign convention is used (i.e., heat input and work
output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

Various forms of the first-law relation

For a cycle E = 0, thus Q = W. for closed systems when sign
convention is used.
The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known
to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.
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Energy Balance For A Constant-pressure
Expansion Or Compression Process
General analysis for a closed system For a constant-pressure expansion
undergoing a quasi-equilibrium or compression process:
constant-pressure process. Q is to the
system and W is from the system.

An example of constant-pressure process

&5

↓
PoVz PzVz
=

h PoV , = P, V ,

0
 Example
● A piston-cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that
is maintained at a constant pressure of 300 kPa. A resistance heater
within the cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5
min from a 120 V source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ
occurs.
● (a) Show that for a closed system the boundary work Wb and
the change in internal energy ∆U in the first-law relation can be
combined into one term, ∆H, for a constant pressure process.
● (b) Determine the final temperature of the steam.

0
0 0

0
,,

0
 Clarification of Enthalpy
o Specific enthalpy
r
● Similar to energy, enthalpy is a property and only
depends on system state. It is a thermodynamic
potential, and only its change is meaningful.

● Generally, enthalpy is applied for open systems. ΔH of a

system is equal to the sum of non-mechanical work done
on it and the heat supplied to it.

● For closed system under constant pressure, enthalpy can

also be used in the energy balance equation by taking into
account both internal energy variation and moving
boundary work.

0
0
 Example
● An insulated tank is divided into two parts by a partition. One part
of the tank contains 2.5 kg of compressed liquid water at 60 oC
and 600 kPa while the other part is evacuated. The partition is
now removed, and the water expands to fill the entire tank.
Determine the final temperature of the water and the volume
of the tank for a final pressure of 10 kPa.
Q-w ) =

60C
600kPa

0
0
Uz= Uf +XzUfg

0
 U = 631 66 + 0 5 (1927 4) : 1595
3645/kg V 0 5158 + 3X0 1968
Vg 39248
.
.
. .
=
0 ,001091
.

V =0
-

=
1062m3
Example
=
1 .

18 =
631 66 Veg = 192714 U 2793 7 kJ/kS
: .

25799m/kgv He
V 0
=
. = .

1968m3/kS 2124mg
! 2
10 39248-0 001091) 51598
= 0
Vii = 0 , 001091 + o 5
. ,
.
= 0 .

V= 0 .

● Two tanks (A and B) are separated by a partition.

Initially Tank A contains 2 kg steam at 1 MPa and 300
oC while Tank B contains 3 kg saturated liquid vapor
mixture with a vapor mass fraction of 50 percent at
150 oC. Now the partition is removed and the two
sides are allowed to mix until the mechanical and
thermal equilibrium are established. If the pressure at
the final state is 300 kPa, Tyrokpa 13 52 001073 ,
3 %

Q
:

= 24-0
364
- .

= 0.
X =
0 .
60582 - 0 .
001073

determine Uz 561 11
= .

1282 6
+ 0 .
364(1982 . 11
=
kJ/kg
(a) the temperature and quality of
.

the steam (if mixture) at the final

state and
(b) the amount of heat lost from
the tanks. Q 2(2793 7 1282 6) + 3/1595 36 1282
6)
-
= .
-
.
.
.

-
3960k]
0
0
0
0
0
 400 T
2x0 001048 + 3x1 375 400-300
105 972 Vi -

Ti
= , .

87535-3155-0
Example
= ,

= 4,
127 m3 T o
3155-0
. 99048 .

S
V T 373 7
·
= .
C

● A mass of 5 kg of saturated liquid vapor mixture of water is

contained in a piston-cylinder device at 125 kPa. Initially, 2 kg of
the water is in the liquid phase and the rest is in the vapor phase.
Heat is now transferred to the water, and the piston, which is
resting on a set of stops, starts moving when the pressure inside
reaches 300 kPa. Heat transfer continues until the total volume
increases by 20 percent.
PES V 9/1970 60582m/g .

W 300(4 9524 4 127/

↑
= -
,
,
·
= 247 6k]
.

Determine
(a) the initial and final temperatures, S
(b) the mass of liquid water when the
piston first starts moving, and
(c) the work done during this process.
Also, show the process on a P-v diagram.
0
0
0
0
 Example
T1 =
247 55 .

- u= 2617 1K]/19
0582m3/k3
·

V = 0 .

P2 = 3, 5 MPa
001235 Pg 1554 9kPa
V2 = 0 001235 , U2 1045 4
0 =
V3 =

3)
:
. .

Uz 850 46+ (1743

. .

A piston-cylinder device initially contains 0.15 kg

= .
.

●
⑪
steam at 3.5 MPa, superheated by 5 oC. Now the
steam loses heat to the surroundings and the piston
moves down, hitting a set of stops ②
at which point the &

cylinder contains saturated liquid water. The cooling

-

continues until the cylinder contains water at 200③

oC.
Determine
(a) the final pressure and the quality
2
(if mixture), W 3500x0 15 (0 0582-0 001235/
= . ,
.

29 91kJ
(b) the boundary work,
= .

(c) the amount of heat transfer when

the piston first hits the stops, Q 0+ 29 15(2617
/lotsy = . ,

91 .

(d) the total heat transfer. 265 7k5 = ,

Q = 0 , 15 (2617 .
1 -
851 5) + 29 91
Q W =U
. .
-

294 0
=
,715
0
?

0
0
 Specific Heats
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the pressure is maintained constant.

Constant-
volume and
constant-
Specific heat is the energy pressure specific
required to raise the heats cv and cp
temperature of a unit mass (values are for
of a substance by one helium gas).
degree in a specified way.
0
● The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing
any process.
● cv and cp are properties.
● cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes
in enthalpy.
● A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg · °C or kJ/kg · K. Are
these units identical?
Formal definitions of cv and
cp.

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

True or False?
cp is always greater than
cv. 0
Internal Energy of Ideal Gases
● Joule found that after opening the
valve, there was no change of water
temperature of the water bath.
● No heat transfer and as the system
was a rigid system (the tanks
containing air), there was no work
done.
● No heat transfer and no work done =
No change of internal energy.
● BUT specific volume and pressure of
the air inside the system have
changed!
● Joule then reasoned that internal
energy is a function of temperature
only (together with mathematical
derivation.)
Joule’s expermment ● This is only for ideal gas!

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Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases

Joule showed
using this
*
experimental Internal energy and
apparatus that For ideal gases,
enthalpy change of
u=u(T) u, h, cv, and cp
an ideal gas
vary with
temperature only.
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• At low pressures, all real gases approach • u and h data for a number of
ideal-gas behavior, and therefore their gases have been tabulated.
specific heats depend on temperature only.• These tables are obtained by
• The specific heats of real gases at low choosing an arbitrary reference
pressures are called ideal-gas specific point and performing the
heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and integrations by treating state 1
are often denoted cp0 and cv0. as the reference state.

Ideal-gas
constant-
pressure
specific heats
for some
gases (see In the preparation of ideal-gas
Table A–2c tables, 0 K is chosen as the
for cp reference temperature.
equations). 0
 Question?

● Is it possible to compress an ideal gas

isothermally in an adiabatic piston-cylinder
device?

0
● Heat Transfer = Change in Internal Energy +
Work Done
● Adiabatic means heat transfer = 0
● And now there is work done due to
compression, so du is not zero
● Since du = cvdT for an ideal gas, dT is not
zero!
● So an isothermal process is not possible!

0
Internal energy and enthalpy change when
specific heat is taken constant at an
average value

(kJ/kg)

Oh (pOT
=

oh -on = Wb

For small temperature intervals, the

specific heats may be assumed to vary
linearly with temperature.

The relation u = cv
T is valid for any kind
of process, constant-
volume or not.
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 Three Ways of Calculating -
u and h

1. By using the tabulated u and h

data. This is the easiest and most
accurate way when tables are
readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations
(Table A-2c) as a function of
temperature and performing the
integrations. This is very
inconvenient for hand calculations
but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The
results obtained are very
accurate.
3. By using average specific heats.
This is very simple and certainly Three ways of calculating
very convenient when property
u.
tables are not available. The
results obtained are reasonably
accurate if the temperature
interval is not very large.
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 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific
heat ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

temperature, but this variation is
very mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium,
argon, etc.), its value is essentially
The cp of an ideal gas can be constant at 1.667. (5/3)
determined from a knowledge of • Many diatomic gases, including air,
cv and R. have a specific heat ratio of about
1.4 at room temperature. (7/5)
0
 Micro Picture for Specific Heat
● Specific heat is the energy required to improve the average kinetic energy
of unit mass (or a given amount) of atoms or molecules by 1 degree
Time-average kinetic (N is the degrees of freedom
energy of a particle or a of the particle or the group. N
group of particles for a single atom is 3)
[Statistical Thermodynamics]

● Therefore, the heat capacity of one mole of gas particles (if all the
degrees of movement freedom are excited) is

(At low temperatures, only 3 degrees of freedom (translational modes)

are excited,i.e., N=3)
Ideal gas (only 3 degrees of
equation: freedom are important
for pressure production)
Therefore:

For solid, at high temperature, the molar specific heat is equal to 3Ru (average
potential energy of a particle is equal to its kinetic energy) Dulong-Petit Law 0
Example
An insulated rigid tank initially contains 0.7 kg of helium at 27 oC and
350 kPa. A paddle wheel with a power rating of 0.015 kW is MEAT
W
=

operated within the tank for 30 min. determine

. 015 0 7 (T 27) (3 1156/
-
,

0 = .

(a) the final temperature and Th

(b) the final pressure of the helium gas.

Joule’s famous
experiment on
mechanical equivalent
of heat 0
 Temp betwee T2 and T, is small
- 2v ,
aug = Th

0
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and
Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume
(or density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible
substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of

incompressible substances incompressible substances are
remain constant during a identical and are denoted by c.
process.
0
Internal Energy Changes solid & liquid Cp Cr
=

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
A more accurate relation than
0
 Example
● A 50 kg iron block at 80 oC is dropped into an insulated
tank that contains 0.5 m3 of liquid water at 25 oC.
Determine the temperature when thermal equilibrium
is reached.

0
Ma(zOiz MwCwOTw
=

0
 Example
● A 30 L electrical radiator containing heating oil is placed in a 50
m3 room. Both the room and the oil in the radiator are initially at
10 oC. The radiator with a rating of 1.8 kW is now turned on. At
the same time, heat is lost from the room at an average rate of
0.35 kJ/s. After some time, the average temperature is measured
to be 20 oC for the air in the room, and 50 oC for the oil in the
radiator. Taking the density and the specific heat of the oil to be
950 kg/m3 and 2.2 kJ/kg·oC, respectively, determine how long
the heater is kept on. Assume the room is well-sealed so that
there are no air leaks.

0
0
0
 Example
● An electronic device dissipating 30 W has a mass of 20
g and a specific heat of 850 J/kg·oC. The device is lightly
used, and it is on for 5 min and then off for several hours,
during which it cools to the ambient temperature of 25
oC. Determine the highest possible temperature of
the device at the end of the 5 min operating period.
What would our answer be if the device were
attached to a 0.2 kg aluminum heat sink? Assume the
device and the heat sink to be nearly isothermal.

0
0
Discussion These are the maximum temperatures.
In reality, the temperatures will be lower because of the
heat losses to the surroundings.
0
 Example
● Carbon steel balls (ρ=78.33 kg/m3 and Cp=0.465
kJ/kg ℃) 8mm in diameter are annealed by heating
them first to 900 ℃in a furnace, and then allowing them
to cool slowly to 100 ℃in ambient air at 35 ℃. If 2500
balls are to be annealed per hour, determine the total
rate of heat transfer from the balls to the ambient air.

0
0
 Example
● Determine the enthalpy of liquid water at 100℃ and 15
MPa
• By using compressed liquid tables,
• By approximating it as a saturated liquid and
• By using the correction relation

0
 Solution: at 100 ℃, the saturation pressure of water is 101.4 kPa, and since
P>Psat, the water exists as a compressed liquid at the specified state.
(a) From compressed liquid tables (A-7) , we have

P= 15 MPa and T=100 ℃-> h=430.39 kJ/kg

This is the exact value.
(b) Approximating the compressed liquid as a saturated liquid at 100 ℃, we
obtain

This value is in error by about 2.6%

(c ) From the correction eqution

Discussion: The correction significantly reduces the error. However, this

improvement is not quite worth the extra effort involved.
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Example
In solar heated buildings, energy is often stored as sensible heat in
rocks, concrete, or water during the day for use at night. To minimize
the storage space, it is desirable to use a material that can store a
large amount of heat while experiencing a small temperature
change. A large amount of heat can be stored essentially at
constant temperature during a phase change process, and thus
materials that change phase at about room temperature such as
glaubers salt (sodium sulfate decahydrate), which has a melting
point of 32 oC and a heat of fusion of 329 kJ/L, are very suitable for
this purpose. Determine how much heat can be stored in a 5 m3
storage space using
(a) glaubers salt undergoing a phase change,
(b) granite rocks with a heat capacity of 2.32 kJ/kg·oC and a
temperature change of 20 oC, and
(c) water with a heat capacity of 4 kJ/kg·oC and a temperature
change of 20 oC.

0
0
 Example
● A piston-cylinder contains 1.5 kg of nitrogen initially at 100 kPa
and 17℃. The nitrogen is now compressed slowly in a polytropic
process during which PV1.3 = constant until the volume is
reduced by one-half. Determine the work done and the heat
transfer for this process.

0
0
0
 Example
● 0.03–m3 of air is contained in the spring-loaded piston-cylinder
device shown in Fig. P4-57. The spring constant is 875 N/m, and
the piston diameter is 25 cm. When no force is exerted by the
spring on the piston, the state of the air is 2250 kPa and 240℃.
This device is now cooled until the volume is one-half its original
size. Determine the change in the specific internal energy and
enthalpy of the air.

0
0
0
Thermodynamics of Biological Systems
●Biological systems involve complex
and intriguing energy transfer and
transformation processes. They
follow the mass conservation and the
first law of thermodynamics.
●Biological systems are primarily made
up of four simple elements: hydrogen,
oxygen, carbon and nitrogen.
Human
Human body is also a body
thermodynamic Element H O C N Other
system following the mass Fraction 63% 25.5% 9.5% 1.4% 0.6%
conservation and the first law
of thermodynamics
●By mass, 72% of human body is water.

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● Metabolism: level of cell chemical activity in body to
keep the body active (e.g., 37 oC body temperature for
human body, or referred to as burning of foods such as
carbohydrate, fat and protein).
● Metabolic rate: energy consumption rate for a body.
● Basal metabolic rate: the rate of metabolism at resting
state. It is considered to be the minimum energy
consumption to keep the body active. For a man age 30,
1.8-m2 surface area, basal metabolic rate = 84 W.
● Basal metabolic rate varies with gender, body size,
health condition, etc.
● Basal metabolic rate goes down significantly with age.
● 50% energy is consumed by brain and liver

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Food and Exercise
●The energy required by a body is from the food we eat. The nutrients in the food
are considered in three major groups:
• Carbohydrates: small to large molecules consisting of C, H, O, and
H:O=2:1. (forming sugar during digestion)
• Proteins: large molecules containing C, H, O and N. They are essential
for the building and repairing of the body tissues. (forming amino
acids during digestion)
• Fats: small molecules consisting of C, H, O (less O compared with
carbohydrates). (forming fatty acid during digestion) Fat from animals are
normally saturated and those from vegetables are unsaturated. Trans fat
may cause heart disease and is banned in some countries.
● Additional energy that is not consumed will be stored in a body. The
storage approaches are:
• Blood sugar and glycogen (mainly stored
in liver and muscles).
• Fat (converted from sugar or fatty acid)
• Proteins (converted from amino acids)
● Direct energy consumption:
• Blood sugar and glycogen.
• Fat
• Proteins 0
Types of Fat

Trans fat

Unsaturated fat

Saturated fat

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● Western foods (carbohydrate, fat and protein) –
45%: 40%: 15%
● 4.2 MJ/kg for carbohydrate (H:O = 2:1); 33.1
MJ/kg for fat; 8.4 MJ/kg for protein (made up of
amino acids)
● 1 Cal (Calorie) = 1000 calories = 1kcal = 4.187kJ
● Daily calorie need: Men- 2400-2700 Calories a
day; Women- 1800-2200 Calories a day.
● The energy consumption rate is approximately
proportional to the body mass.
● Body mass index (BMI)

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 Summary
● Moving boundary work
● Wb for an isothermal process
● Wb for a constant-pressure process
● Wb for a polytropic process
● Energy balance for closed systems
● Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or
compression process
● Specific heats
● Constant-pressure specific heat, cp
● Constant-volume specific heat, cv
● Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases
● Specific heat relations of ideal gases
● Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of incompressible
substances (solids and liquids)

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 Using the ideal gas model
● If there is any property table, try to check the table first. The data in
the table are the most accurate.
● For common gases or water vapor in the air near room temperature
or atmospheric pressure, ideal gas model is valid
● If the validity of the ideal gas model is unknown, try to calculate the
reduced properties (Pcr, Tcr or vcr) and find out the compressibility
factor using the generalized compressibility chart. and using the
corresponding modified model.

● If all the data are unavailable, try to use the ideal gas model and
check the validity of the results