Shells of electrons corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3…..

are represented by K, L, M, N
respectively. The sub-shells or the orbitals corresponding to l = 0, 1, 2, 3 etc. are denoted
by s, p, d, f etc. respectively.

Let us have a look at the electronic configurations of carbon, silicon and germanium
GroupIV – A.

It is observed that the outermost p sub-shell in each case contains only two electrons. But
the possible number of electrons is six. Hence, there are four valence electrons in each
outer most shell. So, each electron in an atom has specific energy. The atomic
arrangement inside the molecules in any type of substance is almost like this. But the
spacing between the atoms differ from material to material.

Basic Electronics - Energy Bands

In gaseous substances, the arrangement of molecules is not close. In liquids, the
molecular arrangement is moderate. But, in solids, the molecules are so closely arranged,
that the electrons in the atoms of molecules tend to move into the orbitals of neighboring
atoms. Hence the electron orbitals overlap when the atoms come together.

Due to the intermixing of atoms in solids, instead of single energy levels, there will be
bands of energy levels formed. These set of energy levels, which are closely packed are
called as Energy bands.

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Valance Band
The electrons move in the atoms in certain energy levels but the energy of the electrons in
the innermost shell is higher than the outermost shell electrons. The electrons that are
present in the outermost shell are called as Valance Electrons.

These valance electrons, containing a series of energy levels, form an energy band which
is called as Valence Band. The valence band is the band having the highest occupied
energy.

Conduction Band
The valence electrons are so loosely attached to the nucleus that even at room
temperature, few of the valence electrons leave the band to be free. These are called as
free electrons as they tend to move towards the neighboring atoms.

These free electrons are the ones which conduct the current in a conductor and hence
called as Conduction Electrons. The band which contains conduction electrons is called
as Conduction Band. The conduction band is the band having the lowest occupied
energy.

Forbidden gap
The gap between valence band and conduction band is called as forbidden energy gap.
As the name implies, this band is the forbidden one without energy. Hence no electron
stays in this band. The valence electrons, while going to the conduction band, pass
through this.

The forbidden energy gap if greater, means that the valence band electrons are tightly
bound to the nucleus. Now, in order to push the electrons out of the valence band, some
external energy is required, which would be equal to the forbidden energy gap.

The following figure shows the valance band, conduction band, and the forbidden gap.
Depending upon the size of the forbidden gap, the Insulators, the Semiconductors and the
Conductors are formed.

Insulators
Insulators are such materials in which the conduction cannot take place, due to the large
forbidden gap. Examples: Wood, Rubber. The structure of energy bands in Insulators is as
shown in the following figure.
Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Insulators.

The Forbidden energy gap is very large.

Valance band electrons are bound tightly to atoms.

The value of forbidden energy gap for an insulator will be of 10eV.

For some insulators, as the temperature increases, they might show some
conduction.
The resistivity of an insulator will be in the order of 107 ohm-meter.

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap is small and the
conduction takes place if some external energy is applied. Examples: Silicon, Germanium.
The following figure shows the structure of energy bands in semiconductors.

Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Semiconductors.

The Forbidden energy gap is very small.

 The forbidden gap for Ge is 0.7eV whereas for Si is 1.1eV.

A Semiconductor actually is neither an insulator, nor a good conductor.

As the temperature increases, the conductivity of a semiconductor increases.

The conductivity of a semiconductor will be in the order of 102 mho-meter.

Conductors
Conductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap disappears as the
valence band and conduction band become very close that they overlap. Examples:
Copper, Aluminum. The following figure shows the structure of energy bands in
conductors.

Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Conductors.

There exists no forbidden gap in a conductor.

The valance band and the conduction band gets overlapped.

The free electrons available for conduction are plenty.

A slight increase in voltage, increases the conduction.

There is no concept of hole formation, as a continuous flow of electrons contribute

the current.
Important Terms
There is a necessity to discuss a few important terms here before we move on to
subsequent chapters.

Current
It is simply the flow of electrons. A continuous flow of electrons or charged particles, can
be termed as Current. It is indicated by I or i. It is measured in Amperes. This can be
alternating current AC or direct current DC.

Voltage
It is the potential difference. When there occurs a difference in potentialities, between two
points, there is said to be a voltage difference, measured between those two points. It is
indicated by V. It is measured in Volts.

Resistance
It is the property of opposing the flow of electrons. The possession of this property can be
termed as resistivity. This will be discussed later in detail.

Ohm’s Law
With the terms discussed above, we have a standard law, which is very crucial for the
behavior of all the electronic components, called as Ohm’s Law. This states the relation
between current and voltage in an ideal conductor.

According to Ohm’s law, the potential difference across an ideal conductor is

proportional to the current through it.

V α I

An ideal conductor has no resistance. But in practice, every conductor has some resistance
in it. As the resistance increases, the potential drop also increases and hence the voltage
increases.

Hence the voltage is directly proportional to the resistance it offers.

V α R

V = IR

But the current is inversely proportional to the resistance.

1
V α Iα
R
 I = V /R

Hence, in practice, an Ohm’s law can be stated as −

According to Ohm’s law, the current flowing through a conductor is proportional

to the potential difference across it, and is inversely proportional to the
resistance it offers.

This law is helpful in determining the values of unknown parameters among the three
which help to analyze a circuit.

Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between the conductors and
insulators. The property of resistivity is not the only one that decides a material as a
semiconductor, but it has few properties as follows.

Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than insulators and more than
conductors.

Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The resistance in

semiconductors, increases with the decrease in temperature and vice versa.

The Conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when a suitable metallic

impurity is added to it, which is a very important property.

Semiconductor devices are extensively used in the field of electronics. The transistor has
replaced the bulky vacuum tubes, from which the size and cost of the devices got
decreased and this revolution has kept on increasing its pace leading to the new inventions
like integrated electronics. The following illustration shows the classification of
semiconductors.
Conduction in Semiconductors
After having some knowledge on the electrons, we came to know that the outermost shell
has the valence electrons which are loosely attached to the nucleus. Such an atom,
having valence electrons when brought close to the other atom, the valence electrons of
both these atoms combine to form “Electron pairs”. This bonding is not so very strong
and hence it is a Covalent bond.

For example, a germanium atom has 32 electrons. 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 in second
orbit, 18 in third orbit, while 4 in last orbit. These 4 electrons are valence electrons of
germanium atom. These electrons tend to combine with valence electrons of adjoining
atoms, to form the electron pairs, as shown in the following figure.
Creation of Hole
Due to the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, some electrons tend to move out of
their place and break the covalent bonds. These broken covalent bonds, result in free
electrons which wander randomly. But the moved away electrons creates an empty
space or valence behind, which is called as a hole.

This hole which represents a missing electron can be considered as a unit positive charge
while the electron is considered as a unit negative charge. The liberated electrons move
randomly but when some external electric field is applied, these electrons move in
opposite direction to the applied field. But the holes created due to absence of electrons,
move in the direction of applied field.

Hole Current
It is already understood that when a covalent bond is broken, a hole is created. Actually,
there is a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to form a covalent bond. So, a hole
doesn’t tend to exist in a crystal. This can be better understood by the following figure,
showing a semiconductor crystal lattice.

An electron, when gets shifted from a place A, a hole is formed. Due to the tendency for
the formation of covalent bond, an electron from B gets shifted to A. Now, again to
balance the covalent bond at B, an electron gets shifted from C to B. This continues to
build a path. This movement of hole in the absence of an applied field is random. But
when electric field is applied, the hole drifts along the applied field, which constitutes the
hole current. This is called as hole current but not electron current because, the
movement of holes contribute the current flow.

Electrons and holes while in random motion, may encounter with each other, to form pairs.
This recombination results in the release of heat, which breaks another covalent bond.
When the temperature increases, the rate of generation of electrons and holes increase,
thus rate of recombination increases, which results in the increase of densities of electrons
and holes. As a result, conductivity of semiconductor increases and resistivity decreases,
which means the negative temperature coefficient.

Intrinsic Semiconductors
A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor.
The properties of this pure semiconductor are as follows −

The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation.

The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.

The conduction capability is small at room temperature.

In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add

some impurities. This process of adding impurities is called as Doping. Now, this doped
intrinsic semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic Semiconductor.

Doping
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as doping. The
impurities added, are generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities.

Pentavalent Impurities

The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons in the
outer most orbit. Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus

The pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it donates one electron
to the conduction band of pure semiconductor atom.

Trivalent Impurities

The trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence electrons in the
outer most orbit. Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, Boron
The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it accepts one electron
from the semiconductor atom.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor is called as an
extrinsic semiconductor. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending
upon the type of impurity added. They are N-type extrinsic semiconductor and P-Type
extrinsic semiconductor.
N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in
Ntype extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 5 valence electrons.

For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the valence
electrons get attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains as a free electron.
This is as shown in the following figure.

All of these free electrons constitute electron current. Hence, the impurity when added to
pure semiconductor, provides electrons for conduction.

In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through electrons,

the electrons are majority carriers and the holes are minority carriers.

As there is no addition of positive or negative charges, the electrons are electrically

neutral.

When an electric field is applied to an N-type semiconductor, to which a

pentavalent impurity is added, the free electrons travel towards positive electrode.
This is called as negative or N-type conductivity.

P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in P-type
extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 3 valence electrons. For example, if
Boron atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the valence electrons get attached
with the Ge atoms, to form three covalent bonds. But, one more electron in germanium
remains without forming any bond. As there is no electron in boron remaining to form a
covalent bond, the space is treated as a hole. This is as shown in the following figure.

The boron impurity when added in a small amount, provides a number of holes which
helps in the conduction. All of these holes constitute hole current.

In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through holes, the
holes are majority carriers while the electrons are minority carriers.

The impurity added here provides holes which are called as acceptors, because
they accept electrons from the germanium atoms.

As the number of mobile holes remains equal to the number of acceptors, the
Ptype semiconductor remains electrically neutral.

When an electric field is applied to a P-type semiconductor, to which a trivalent

impurity is added, the holes travel towards negative electrode, but with a slow
pace than electrons. This is called as P-type conductivity.
 In this P-type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one covalent bond to
another, unlike N-type.

Why Silicon is Preferred in Semiconductors?

Among the semiconductor materials like germanium and silicon, the extensively used
material for manufacturing various electronic components is Silicon Si . Silicon is
preferred over germanium for many reasons such as −

The energy band gap is 0.7ev, whereas it is 0.2ev for germanium.

The thermal pair generation is smaller.

The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in the manufacture of
many components along with integration technology.

Si is easily found in nature than Ge.

Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.

Hence, Silicon is used in the manufacture of many electronic components, which are used
to make different circuits for various purposes. These components have individual
properties and particular uses.

The main electronic components include — Resistors, variable resistors, Capacitors,

variable capacitors, Inductors, diodes, Tunnel diodes, Varactor diodes, Transistors, BJTs,
UJTs, FETs, MOSFETs, LDR, LED, Solar cells, Thermistor, Varistor, Transformer, switches,
relays, etc.

Basic Electronics - Hall Effect

Hall Effect was named after Edwin Hall, its discoverer. This is somewhat similar to
Fleming’s right hand rule. When a current carrying conductor I is placed in a transverse
magnetic field B, an electric field E is induced in the conductor perpendicular to both I and
B. This phenomenon is called as Hall Effect.

Explanation
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, then this
magnetic field exerts some pressure on the electrons which take a curved path to continue
their journey. The conductor with energy applied is shown in the following figure. The
magnetic field is also indicated.
 P ower input − Losses
Efficiency = × 100
P ower input
Hence,

12000 − 1660
η = × 100
12000
10340
η = × 100
12000
η = 0.861 × 100 = 86%

Hence the efficiency of the transformer is 86%.

Diodes
After having known about various components, let us focus on another important
component in the field of electronics, known as a Diode. A semiconductor diode is a two
terminal electronic component with a PN junction. This is also called as a Rectifier.

The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and the
cathode, which is the negative terminal is represented with K. To know the anode and
cathode of a practical diode, a fine line is drawn on the diode which means cathode, while
the other end represents anode.
As we had already discussed about the P-type and N-type semiconductors, and the
behavior of their carriers, let us now try to join these materials together to see what
happens.

Formation of a Diode
If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to
form a junction, as shown in the figure below.

A P-type material has holes as the majority carriers and an N-type material has
electrons as the majority carriers. As opposite charges attract, few holes in P-type tend
to go to n-side, whereas few electrons in N-type tend to go to P-side.

As both of them travel towards the junction, holes and electrons recombine with each
other to neutralize and forms ions. Now, in this junction, there exists a region where the
positive and negative ions are formed, called as PN junction or junction barrier as shown
in the figure.

The formation of negative ions on P-side and positive ions on N-side results in the
formation of a narrow charged region on either side of the PN junction. This region is now
free from movable charge carriers. The ions present here have been stationary and
maintain a region of space between them without any charge carriers.

As this region acts as a barrier between P and N type materials, this is also called as
Barrier junction. This has another name called as Depletion region meaning it depletes
both the regions. There occurs a potential difference VD due to the formation of ions,
across the junction called as Potential Barrier as it prevents further movement of holes
and electrons through the junction.

Biasing of a Diode
When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased
conditions with the given supply. They are Forward biased condition and Reverse
biased condition. Let us know them in detail.

Forward Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the positive terminal and
cathode to the negative terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be
forward biased condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more
forward biased and helps in more conduction. A diode conducts well in forward biased
condition.

Reverse Biased Condition

When a diode is connected in a circuit, with its anode to the negative terminal and
cathode to the positive terminal of the supply, then such a connection is said to be
Reverse biased condition. This kind of connection makes the circuit more and more
reverse biased and helps in minimizing and preventing the conduction. A diode cannot
conduct in reverse biased condition.

Let us now try to know what happens if a diode is connected in forward biased and in
reverse biased conditions.
Working under Forward Biased
When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it cancels the potential barrier
and permits the flow of current is called as forward bias. When anode and cathode are
connected to positive and negative terminals respectively, the holes in P-type and
electrons in N-type tend to move across the junction, breaking the barrier. There exists a
free flow of current with this, almost eliminating the barrier.

With the repulsive force provided by positive terminal to holes and by negative terminal to
electrons, the recombination takes place in the junction. The supply voltage should be
such high that it forces the movement of electrons and holes through the barrier and to
cross it to provide forward current.

Forward Current is the current produced by the diode when operating in forward biased
condition and it is indicated by If.

Working under Reverse Biased

When an external voltage is applied to a diode such that it increases the potential barrier
and restricts the flow of current is called as Reverse bias. When anode and cathode are
connected to negative and positive terminals respectively, the electrons are attracted
towards the positive terminal and holes are attracted towards the negative terminal.
Hence both will be away from the potential barrier increasing the junction resistance
and preventing any electron to cross the junction.

The following figure explains this. The graph of conduction when no field is applied and
when some external field is applied are also drawn.
With the increasing reverse bias, the junction has few minority carriers to cross the
junction. This current is normally negligible. This reverse current is almost constant when
the temperature is constant. But when this reverse voltage increases further, then a point
called reverse breakdown occurs, where an avalanche of current flows through the
junction. This high reverse current damages the device.

Reverse current is the current produced by the diode when operating in reverse biased
condition and it is indicated by Ir. Hence a diode provides high resistance path in reverse
biased condition and doesn’t conduct, where it provides a low resistance path in forward
biased condition and conducts. Thus we can conclude that a diode is a one-way device
which conducts in forward bias and acts as an insulator in reverse bias. This behavior
makes it work as a rectifier, which converts AC to DC.

Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage is shortly called as PIV. It states the maximum voltage applied in
reverse bias. The Peak Inverse Voltage can be defined as “The maximum reverse
voltage that a diode can withstand without being destroyed”. Hence, this voltage is
considered during reverse biased condition. It denotes how a diode can be safely operated
in reverse bias.

Purpose of a Diode
A diode is used to block the electric current flow in one direction, i.e. in forward direction
and to block in reverse direction. This principle of diode makes it work as a Rectifier.
For a circuit to allow the current flow in one direction but to stop in the other direction, the
rectifier diode is the best choice. Thus the output will be DC removing the AC
components. The circuits such as half wave and full wave rectifiers are made using diodes,
which can be studied in Electronic Circuits tutorials.

A diode is also used as a Switch. It helps a faster ON and OFF for the output that should
occur in a quick rate.

V - I Characteristics of a Diode
A Practical circuit arrangement for a PN junction diode is as shown in the following figure.
An ammeter is connected in series and voltmeter in parallel, while the supply is controlled
through a variable resistor.

During the operation, when the diode is in forward biased condition, at some particular
voltage, the potential barrier gets eliminated. Such a voltage is called as Cut-off Voltage
or Knee Voltage. If the forward voltage exceeds beyond the limit, the forward current
rises up exponentially and if this is done further, the device is damaged due to
overheating.

The following graph shows the state of diode conduction in forward and reverse biased
conditions.
During the reverse bias, current produced through minority carriers exist known as
“Reverse current”. As the reverse voltage increases, this reverse current increases and it
suddenly breaks down at a point, resulting in the permanent destruction of the junction.

Junction Diodes
.

There are many types of diodes depending upon many factors such as the frequency used,
their working and construction, their applications etc. Let us go through few of them.

Junction diodes
The junction diodes are the normal PN junction diodes but differ in construction. There are
three types of junction diodes, as shown in the following figure.
Rectifier Diode
These diodes are the normal PN junction diodes, which allow current to flow through them
in only one direction and stop in the other direction. These diodes are used in rectifier
circuits to convert alternating current into direct current.

In the above figure, we can see the same rectifier diodes with a metal projection. This is
added to the diode to minimize the heat distribution which might affect the diode
sometimes. Such a metal projection is called as Heat sink. These help in the
improvement of the diode performance and the diodes will be able to withstand high
powers, without getting affected.

There are circuits such as Half wave rectifier and Full wave rectifier circuits which use
these diodes. These circuits are discussed in ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS tutorial. These
rectifier circuits are used in Power supply sections of many circuits where alternating input
current has to be converted into direct current for that circuit applications.

Zener Diode
This is a special kind of diode which permits current flow not only in forward direction, but
also in reverse direction. A normal diode, when operated in reverse bias, gets damaged if
the reverse current above a certain value is passed through it. This “certain value” is
called as the Breakdown voltage.

The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is very low. But this diode allows the reverse
current to pass through it, once this breakdown voltage is exceeded. That
breakdown voltage is called as Zener Voltage. Hence there is a controlled breakdown
which does not damage the diode when a reverse current above the Zener voltage passes
through a Zener diode.

A Zener diode in its reverse bias, exhibits a controlled breakdown voltage and it allows the
current flow to keep the value of voltage across that Zener diode close to the Zener
breakdown voltage value. This value of Zener breakdown voltage makes any Zener diode
to be chosen for certain applications.

Avalanche diode is another diode which has the similar characteristics of Zener diode.
The avalanche breakdown takes place across the entire PN junction, when the voltage
drop is constant and is independent of current. This avalanche diode is used for
photodetection.

V-I Characteristics of a Zener diode

The V-I Characteristics of a Zener diode are common for any diode when operated in
forward bias. But the reverse bias operation of a Zener diode makes it very important to
consider. Let us have a look at the graph.
The point where the bent is shown in the reverse bias operation, is the Zener breakdown
voltage, after which the diode allows high reverse currents through it. This Zener voltage
is indicated by VZ. This incredible quality of Zener diode made it the most reliable one and
have got many applications too.

Applications of Zener diode

This diode has many applications such as −

It is mostly used as a Voltage Regulator.

Provides fixed reference voltage in transistor biasing circuits.

For peak clipping or limiting in wave shaping circuits.

As a Surge protector in many circuits.

For meter protection against damage from accidental applications.

Switching Diode
This is a normal single PN junction diode which is especially designed for switching
purposes. This diode can exhibit two states of high and low resistance clearly which can be
used alternatively.
The junction capacitance of this diode is made very low so as to minimize other effects.
The switching speed is made quite high. When the diode has high resistance it works as an
open switch and it acts as a closed switch during low resistance. This transition occurs at a
faster rate in switching diode, than in any ordinary one.

Applications of switching diode

These have many applications such as −

Used in high-speed rectifying circuits

Used in ring modulators

Used in radio frequency receivers

Used as reverse polarity protectors

Used for both General purpose and high speed switching applications

Special Purpose Diodes

There are few diodes which are designed to serve some special purposes. There are many
of such kinds like Transient voltage suppression diodes, Gold doped diodes, Super barrier
diodes, Point contact diodes, Peltier diodes etc. But other than these, there are few
prominent diodes, which have got many applications. Let us go through them.

Varactor Diode
A junction diode has two potentials on both sides where the depletion region can act as a
dielectric. Hence there exists a capacitance. The Varactor diode is a special case diode that
is operated in reverse bias, where the junction capacitance is varied.

The Varactor diode is also called as Vari Cap or Volt Cap. The following figure shows a
Varactor diode connected in reverse bias.
If the reverse voltage applied is increased, the width of the dielectric region increases,
which reduces the junction capacitance. When the reverse voltage decreases, the
width of the dielectric decreases, which increases the capacitance. If this reverse voltage
is completely null, then the capacitance will be at its maximum.

The following figure shows various symbols used for Varactor diode which represents its
function.
Though all diodes have this junction capacitance, the Varactor diode is mainly
manufactured to make use of this effect and increase the variations in this junction
capacitance.

Applications of Varactor diode

This diode has many applications such as −

It is used as a Voltage variable capacitor.

It is used in variable LC tank circuit.

Used as Automatic frequency control.

Used as Frequency Modulator.

Used as RF Phase shifter.

Used as frequency multiplier in local oscillator circuits.

Tunnel diode
If the impurity concentration of a normal PN junction is highly increased, this Tunnel
diode is formed. It is also known as Esaki diode, after its inventor.

When the impurity concentration in a diode increases, the width of depletion region
decreases, extending some extra force to the charge carriers to cross the junction. When
this concentration is further increased, due to less width of the depletion region and the
increased energy of the charge carriers, they penetrate through the potential barrier,
instead of climbing over it. This penetration can be understood as Tunneling and hence
the name, Tunnel diode.

The Tunnel diodes are low power devices and should be handled with care as they easily
get affected by heat and static electricity. The Tunnel diode has specific V-I characteristics
which explain their working. Let us have a look at the graph below.
Consider the diode is in forward-biased condition. As forward voltage increases, the
current increases rapidly and it increases until a peak point, called as Peak Current,
denoted by IP. The voltage at this point is called as Peak Voltage, denoted by VP. This
point is indicated by A in the above graph.

If the voltage is further increased beyond VP, then the current starts decreasing. It
decreases until a point, called as Valley Current, denoted by IV. The voltage at this point
is called as Valley Voltage, denoted by VV. This point is indicated by B in the above
graph.

If the voltage is increased further, the current increases as in a normal diode. For larger
values of forward voltage, the current increases further beyond.

If we consider the diode is in reverse-biased condition, then the diode acts as an

excellent conductor as the reverse voltage increases. The diode here acts as in a negative
resistance region.

Applications of Tunnel diode

There are many applications for tunnel diode such as −

Used as a high-Speed Switching device

 Used as a memory storage device

Used in Microwave oscillators

Used in relaxation oscillators

Schottky Diode
This is a special type of diode in which a PN junction is replaced by a metal semiconductor
junction. The P-type semiconductor in a normal PN junction diode is replaced by a metal
and N-type material is joined to the metal. This combination has no depletion region
between them. The following figure shows the Schottky diode and its symbol.

The metal used in this Schottky diode may be gold, silver, platinum or tungsten etc. As
well, for the semiconductor material other than silicon, gallium arsenide is mostly used.

Operation
When no voltage is applied or when the circuit is unbiased, the electrons in the N-type
material has lower energy level than the ones in the metal. If the diode is then forward
biased, these electrons in the N-type gain some energy and move with some higher
energy. Hence these electrons are called as Hot Carriers.

The following figure shows a Schottky diode connected in a circuit.

Advantages
There are many advantages of Schottky diode such as −

It is a unipolar device and hence no reverse currents are formed.

Its forward resistance is low.

Voltage drops are very low.

Rectification is fast and easy with the Schottky diode.

There is no depletion region present and hence, no junction capacitance. So, the
diode gets to OFF position quickly.

Applications
There are many applications of Schottky diode such as −

Used as a detector diode

Used as a Power rectifier

Used in RF mixer circuits

Used in power circuits

Used as clamping diodes

Optoelectronic Diodes
These are the diodes which are operated on light. The word “Opto” means Light. There
are types that conduction depending upon the light intensity and other types whose
conduction delivers some light. Each type has got applications of their own. Let us discuss
the prominent types among these ones.

Some diodes conduct according to the intensity of light falls on them. There are two main
types of diodes in this category. They are Photo diodes and Solar cells.

Photo Diode
Photo diode, as the name implies, is a PN junction which works on light. The intensity of
light affects the level of conduction in this diode. The photo diode has a P type material
and an N-type material with an intrinsic material or a depletion region in between.

This diode is generally operated in reverse bias condition. The light when focused on the
depletion region, electron-hole pairs are formed and flow of electron occurs. This
conduction of electrons depends upon the intensity of light focused. The figure below
shows a practical Photo diode.

The figure below indicates the symbol for a photodiode.

When the diode is connected in reverse bias, a small reverse saturation current flows due
to thermally generated electron hole pairs. As the current in reverse bias flows due to
minority carriers, the output voltage depends upon this reverse current. As the light
intensity focused on the junction increases, the current flow due to minority carriers
increase. The following figure shows the basic biasing arrangement of a photo diode.

The Photo diode is encapsulated in a glass package to allow the light to fall onto it. In
order to focus the light exactly on the depletion region of the diode, a lens is placed above
the junction, just as illustrated above.

Even when there is no light, a small amount of current flows which is termed as Dark
Current. By changing the illumination level, reverse current can be changed.

Advantages of Photo diode

Photo diode has many advantages such as −

Low noise

High gain

High speed operation

High sensitivity to light

Low cost

Small size

Long lifetime

Applications of Photo diode

There are many applications for photo diode such as −

Character detection
Objects can be detected visibleorinvisible.
Used in circuits that require high stability and speed.

Used in Demodulation

Used in switching circuits

Used in Encoders

Used in optical communication equipment

Another diode of such a kind is Solar cell. It is termed as a cell though it is a diode. Let us
get into the details.

Solar Cell
The light dependent diodes include Solar cell, which is a normal PN junction diode but has
its conduction by the rush of photons which are converted into the flow of electrons. This
is similar to a photo diode but it has another objective of converting maximum incident
light into energy and storing it.

The figure below represents the symbol of a solar cell.

A solar cell has its name and symbol indicating storing of energy though it is a diode. The
feature of extracting more energy and storing of it is concentrated in the solar cell.

Construction of a Solar cell

A PN junction diode with an intrinsic material in the deletion region is made to encapsulate
in a glass. The light is made to incident on maximum area possible with thin glass on the
top so as to collect maximum light with minimum resistance.
The following figure shows the construction of a Solar cell.

When the light is incident on the solar cell, the photons in the light collide with valence
electrons. The electrons are energized to leave the parent atoms. Thus a flow of electrons
is generated and this current is directly proportional to the light intensity focused onto the
solar cell. This phenomenon is called as the Photo-Voltaic effect.

The following figure shows how a solar cell looks like and how a number of solar cells
together are made to form a solar panel.

Difference between a Photo diode and Solar cell

Photo Diode works faster and concentrates on switching rather than providing more power
at the output. It has a low capacitance value because of this. Also the area of incidence of
light energy is lesser in Photo diode, according to its applications.

A Solar cell concentrates on delivering high output energy and storing the energy. This has
high capacitance value. The operation is a bit slower than photo diode. According to the
purpose of the solar cell, the area of incidence of light is larger than photo diode.

Applications of Solar Cell

There are many applications for Solar cell such as −

Science and Technology

Used in Solar panels for Satellites

Used in telemetry

Used in Remote lighting systems etc.

Commercial Use

Used in Solar panels for storage of electricity

Used in Portable power supplies etc.

Used in household uses such as cooking and heating using solar energy

Electronic

Watches
Calculators

Electronic Toys, etc.

Some diodes emit light according to the voltage applied. There are two main types of
diodes in this category. They are LEDs and Laser diodes.

LED LightEmittingDiodes
This one is the most popular diodes used in our daily life. This is also a normal PN junction
diode except that instead of silicon and germanium, the materials like gallium arsenide,
gallium arsenide phosphide are used in its construction.

The figure below shows the symbol of a Light emitting diode.

Like a normal PN junction diode, this is connected in forward bias condition so that the
diode conducts. The conduction takes place in a LED when the free electrons in the
conduction band combine with the holes in the valence band. This process of
recombination emits light. This process is called as Electroluminescence. The color of
the light emitted depends upon the gap between the energy bands.

The materials used also effect the colors like, gallium arsenide phosphide emits either red
or yellow, gallium phosphide emits either red or green and gallium nitrate emits blue light.
Whereas gallium arsenide emits infrared light. The LEDs for non-visible Infrared light are
used mostly in remote controls.

The following figure shows a how the practical LEDs of different colors looks like.

LED in the above figure has a flat side and curved side, the lead at the flat side is made
shorter than the other one, so as to indicate that the shorter one is Cathode or negative
terminal and the other one is Anode or the Positive terminal.

The basic structure of LED is as shown in the figure below.

As shown in the above figure, as the electrons jump into the holes, the energy is
dissipated spontaneously in the form of light. LED is a current dependent device. The
output light intensity depends upon the current through the diode.

Advantages of LED
There are many advantages of LED such as −

High efficiency

High speed
High reliability

Low heat dissipation

Larger life span

Low cost
Easily controlled and programmable

High levels of brightness and intensity

Low voltage and current requirements

Less wiring required

Low maintenance cost

No UV radiation

Instant Lighting effect

Applications of LED
There are many applications for LED such as −

In Displays
 Especially used for seven segment display

Digital clocks
Microwave ovens

Traffic signaling

Display boards in railways and public places

Toys

In Electronic Appliances

Stereo tuners

Calculators

DC power supplies
On/Off indicators in amplifiers

Power indicators

Commercial Use

Infrared readable machines

Barcode readers

Solid state video displays

Optical Communications

In Optical switching applications

For Optical coupling where manual help is unavailable

Information transfer through FOC

Image sensing circuits

Burglar alarms

In Railway signaling techniques

Door and other security control systems

Just as LED has many advantages and applications, there is another important diode
called Laser diode, which also has got many advanced features and scope of future. Let us
discuss about Laser diode.

Laser Diode
Laser Diode is another popular diode for its kind. This is an optical diode which emits light
but with stimulated process. The name LASER implies Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.

Stimulated Emission
This is a PN junction diode whose action starts when a light ray is incident on it. With a
light ray, when photons get incident on an atom, the atom gets excited and it reaches an
upper level which can be termed as a Higher Energy Level.

The atom when shifts from the higher energy level to a Lower Energy Level, it releases
two photons which are similar in characteristics to the incident photon and are in
equal phase to it. This process is called as Stimulated Emission. An atom can generally
stay in this excited state for 10-8 secs of time.

So, the above process sets the principle for laser diode.

Principle of Laser Diode

Whenever a photon is incident on an atom, that atom is excited from a lower energy state
to a higher energy state and two photons are released in this process. Actually, an atom
can generally stay at this excited state for 10-8 secs of time. So, in order to achieve
amplification, during this excited process, the atom is made to be placed in another state
called Meta Stable State which is below the higher energy level and above the lower
energy level.

An atom can stay in this Meta stable state for 10-3 secs. While the atom gets to the lower
state from this, two photons are released. If more number of atoms are there in the
excited state, prior to the photons striking the atoms, then we have the Lasing Effect.
In this process, we have two terms to understand. Having more number of atoms at Meta
Stable state than the lower energy state or ground state is called as Population
inversion. Then energy that lets the atoms to send from a lower energy state to a higher
energy state to achieve the population inversion, is called as Pumping. This is Optical
pumping.

Advantages
There are many advantages of Laser diode such as −

Power used by laser diodes is much less

Higher ON/OFF switching speed

More Compact

Less expensive
 They are cheaper than laser generators

Less chances of providing electrical shocks

Disadvantages
There are few disadvantages of Laser diode such as −

More divergent rays and hence quality is not so good

Their life time is less compared to LED.

Prone to damage during unstable power supplies

Applications
There are many applications of Laser diode such as −

Used as pump-laser and seed-laser

Used in optical data storage devices

Used in laser printers and laser fax machines

Used in Laser pointers

Used in bar-code readers

They are used in DVD and CD drives

Used in HD DVD and BLU RAY technology

Has many industrial purposes such as heat treating, cladding, seam welding etc.

Has got many uses in communication technology such as data linking and
transmission.

After going through all these, let us try to understand few terms.

Component

The Components are the individual basic elements of electronics.

They have different properties with respect to their construction.

Every component has different applications.

Ex − Resistor, Capacitor, Diode etc.

Circuit
 A Circuit is a network of different components

The components in the circuit altogether, survive an intended purpose.

If a circuit has to be active, should contain a power source.

Ex − clipper and clamper circuits, amplifier circuits, relay circuits etc.

Device

A Device is an equipment that is made up of different circuits.

All circuits in the device help it function to serve its purpose.

A device can be used for measuring signals, generating signals, controlling the
outcomes or protecting the circuits and so on.

Ex − CRO, Function generator etc.

Solid State devices

Previously we used to have vacuum tubes, which work on thermionic principle and are
filled with vacuum inside. They were bigger in size than today’s components. These
vacuum tubes were replaced with semiconductor devices, which are also called as Solid
state devices.

Active Devices
The devices orpreciselycomponents which can control the current flow can be termed as
Active Devices.

They require some input power supply to get into conduction.

The working of these components define the behavior of the circuit.

Ex − Vacuum tubes, diodes, transistors, SCRs

Passive Devices
The devices orpreciselycomponents which cannot control the current flow can be termed
as Passive Devices.

They don’t require input power supply to work.

The working of these components slightly alters the circuit’s behavior.

Ex − Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc.

Doping
The process of adding of electrons or creating holes to alter the characteristics of the
semiconductor material, either by making more positive or by making more negative can
be understood as Doping.

The applications of diodes include many circuits starting from clipper and clamper circuits,
which will be discussed in ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS tutorial.

Transistors
After having a good knowledge on the working of the diode, which is a single PN junction,
let us try to connect two PN junctions which make a new component called Transistor. A
Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow
and acts as a switch or gate for signals.

Why Do We Need Transistors?

Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want. The received signal
will obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face during its journey. Now if this
signal is read as it is, you cannot get a fair output. Hence we need to amplify the signal.
Amplification means increasing the signal strength.

This is just an instance. Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be
increased. This is done by a transistor. A transistor also acts as a switch to choose
between available options. It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the
signals.

Constructional Details of a Transistor

The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two
diodes back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out
of the three semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types
of transistors. They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two
Ptypes and the other is a P-type material between two N-types respectively.

The construction of transistors is as shown in the following figure which explains the idea
discussed above.
The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base and Collector
terminals. They have their functionality as discussed below.

Emitter

The left hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.

This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply
a number of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.

As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.

This is simply indicated with the letter E.

Base

The middle material in the above figure is the Base.

This is thin and lightly doped.

Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.

This is indicated by the letter B.

Collector

The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.

This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.

This is indicated by the letter C.

The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.

The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the
collector of a transistor has to dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the
specific functions of emitter and collector, they are not interchangeable. Hence the
terminals are always to be kept in mind while using a transistor.

In a Practical transistor, there is a notch present near the emitter lead for identification.
The PNP and NPN transistors can be differentiated using a Multimeter. The following figure
shows how different practical transistors look like.

We have so far discussed the constructional details of a transistor, but to understand the
operation of a transistor, first we need to know about the biasing.

Transistor Biasing
As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here.
As one junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction
and likewise, the other is Collector-Base junction.
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function
of both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc
supply. The figure below shows how a transistor is biased.

By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that

The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given
positive supply to make the circuit Forward bias.

The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given
negative supply to make the circuit Reverse bias.

By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the
emitter resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its
resistance is a bit higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas
a high reverse bias has to be applied at the collector junction.

The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional
Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.

Operation PNP Transistor

The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure,
in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse
biased.
The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the
P-type material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region.
There a very low percent of holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides
very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the
collector-base junction, to constitute collector current IC, which is the hole current.

As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal
fills the space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current
flows through the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is
replaced by a hole by moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter
current IE.

Hence we can understand that −

The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.

The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.

The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Operation NPN Transistor

The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following
figure, in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in
the N-type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base
region. There a very low percent of electrons recombine with free holes of P-region. This
provides very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes
cross the collector-base junction, to constitute the collector current IC.

As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the
battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter
region. This flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.

Hence we can understand that −

The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.

The collector current is higher than the emitter current.

The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Advantages
There are many advantages of a transistor such as −

High voltage gain.

Lower supply voltage is sufficient.

Most suitable for low power applications.

Smaller and lighter in weight.

Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.

No external heating required like vacuum tubes.

Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.

There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due
to lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are temperature
dependent.

Transistor Con gurations

A Transistor has 3 terminals, the emitter, the base and the collector. Using these 3
terminals the transistor can be connected in a circuit with one terminal common to both
input and output in a 3 different possible configurations.

The three types of configurations are Common Base, Common Emitter and Common
Collector configurations. In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased
and the collector junction is reverse biased.

Common Base CB Con guration

fi
The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common base connection for both NPN and PNP
transistors is as shown in the following figure.

For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When
the emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative
terminal repel the emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the
collector to contribute collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant
throughout this.

In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output current
is the collector current IC.

Current Amplification Factor α

The ratio of change in collector current $ΔIC $ to the change in emitter current $ΔIE $
when collector voltage VCB is kept constant, is called as Current amplification factor. It
is denoted by α.

ΔIC
α = at constant VCB
ΔIE

Expression for Collector current

With the idea above, let us try to draw some expression for collector current. Along with
the emitter current flowing, there is some amount of base current IB which flows through
the base terminal due to electron hole recombination. As collector-base junction is reverse
biased, there is another current which is flown due to minority charge carriers. This is the
leakage current which can be understood as Ileakage. This is due to minority charge
carriers and hence very small.

The emitter current that reaches the collector terminal is

αIE

Total collector current

IC = αIE + Ileakage

If the emitter-base voltage VEB = 0, even then, there flows a small leakage current, which
can be termed as ICBO collector − basecurrentwithoutputopen.

The collector current therefore can be expressed as

IC = αIE + ICBO

IE = IC + IB

IC = α(IC + IB ) + ICBO

IC (1 − α) = αIB + ICBO
α ICBO
IC = ( ) IB + ( )
1 − α 1 − α
α 1
IC = ( ) IB + ( )ICBO
1 − α 1 − α
Hence the above derived is the expression for collector current. The value of collector
current depends on base current and leakage current along with the current amplification
factor of that transistor in use.

Characteristics of CB configuration

This configuration provides voltage gain but no current gain.

 Being VCB constant, with a small increase in the Emitter-base voltage VEB, Emitter
current IE gets increased.

Emitter Current IE is independent of Collector voltage VCB.

Collector Voltage VCB can affect the collector current IC only at low voltages,
when VEB is kept constant.

The input resistance ri is the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage $ΔVEB $ to

the change in emitter current $ΔIE $ at constant collector base voltage VCB.

ΔVEB
η = at constant VCB
ΔIE

As the input resistance is of very low value, a small value of VEB is enough to
produce a large current flow of emitter current IE.

The output resistance ro is the ratio of change in the collector base voltage
$ΔVCB $ to the change in collector current $ΔIC $ at constant emitter current IE.

ΔVCB
ro = at constant lE
ΔIC

As the output resistance is of very high value, a large change in VCB produces a
very little change in collector current IC.

This Configuration provides good stability against increase in temperature.

The CB configuration is used for high frequency applications.

Common Emitter CE Configuration

The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common terminal for both
input and output of the transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and PNP
transistors is as shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The
input current is the base current IB and the output current is the collector current IC
here.

Base Current Amplification factor β

The ratio of change in collector current $ΔIC $ to the change in base current $ΔIB $ is
known as Base Current Amplification Factor. It is denoted by β

ΔIC
β =
ΔIB

Relation between β and α

Let us try to derive the relation between base current amplification factor and emitter
current amplification factor.

ΔIC
β =
ΔIB
ΔIC
α =
ΔIE
IE = IB + IC

ΔI E = ΔI B + ΔI C

ΔI B = ΔI E − ΔI C

We can write

ΔIC
β =
ΔI E − ΔI C
Dividing by $$

ΔIC
ΔIE
β = ΔIC
ΔIE
ΔIE
− ΔIE

ΔIC
α =
ΔIE
We have

ΔIC
α =
ΔIE
Therefore,

α
β =
1−α
From the above equation, it is evident that, as α approaches 1, β reaches infinity.

Hence, the current gain in Common Emitter connection is very high. This is the
reason this circuit connection is mostly used in all transistor applications.

Expression for Collector Current

In the Common Emitter configuration, IB is the input current and IC is the output current.

We know

IE = IB + IC

And

IC = αIE + ICBO

= α(IB + IC ) + ICBO

IC (1 − α) = αIB + ICBO
α 1
IC = IB + ICBO
1−α 1−α
If base circuit is open, i.e. if IB = 0,

The collector emitter current with base open is ICEO

1
ICEO = ICBO
1−α
Substituting the value of this in the previous equation, we get

α
IC = IB + ICEO
1−α
IC = βIB + ICEO

Hence the equation for collector current is obtained.

Knee Voltage
In CE configuration, by keeping the base current IB constant, if VCE is varied, IC
increases nearly to 1v of VCE and stays constant thereafter. This value of VCE up to which
collector current IC changes with VCE is called the Knee Voltage. The transistors while
operating in CE configuration, they are operated above this knee voltage.

Characteristics of CE Configuration
 This configuration provides good current gain and voltage gain.

Keeping VCE constant, with a small increase in VBE the base current IB increases
rapidly than in CB configurations.

For any value of VCE above knee voltage, IC is approximately equal to βIB.

The input resistance ri is the ratio of change in base emitter voltage $ΔVBE $ to
the change in base current $ΔIB $ at constant collector emitter voltage VCE.

ΔVBE
ri = at constant VCE
ΔIB

As the input resistance is of very low value, a small value of VBE is enough to
produce a large current flow of base current IB.

The output resistance ro is the ratio of change in collector emitter voltage $ΔVCE $
to the change in collector current $ΔIC $ at constant IB.

ΔVCE
ro = at constant IB
ΔIC

As the output resistance of CE circuit is less than that of CB circuit.

This configuration is usually used for bias stabilization methods and audio
frequency applications.

Common Collector CC Configuration

The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for both
input and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both NPN and PNP
transistors is as shown in the following figure.
Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner.
The input current is the base current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE
here.

Current Amplification Factor γ

The ratio of change in emitter current $ΔIE $ to the change in base current $ΔIB $ is
known as Current Amplification factor in common collector CC configuration. It is
denoted by γ.

ΔIE
γ =
ΔIB

The current gain in CC configuration is same as in CE configuration.

The voltage gain in CC configuration is always less than 1.

Relation between γ and α

Let us try to draw some relation between γ and α

ΔIE
γ =
ΔIB
ΔIC
α =
ΔIE
IE = IB + IC

ΔI E = ΔI B + ΔI C

ΔI B = ΔI E − ΔI C

Substituting the value of IB, we get

ΔIE
γ =
ΔI E − ΔI C
Dividing by ΔIE
ΔIE
ΔIE
γ = ΔIC
ΔIE
ΔIE
− ΔIE

1
1 − α
 1
γ =
1 − α

Expression for collector current

We know

IC = αIE + ICBO

IE = IB + IC = IB + (αIE + ICBO )

IE (1 − α) = IB + ICBO
IB ICBO
IE = +
1 − α 1 − α
IC ≅ IE = (β + 1)IB + (β + 1)ICBO

The above is the expression for collector current.

Characteristics of CC Configuration

This configuration provides current gain but no voltage gain.

In CC configuration, the input resistance is high and the output resistance is low.

The voltage gain provided by this circuit is less than 1.

The sum of collector current and base current equals emitter current.

The input and output signals are in phase.

This configuration works as non-inverting amplifier output.

This circuit is mostly used for impedance matching. That means, to drive a low
impedance load from a high impedance source.

Transistor Regions of Operation

The DC supply is provided for the operation of a transistor. This DC supply is given to the
two PN junctions of a transistor which influences the actions of majority carriers in these
emitter and collector junctions.

The junctions are forward biased and reverse biased based on our requirement. Forward
biased is the condition where a positive voltage is applied to the p-type and negative
voltage is applied to the n-type material. Reverse biased is the condition where a
positive voltage is applied to the n-type and negative voltage is applied to the p-type
material.

Transistor biasing
The supply of suitable external dc voltage is called as biasing. Either forward or reverse
biasing is done to the emitter and collector junctions of the transistor. These biasing
methods make the transistor circuit to work in four kinds of regions such as Active
region, Saturation region, Cutoff region and Inverse active region seldomused.
This is understood by having a look at the following table.

EMITTER JUNCTION COLLECTOR JUNCTION REGION OF OPERATION

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation region

Forward biased Reverse biased Active region

Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse active region

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cutoff region

Among these regions, Inverse active region, which is just the inverse of active region, is
not suitable for any applications and hence not used.

Active region
This is the region in which transistors have many applications. This is also called as linear
region. A transistor while in this region, acts better as an Amplifier.

This region lies between saturation and cutoff. The transistor operates in active region
when the emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased. In the
active state, collector current is β times the base current, i.e.,

I C = βI B
Where,

IC = collector current

β = current amplification factor

IB = base current

Saturation region
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as a closed switch. The transistor has
the effect of its collector and Emitter being shorted. The collector and Emitter currents are
maximum in this mode of operation.

The figure below shows a transistor working in saturation region.

The transistor operates in saturation region when both the emitter and collector junctions
are forward biased. As it is understood that, in the saturation region the transistor tends to
behave as a closed switch, we can say that,

IC = IE

Where IC = collector current and IE = emitter current.

Cutoff region
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as an open switch. The transistor has
the effect of its collector and base being opened. The collector, emitter and base currents
are all zero in this mode of operation.

The following figure shows a transistor working in cutoff region.

The transistor operates in cutoff region when both the emitter and collector junctions are
reverse biased. As in cutoff region, the collector current, emitter current and base currents
are nil, we can write as

IC = IE = IB = 0

Where IC = collector current, IE = emitter current, and IB = base current.

Transistor Load Line Analysis

Till now we have discussed different regions of operation for a transistor. But among all
these regions, we have found that the transistor operates well in active region and hence
it is also called as linear region. The outputs of the transistor are the collector current
and collector voltages.

Output Characteristics
When the output characteristics of a transistor are considered, the curve looks as below
for different input values.
In the above figure, the output characteristics are drawn between collector current IC and
collector voltage VCE for different values of base current IB. These are considered here
for different input values to obtain different output curves.

Operating point
When a value for the maximum possible collector current is considered, that point will be
present on the Y-axis, which is nothing but the saturation point. As well, when a value
for the maximum possible collector emitter voltage is considered, that point will be present
on the X-axis, which is the cutoff point.

When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load line. This
is called so as it symbolizes the output at the load. This line, when drawn over the output
characteristic curve, makes contact at a point called as Operating point.

This operating point is also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point. There can be
many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way that irrespective
of AC signal swing, the transistor remains in active region. This can be better understood
through the figure below.
The load line has to be drawn in order to obtain the Q-point. A transistor acts as a good
amplifier when it is in active region and when it is made to operate at Q-point, faithful
amplification is achieved.

Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete portions of input signal by

increasing the signal strength. This is done when AC signal is applied at its input. This is
discussed in AMPLIFIERS tutorial.

DC Load line
When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load line
drawn at such condition, can be understood as DC condition. Here there will be no
amplification as the signal is absent. The circuit will be as shown below.

The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be

 VCE = VCC − IC RC

As VCC and RC are fixed values, the above one is a first degree equation and hence will be
a straight line on the output characteristics. This line is called as D.C. Load line. The
figure below shows the DC load line.

To obtain the load line, the two end points of the straight line are to be determined. Let
those two points be A and B.

To obtain A
When collector emitter voltage VCE = 0, the collector current is maximum and is equal to
VCC/RC. This gives the maximum value of VCE. This is shown as

VCE = VCC − IC RC

0 = VCC − IC RC
VCC
IC =
RC
This gives the point A (OA = VCC/RC) on collector current axis, shown in the above figure.

To obtain B
When the collector current IC = 0, then collector emitter voltage is maximum and will be
equal to the VCC. This gives the maximum value of IC. This is shown as

VCE = VCC − IC RC

= VCC
 (As IC = 0)

This gives the point B, which means (OB = VCC) on the collector emitter voltage axis
shown in the above figure.

Hence we got both the saturation and cutoff point determined and learnt that the load line
is a straight line. So, a DC load line can be drawn.

The importance of this operating point is further understood when an AC signal is given at
the input. This will be discussed in AMPLIFIERS tutorial.

Types of Transistors
There are many types of transistors in use. Each transistor is specialized in its application.
The main classification is as follows.

The primary transistor is the BJT and FET is the modern version of transistor. Let us have a
look at the BJTs.

Bipolar Junction Transistor

A Bipolar junction transistor, shortly termed as BJT is called so as it has two PN junctions
for its function. This BJT is nothing but a normal transistor. It has got two types of
configurations NPN and PNP. Usually NPN transistor is preferred for the sake of
convenience. The following image shows how a practical BJT looks like.
The types of BJT are NPN and PNP transistors. The NPN transistor is made by placing a
ptype material between two n-type materials. The PNP transistor is made by placing an
ntype material between two p-type materials.

BJT is a current controlled device. A normal transistor which we had discussed in the
previous chapters come under this category. The functionality, configurations and
applications are all the same.

Field Effect Transistor

An FET is a three-terminal unipolar semiconductor device. It is a voltage controlled
device unlike a bipolar junction transistor. The main advantage of FET is that it has a very
high input impedance, which is in the order of Mega Ohms. It has many advantages like
low power consumption, low heat dissipation and FETs are highly efficient devices. The
following image shows how a practical FET looks like.
The FET is a unipolar device, which means that it is made using either p-type or n-type
material as main substrate. Hence the current conduction of a FET is done by either
electrons or holes.

Features of FET
The following are the varied features of a Field Effect Transistor.

Unipolar − It is unipolar as either holes or electrons are responsible for

conduction.
High input impedance − The input current in a FET flows due to the reverse bias.
Hence it has high input impedance.
Voltage controlled device − As the output voltage of a FET is controlled by the
gate input voltage, FET is called as the voltage controlled device.

Noise is low − There are no junctions present in the conduction path. Hence noise
is lower than in BJTs.
Gain is characterized as transconductance. Transconductance is the ratio of
change in output current to the change in input voltage.
The output impedance of a FET is low.

Advantages of FET
To prefer a FET over BJT, there should be few advantages of using FETs, rather than BJTs.
Let us try to summarize the advantages of FET over BJT.

JFET BJT

It is an unipolar device It is a bipolar device

Voltage driven device Current driven device

High input impedance Low input impedance

Low noise level High noise level

Better thermal stability Less thermal stability

Gain is characterized by transconductance Gain is characterized by voltage gain

Applications of FET

FET is used in circuits to reduce the loading effect.

 FETs are used in many circuits such as Buffer Amplifier, Phase shift Oscillators and
Voltmeters.

FET Terminals
Though FET is a three terminal device, they are not the same as BJT terminals. The three
terminals of FET are Gate, Source and Drain. The Source terminal in FET is analogous to
the Emitter in BJT, while Gate is analogous to Base and Drain to Collector.

The symbols of a FET for both NPN and PNP types are as shown below

Source

The Source terminal in a Field Effect Transistor is the one through which the
carriers enter the channel.
This is analogous to the emitter terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.

The Source terminal can be designated as S.

The current entering the channel at Source terminal is indicated as IS.

Gate

The Gate terminal in a Field Effect Transistor plays a key role in the function of FET
by controlling the current through the channel.

By applying an external voltage at Gate terminal, the current through it can be

controlled.

Gate is a combination of two terminals connected internally that are heavily doped.
The channel conductivity is said to be modulated by the Gate terminal.

This is analogous to the base terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.

The Gate terminal can be designated as G.

 The current entering the channel at Gate terminal is indicated as IG.

Drain

The Drain terminal in a Field Effect Transistor is the one through which the carriers
leave the channel.

This is analogous to the collector terminal in a Bipolar Junction Transistor.

The Drain to Source voltage is designated as VDS.

The Drain terminal can be designated as D.

The current leaving the channel at Drain terminal is indicated as ID.

Types of FET
There are two main types of FETS. They are JFET and MOSFET. The following figure gives
further classification of FETs.

In the subsequent chapters, we will have a detailed discussion on JFET and MOSFET.

JFET(Junction Field Effect transistor)

The JFET is abbreviated as Junction Field Effect Transistor. JFET is just like a normal
FET. The types of JFET are n-channel FET and P-channel FET. A p-type material is added to
the n-type substrate in n-channel FET, whereas an n-type material is added to the ptype
substrate in p-channel FET. Hence it is enough to discuss one type of FET to understand
both.

N-Channel FET
The N-channel FET is the mostly used Field Effect Transistor. For the fabrication of
Nchannel FET, a narrow bar of N-type semiconductor is taken on which P-type material is
formed by diffusion on the opposite sides. These two sides are joined to draw a single
connection for gate terminal. This can be understood from the following figure.

These two gate depositions p − typematerials form two PN diodes. The area between
gates is called as a channel. The majority carriers pass through this channel. Hence the
cross sectional form of the FET is understood as the following figure.

Ohmic contacts are made at the two ends of the n-type semiconductor bar, which form the
source and the drain. The source and the drain terminals may be interchanged.

Operation of N-channel FET

Before going into the operation of the FET one should understand how the depletion layers
are formed. For this, let us suppose that the voltage at gate terminal say VGG is reverse
biased while the voltage at drain terminal say VDD is not applied. Let this be the case 1.
 In case 1, When VGG is reverse biased and VDD is not applied, the depletion
regions between P and N layers tend to expand. This happens as the negative
voltage applied, attracts the holes from the p-type layer towards the gate terminal.

In case 2, When VDD is applied

positiveterminaltodrainandnegativeterminaltosource and VGG is not
applied, the electrons flow from source to drain which constitute the drain current
I D.

Let us now consider the following figure, to understand what happens when both the
supplies are given.

The supply at gate terminal makes the depletion layer grow and the voltage at drain
terminal allows the drain current from source to drain terminal. Suppose the point at
source terminal is B and the point at drain terminal is A, then the resistance of the channel
will be such that the voltage drop at the terminal A is greater than the voltage drop at the
terminal B. Which means,

VA>VB

Hence the voltage drop is being progressive through the length of the channel. So, the
reverse biasing effect is stronger at drain terminal than at the source terminal. This is why
the depletion layer tends to penetrate more into the channel at point A than at point B,
when both VGG and VDD are applied. The following figure explains this.
Now that we have understood the behavior of FET, let us go through the real operation of
FET.

Depletion Mode of Operation

As the width of depletion layer plays an important role in the operation of FET, the name
depletion mode of operation implies. We have another mode called enhancement mode of
operation, which will be discussed in the operation of MOSFETs. But JFETs have only
depletion mode of operation.

Let us consider that there is no potential applied between gate and source terminals and a
potential VDD is applied between drain and source. Now, a current ID flows from drain to
source terminal, at its maximum as the channel width is more. Let the voltage applied
between gate and source terminal VGG is reverse biased. This increases the depletion
width, as discussed above. As the layers grow, the cross-section of the channel decreases
and hence the drain current ID also decreases.

When this drain current is further increased, a stage occurs where both the depletion
layers touch each other, and prevent the current ID flow. This is clearly shown in the
following figure.
The voltage at which both these depletion layers literally “touch” is called as “Pinch off
voltage”. It is indicated as VP. The drain current is literally nil at this point. Hence the
drain current is a function of reverse bias voltage at gate.

Since gate voltage controls the drain current, FET is called as the voltage controlled
device. This is more clearly understood from the drain characteristics curve.

Drain Characteristics of JFET

Let us try to summarize the function of FET through which we can obtain the characteristic
curve for drain of FET. The circuit of FET to obtain these characteristics is given below.

When the voltage between gate and source VGS is zero, or they are shorted, the current
ID from source to drain is also nil as there is no VDS applied. As the voltage between
drain and source VDS is increased, the current flow ID from source to drain increases.
This increase in current is linear up to a certain point A, known as Knee Voltage.

The gate terminals will be under reverse biased condition and as ID increases, the
depletion regions tend to constrict. This constriction is unequal in length making these
regions come closer at drain and farther at drain, which leads to pinch off voltage. The
pinch off voltage is defined as the minimum drain to source voltage where the drain
current approaches a constant value saturationvalue. The point at which this pinch off
voltage occurs is called as Pinch off point, denoted as B.

As VDS is further increased, the channel resistance also increases in such a way that ID
practically remains constant. The region BC is known as saturation region or amplifier
region. All these along with the points A, B and C are plotted in the graph below.
The drain characteristics are plotted for drain current ID against drain source voltage VDS
for different values of gate source voltage VGS. The overall drain characteristics for such
various input voltages is as given under.

As the negative gate voltage controls the drain current, FET is called as a Voltage
controlled device. The drain characteristics indicate the performance of a FET. The drain
characteristics plotted above are used to obtain the values of Drain resistance,
Transconductance and Amplification Factor.

MOSFET
FETs have a few disadvantages like high drain resistance, moderate input impedance and
slower operation. To overcome these disadvantages, the MOSFET which is an advanced
FET is invented.
MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor or Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. This is also called as IGFET meaning Insulated Gate
Field Effect Transistor. The FET is operated in both depletion and enhancement modes of
operation. The following figure shows how a practical MOSFET looks like.

Construction of a MOSFET
The construction of a MOSFET is a bit similar to the FET. An oxide layer is deposited on the
substrate to which the gate terminal is connected. This oxide layer acts as an insulator
(sio2 insulates from the substrate), and hence the MOSFET has another name as IGFET. In
the construction of MOSFET, a lightly doped substrate, is diffused with a heavily doped
region. Depending upon the substrate used, they are called as P-type and N-type
MOSFETs.

The following figure shows the construction of a MOSFET.

The voltage at gate controls the operation of the MOSFET. In this case, both positive and
negative voltages can be applied on the gate as it is insulated from the channel. With
negative gate bias voltage, it acts as depletion MOSFET while with positive gate bias
voltage it acts as an Enhancement MOSFET.

Classification of MOSFETs
Depending upon the type of materials used in the construction, and the type of operation,
the MOSFETs are classified as in the following figure.

After the classification, let us go through the symbols of MOSFET.

The N-channel MOSFETs are simply called as NMOS. The symbols for N-channel
MOSFET are as given below.
The P-channel MOSFETs are simply called as PMOS. The symbols for P-channel MOSFET
are as given below.

Now, let us go through the constructional details of an N-channel MOSFET. Usually an

NChannel MOSFET is considered for explanation as this one is mostly used. Also, there is
no need to mention that the study of one type explains the other too.

Construction of N- Channel MOSFET

Let us consider an N-channel MOSFET to understand its working. A lightly doped P-type
substrate is taken into which two heavily doped N-type regions are diffused, which act as
source and drain. Between these two N+ regions, there occurs diffusion to form an
Nchannel, connecting drain and source.
A thin layer of Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is grown over the entire surface and holes are
made to draw ohmic contacts for drain and source terminals. A conducting layer of
aluminum is laid over the entire channel, upon this SiO2 layer from source to drain which
constitutes the gate. The SiO2 substrate is connected to the common or ground
terminals.

Because of its construction, the MOSFET has a very less chip area than BJT, which is 5% of
the occupancy when compared to bipolar junction transistor. This device can be operated
in modes. They are depletion and enhancement modes. Let us try to get into the details.

Working of N - Channel depletionmode MOSFET

For now, we have an idea that there is no PN junction present between gate and channel
in this, unlike a FET. We can also observe that, the diffused channel N
betweentwoN + regions, the insulating dielectric SiO2 and the aluminum metal layer
of the gate together form a parallel plate capacitor.

If the NMOS has to be worked in depletion mode, the gate terminal should be at negative
potential while drain is at positive potential, as shown in the following figure.
When no voltage is applied between gate and source, some current flows due to the
voltage between drain and source. Let some negative voltage is applied at VGG. Then the
minority carriers i.e. holes, get attracted and settle near SiO2 layer. But the majority
carriers, i.e., electrons get repelled.

With some amount of negative potential at VGG a certain amount of drain current ID
flows through source to drain. When this negative potential is further increased, the
electrons get depleted and the current ID decreases. Hence the more negative the applied
VGG, the lesser the value of drain current ID will be.

The channel nearer to drain gets more depleted than at source likeinF ET and the
current flow decreases due to this effect. Hence it is called as depletion mode MOSFET.

Working of N-Channel MOSFET EnhancementMode

The same MOSFET can be worked in enhancement mode, if we can change the polarities
of the voltage VGG. So, let us consider the MOSFET with gate source voltage VGG being
positive as shown in the following figure.
When no voltage is applied between gate and source, some current flows due to the
voltage between drain and source. Let some positive voltage is applied at VGG. Then the
minority carriers i.e. holes, get repelled and the majority carriers i.e. electrons gets
attracted towards the SiO2 layer.

With some amount of positive potential at VGG a certain amount of drain current ID flows
through source to drain. When this positive potential is further increased, the current ID
increases due to the flow of electrons from source and these are pushed further due to the
voltage applied at VGG. Hence the more positive the applied VGG, the more the value of
drain current ID will be. The current flow gets enhanced due to the increase in electron
flow better than in depletion mode. Hence this mode is termed as Enhanced Mode
MOSFET.

P - Channel MOSFET
The construction and working of a PMOS is same as NMOS. A lightly doped n-substrate is
taken into which two heavily doped P+ regions are diffused. These two P+ regions act as
source and drain. A thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the surface. Holes are cut through
this layer to make contacts with P+ regions, as shown in the following figure.
Working of PMOS
When the gate terminal is given a negative potential at VGG than the drain source voltage
VDD, then due to the P+ regions present, the hole current is increased through the
diffused P channel and the PMOS works in Enhancement Mode.

When the gate terminal is given a positive potential at VGG than the drain source voltage
VDD, then due to the repulsion, the depletion occurs due to which the flow of current
reduces. Thus PMOS works in Depletion Mode. Though the construction differs, the
working is similar in both the type of MOSFETs. Hence with the change in voltage polarity
both of the types can be used in both the modes.

This can be better understood by having an idea on the drain characteristics curve.

Drain Characteristics
The drain characteristics of a MOSFET are drawn between the drain current ID and the
drain source voltage VDS. The characteristic curve is as shown below for different values
of inputs.
Actually when VDS is increased, the drain current ID should increase, but due to the
applied VGS, the drain current is controlled at certain level. Hence the gate current
controls the output drain current.

Transfer Characteristics
Transfer characteristics define the change in the value of VDS with the change in ID and
VGS in both depletion and enhancement modes. The below transfer characteristic curve is
drawn for drain current versus gate to source voltage.
Comparison between BJT, FET and MOSFET
Now that we have discussed all the above three, let us try to compare some of their
properties.

TERMS BJT FET MOSFET

Device type Current controlled Voltage controlled Voltage Controlled

Current flow Bipolar Unipolar Unipolar

Not
Terminals Interchangeable Interchangeable
interchangeable

Operational Depletion mode Both Enhancement and

No modes
modes only Depletion modes

Input
Low High Very high
impedance

Output
Moderate Moderate Low
resistance

Operational
Low Moderate High
speed

Noise High Low Low

 Computer Fundamentals ─NumberComputer
System Fundamentals

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as
computers can understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional
number system where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols
represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number.

The value of each digit in a number can be determined using -

 The digit

 The position of the digit in the number

 The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of
digits available in the number system)

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system.
Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number
system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens,
hundreds, thousands, and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal
number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the
hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its value can be written as

(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)

(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following

number systems which are frequently used in computers.

Sr.
Number System and Description
No.

Binary Number System

1 Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

Octal Number System

2 Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System

3
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F
 Computer Fundamentals

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows:

 Uses two digits, 0 and 1

 Also called as base 2 number system

 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example
20

 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example
2x where x represents the last position - 1

Example
Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

Note: 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows:

 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

 Also called as base 8 number system

 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example
80

 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example
8x where x represents the last position - 1
 Computer Fundamentals

Example
Octal Number: 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note: 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows:

 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

 Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13,
E = 14, F = 15

 Also called as base 16 number system

 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16).

Example, 160

 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16).

Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Binary
Step Decimal Number
Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note: 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Number Conversion Computer Fundamentals

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one
base to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the following:

 Decimal to Other Base System

 Other Base System to Decimal
 Other Base System to Non-Decimal
 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System

Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.

Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of
the new base number.

Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base
number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes
zero in Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base
number.

Example
Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1
 Computer Fundamentals

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order
so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last
remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).

Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number : 111012

Other Base System to Decimal System

Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the
position of the digit and the base of the number system).

Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding
columns.

Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in
decimal.

Example
Binary Number: 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Binary
Step Decimal Number
Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

 Computer Fundamentals

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example
Octal Number: 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step 1: Convert to Decimal

Octal
Step Decimal Number
Number

Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5 )10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

Step 2: Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1

Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number : 101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number : 101012

 Computer Fundamentals

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal

Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).

Step 2 - Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example
Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 58

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number : 258

Shortcut method ─ Octal to Binary

Step 1 - Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be
treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number.

Example
Octal Number: 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number : 101012

 Computer Fundamentals

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal

Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).

Step 2 - Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example
Binary Number: 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

Step 2 101012 110 510

Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Shortcut Method ─ Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 - Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the hexadecimal
digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary
number.

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent:

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number : 101012

 Digital Electronics - Binary Codes
Binary codes are one of the important concepts in digital electronics. A binary code is a
type of digital code consisting of two digits, 0 and 1. Binary codes act as the primary
language in any digital computing system. Binary codes can represent different types of
information such as numbers, letters, images, videos, etc.

In this chapter, we will explain the basics of binary codes, their working, advantages,
limitations, and applications.

What are Binary Codes?

Binary codes are used to represent text, numbers, images, or other types of information
in the form of 0 and 1, i.e., binary digits. Binary codes form the primary language of a
digital computing system like a computer.

All digital system can understand and manipulate information expressed in binary
language only. In the case of binary codes, each digit is called a binary digit or bit.

Binary codes represents information using 0 and 1. In a digital system, the binary codes
are organized into segments like bits or bytes. A bit is either a binary 0 or 1. When 8 bits
are grouped together, then it is called a byte. Each byte represents a piece of information
in a digital system.

Types of Binary Codes

Binary codes can be classified into the following major types −

Weighted Binary Codes

Non-weighted Binary Codes

Alphanumeric Code

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Error Detecting Code

Error Correction Code

Let us discuss each type of code in detail.

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Weighted Binary Codes

Weighted binary codes are a type of binary code in which each bit position has a specific
weight associated with its positional value.

In weighted binary codes, the positional weights are defined in terms powers of 2. The
value of each bit depends on its position in the binary code. Thus, in a given weighted
binary code, the rightmost bit has the least weight and the leftmost bit has the highest
weight.

In general, the weight of nth bit in a weighted binary code is given by,

nth bit = 2n

For example, let a 4-bit weighted binary code 1011. The value of the code is,

1 × 2 3 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20

1×8+0×4+1×2+1×1

8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11

It is clear that the rightmost bit has a positional weight of 20 = 1, whereas the leftmost bit
has a positional weight of 23 = 8.

Examples of weighted binary codes are 8421 BCD code, 5211 code, 2421 code, etc.

Non-Weighted Binary Codes

In digital electronics, the type of digital or binary codes in which each bit position does not
have a specific weight associated with it is known as a non-weighted binary code.

In non-weighted binary codes, the value of the bit does not depend on the position within
the number. Each bit position has an equal positional value.

Examples of non-weighted binary codes include Excess-3 code and Gray code.

Excess-3 Code
Excess-3 code is also called as XS-3 code. It is a type of non-weighted code used to
express decimal numbers. Excess-3 code words are derived from the 8421 BCD code
words adding (0011)2 or (3)10 to each code word in 8421.

Excess-3 codes are obtained as follows −

Take a look at the following example −

Gray Code
Gray codes are a type of non-weighted code. They are not arithmetic codes, which means
there are no specific weights assigned to the bit position.

Gray codes have a very special feature that, only one bit will change each time the
decimal number is incremented (see the figure below). As only one bit changes at a time,
gray codes are also known unit distance code.

Gray codes are cyclic codes and they cannot be used in arithmetic operation.
Gray codes are popularly used in Shaft Position encoders. A shaft position encoder
produces a code word that represents the angular position of the shaft.

Alphanumeric Codes
A binary digit or bit can represent only two states '0' or '1'. But this is not enough for
communication between two computers because there we need many more symbols for
communication. These symbols are required to represent 26 alphabets with capital and
small letters, numbers from 0 to 9, punctuation marks and other symbols.

Alphanumeric codes are the codes that represent numbers and alphabetic characters.
Mostly such codes also represent other characters such as symbol and various instructions
necessary for conveying information.

Alphanumeric codes are binary codes that use character encoding schemes that represent
both numbers and alphabetic characters. Alphanumeric codes are mainly used in
applications involving character representation and information exchange.

Some common examples of alphanumeric codes are ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange), Extended ASCII, EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code), Unicode, etc.

An alphanumeric code should at least represent 10 digits and 26 letters of the alphabet,
i.e., total 36 items. The following three alphanumeric codes are very commonly used for
data representation −

American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)

Five bit Baudot Code

ASCII code is a 7-bit code, whereas EBCDIC is an 8-bit code. ASCII code is more
commonly used, while EBCDIC is used primarily in large IBM computers.

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Binary coded decimal or BCD is a binary code used to represent decimal numbers in their
digital format. In this code, each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number.
BCD is a way to express each of the decimal digits with a binary code. In BCD, each
decimal digit is represented by a unique combination of binary bits.

BCD is mainly used in digital systems where decimal arithmetic operations are performed
like in computers, calculators, display devices, digital sensors, etc.

In BCD, with 4 bits, we can represent sixteen numbers (0000 to 1111), but in BCD code
only first ten of these are used (0000 to 1001). The remaining six code combinations, i.e.,
1010 to 1111 are invalid in BCD.
Advantages of BCD Codes

BCD codes are very similar to the decimal system.

We need to remember the binary equivalent of the decimal numbers 0 to 9 only.

Disadvantages of BCD Codes

The addition and subtraction of BCD codes follow different rules.

BCD arithmetic is a little more complicated.

BCD needs more number of bits than binary to represent the decimal number. So,
BCD is less efficient than binary.

Error Detecting Codes

Error detecting codes are special types of binary codes used to identify errors in digital
communication and data storage. Error detecting codes add redundancy to the data that
allows receiver to identify if there is any error occurred. Common examples of error
detecting codes include parity bit, checksum, hamming code, etc.

Error detecting codes are important to ensure integrity in data transmission and storage.
They help in improving the reliability of the system.

What are Errors?

An error is a condition when the output information does not match with the input
information. During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors
in the binary bits travelling from one system to other. That means a 0 bit may change to 1
or a 1 bit may change to 0.
Whenever a message is transmitted, it may get scrambled by noise or data may get
corrupted. To avoid this, we use error-detecting codes which are additional data added to
a given digital message to help us detect if an error occurred during transmission of the
message. A simple example of error-detecting code is parity check.

Error Correcting Codes

Error correcting codes are binary codes designed to correct the errors occurred in a digital
system during data transmission or storage. Error correcting codes add some additional
information to the data to be transmitted or stored.

Error-correcting codes deploy the same strategy as error-detecting codes but additionally,
such codes also detect the exact location of the corrupt bit. This allows the receiver to re-
obtain the original data even if some of the bits are corrupted.

In error-correcting codes, parity check has a simple way to detect errors along with a
sophisticated mechanism to determine the corrupt bit location. Once the corrupt bit is
located, its value is reverted (from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0) to get the original message.

Just like error detecting codes, error correcting codes are important to maintain data
integrity in digital communication and data storage applications.

Different types of error correcting codes are used in different digital systems depending on
the type of communication channel, error pattern, degree of error correction, etc. Some
common examples of error correcting codes are Hamming code, Reed-Solomon code, Low-
Density-Parity-Check code, BCH code, etc.

How to Detect and Correct Errors?

To detect and correct the errors, additional bits are added to the data bits at the time of
transmission.

The additional bits are called parity bits. They allow detection or correction of the
errors.

The data bits along with the parity bits form a code word.
Parity Checking of Error Detection
It is the simplest technique for detecting and correcting errors. The MSB of an 8-bits word
is used as the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as data or message bits. The
parity of 8-bits transmitted word can be either even parity or odd parity.

Even Parity − Even parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity
bit should be even (2,4,6,....).

Odd Parity − Odd parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity
bit should be odd (1,3,5,....).

Use of Parity Bit

The parity bit can be set to "0" or "1" depending on the type of the parity required.

For even parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the number of "1 bits" in the entire word
is even. See Fig. (a).

For odd parity, this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the number of "1 bits" in the entire word is
odd. See Fig. (b).

How Does Error Detection Take Place?

Parity checking at the receiver can detect the presence of an error if the parity of the
receiver signal is different from the expected parity. That means, if it is known that the
parity of the transmitted signal is always going to be "even" and if the received signal has
an odd parity, then the receiver can conclude that the received signal is not correct.
If an error is detected, then the receiver will ignore the received byte and request for
retransmission of the same byte to the transmitter.

Advantages of Binary Codes

Binary codes have several advantages in the field of digital electronics. Here are the key
benefits of using binary codes −

Simplicity − Binary codes use only two digits, i.e., 0 and 1 to represent information.
It simplifies the electronic circuit design and implementation.

Ease in Implementation − Binary codes use only two states namely, on and off.
So, their implementation is straightforward.

Ease of Storage − Binary codes are easy to store in digital memory devices like
hard disk, CD, DVD, pen drive, etc. They require compact storage at higher
efficiency.

Easy and Fast Processing − Binary codes can be efficiently processed using digital
systems having an arithmetic and logic unit. They allow fast and error-free
computing.

Easy Communication − Binary codes provide an efficient method of information

transmission at a very high speed. Various error detecting and correcting techniques
can be applied to binary codes that make the digital communication more efficient.

Easy Scalability − Binary codes provide easy scalability of a digital system. We can
increase the range of a digital system just by adding more bits in the code.

Compatibility − Binary codes are compatible with a wide range of digital devices
and systems.

Reliability − Binary codes are highly immune to noise and interference that provide
improved reliability in the digital system.

Disadvantages of Binary Codes

Binary codes have several advantages as given above. However, they also have some
disadvantages and limitations.

Some key disadvantages of binary codes are listed below −

Binary codes are not human friendly. For human beings, reading and interpreting
binary codes can be a complex task.
 In some situations, binary codes have to be converted into other number systems
that adds extra computational overhead to the system.

Binary codes require higher transmission bandwidth in communication channel.

In binary codes, it is quite difficult to identify the errors. It becomes more challenging
in case of long binary sequences.

Applications of Binary Codes

Binary codes are widely used in various fields of digital electronics due to their high
efficiency in information representation.

Listed below are some of the key applications of binary codes −

Digital Computers − Binary codes are primarily used in digital computer to

represent information and instructions.

Digital Communication − Binary codes are also used for transmission of data and
information using digital channels.

Digital Displays − Binary codes are also used to display numbers and alphabets in
digital systems.

Barcode Systems − Binary codes are also used in barcode systems for product
identification and inventory management. In this system, bars of different width and
spaces between them represent binary digits that can be interpreted by a scanner.
Data Storage − Binary codes are used to store information in digital devices like
computer memory.

Digital Control Systems − Binary codes are used to program a digital control
system. In a digital control system, binary codes are used to represent different
types of control signals and instructions used for automation.

Computer Graphics − Binary codes are also used in computer graphics to represent
colors, shapes, pixel values, and other information.

Conclusion
In conclusion, binary codes are one of the crucial components of a digital system. They are
used to represent information and instructions in digital format. There are several different
types of binary codes used in digital electronics.

Different binary codes are used for different purposes depending on the nature of
application. For example, ASCII code is used for alphanumeric data representation. In this
chapter, we explained the basic concepts of binary codes. In the upcoming chapters, we
will explore the different types of binary codes and their applications in digital electronics.
 n Standard Format single precision representation uses 32-bit word

n The exponent field (8 bits) can be used to represent integers from 0-255

n Because of the need for negative exponents to be represented as well, the range is
offset or biased from – 128 to + 127

n In this way, both very large and very small numbers can be represented

Logic Gates
A logic gate is a hardware implementing a Boolean function; that is, it performs a logical
operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces a single logical output. Depending on the
context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has for instance zero rise time and
unlimited fan-out( the number of gate inputs it can feed or connect to), or it may refer to a non-
ideal physical device
Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic witches,
but can also be constructed using vacuum tubes, electromagnetic relays , fluidic
ogic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic
gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the
construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms
and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.
§ The three basic logical operations are:
• AND
• OR
• NOT
AND gate
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives true output i.e output (1) only if all its inputs
are true. A dot (·) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A·B.

OR gate
The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a gives a true output true output (1) if one or
more one or more of its inputs are true. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.

NOT gate
• The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its
output.
• It is also known as an inverter.
• If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A.
• This is also shown as A', or Ā with a bar over the top.

NAND gate
• This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND followed by a NOT gate.
• The outputs of all NAND gates are true if any of the inputs are false.
• The symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents
inversion.

NOR gate
• This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a gate followed by a NOT
gate .
• The outputs of all NOR gates are false if any of the inputs are true.
• The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents
inversion represents inversion.

EXOR gate
• The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a true output if either, but not both, of its
two inputs are true.
• An encircled plus sign (⊕) is used to show the EXOR operation.

EXNOR gate
• The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EXNOR gate.
• It will give a false output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are true.
• The symbol is an EXOR gate with a small circle on the output small circle on the output .
• The small circle represents inversion.
Boolean Algebra
Invented by George Boole in 1854. It’s a convenient way and systematic way of expressing
and analyzing the operation of logic circuits.

An algebraic structure defined by a set B = {0, 1}, together with two binary operators (+ and
·) and a unary operator.

Terms going to be used-

n Variable – a symbol used to represent a logical quantity.

n Complement – the inverse of a variable and is indicated by a bar over the variable.
n Literal – a variable or the complement of a variable.

Boolean Addition
n Boolean addition is equivalent to the OR operation
n A sum term is produced by an OR operation with no AND ops involved.
n i.e. A + B, A + B , A + B + C , A + B + C + D
n A sum term is equal to 1 when one or more of the literals in the term are 1.
n A sum term is equal to 0 only if each of the literals is 0.

Boolean Multiplication
n Boolean multiplication is equivalent to the AND operation
n A product term is produced by an AND operation with no OR ops involved.
n i.e. AB, AB , ABC , A BCD
n A product term is equal to 1 only if each of the literals in the term is 1.
 n A product term is equal to 0 when one or more of the literals are 0.

Laws of Boolean Algebra

The basic laws of Boolean algebra:

n The commutative laws
The commutative law of addition for two variables is written as: A+B
= B+A
The commutative law of multiplication for two variables is written as: AB = BA

n The associative laws

The associative law of addition for 3 variables is written as:
A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
The associative law of multiplication for 3 variables is written as:
A(BC) = (AB)C
n The distributive laws
The distributive law is written for 3 variables as follows: A(B+C) = AB + AC

Rules of Boolean Algebra

1. A + 0 = A 7. A · A = A
2. A + 1 = 1 8. A · A = 0
3. A · 0 = 0 9. A = A
4. A · 1 = A 10. A + AB = A
5. A + A = A
11. A + A B = A + B
6. A + A = 1 12.( A + B)( A + C ) = A + BC

DeMorgan’s Theorems
n DeMorgan’s theorems provide mathematical verification of:
n the equivalency of the NAND and negative-OR gates
n the equivalency of the NOR and negative-AND gates.

n The complement of two or more ANDed variables is equivalent to the OR of the

complements of the individual variables.

X ·Y = X + Y
n The complement of two or more ORed variables is equivalent to the AND of the
complements of the individual variables.

X + Y = X ·Y
Constructing a Truth Table for a Logic Circuit
 n Once the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit has been determined, a truth table
that shows the output for all possible values of the input variables can be developed.
n Let’s take the example:
A(B+CD)
n There are four variables, hence 16 (24) combinations of values are possible.
n To evaluate the expression A(B+CD), first
find the values of the variables that make
the expression equal to 1 (using the rules for INPUT OUTPUT
Boolean add & mult). A B C A(B+CD)
n In this case, the expression equals 1
only if A=1 and B+CD=1 because 0 0 0 0
A(B+CD) = 1·1 = 1
0 0 0 0
n Now, determine when B+CD term equals 1.
n The term B+CD=1 if either B=1 or CD=1 0 0 1 0
or if both B and CD equal 1 because
0 0 1 0
B+CD = 1+0 = 1
B+CD = 0+1 = 1 0 1 0 0
B+CD = 1+1 = 1
n The term CD=1 only if C=1 and D=1 0 1 0 0
n Summary: 0 1 1 0
A(B+CD)=1
When A=1 and B=1 regardless of 0 1 1 0
the values of C and D 1 0 0 0
When A=1 and C=1 and D=1 regardless
of the value of B 1 0 0 0
n The expression A(B+CD)=0 for all other
1 0 1 0
value combinations of the variables.
n Putting the results in truth table format 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

Latches & Flip-flops

Digital circuits can be classified as
1. Combinational circuits:
In this case present output of the circuit depends on present inputs only.

2. Sequential circuits:
 · Present output not only depends on present inputs but also on the previous state of output.
· It can be realized as combinational circuit with a feedback path along with a memory element.

The most basic memory element can be realized by two inverters forming a static
memory cell. Assume A=0 and B=1, then the below circuit will maintain these values
indefinitely (as long as it has power applied) . The state is defined by the value of the
memory cell

Fig: Static memory cell

S-R Latches :
· Most basic type of latch.
· It is known as set-reset latch as it has two stable output state.
• NOR gates can be used instead of inverters. The SR latch below has two inputs S and R,
which will control the outputs Q and Q’.
• Here Q and Q’ feed back into the circuit. They’re not only outputs, they’re also inputs!
• To figure out how Q and Q’ change, we have to look at not only the inputs S and R, but
also the current values of Q and Q’:
Qnext = (R + Q’current)’
Q’next = (S + Qcurrent)’

Fig : S-R latch using NOR gate

S R Q
· The state S=R=1 is invalid and not allowed
0 0 No change
Fig : Truth table S-R latch using NOR gate 0 1 0 (reset)
1 0 1 (set)
Fig: S’-R’ Latch using cross coupled NAND gate

Gated SR latch

A gated SR latch circuit diagram constructed from NOR gates.

A synchronous SR latch (sometimes clocked SR flip-flop) can be made by adding a second level
of NAND gates to the inverted SR latch (or a second level of AND gates to the direct SR latch).
The extra NAND gates further invert the inputs so the simple SR latch becomes a gated SR latch
(and a simple SR latch would transform into a gated SR latch with inverted enable).
With E high (enable true), the signals can pass through the input gates to the encapsulated
latch; all signal combinations except for (0,0) = hold then immediately reproduce on the (Q,Q)
output, i.e. the latch istransparent.
With E low (enable false) the latch is closed (opaque) and remains in the state it was left the last
time E was high.
The enable input is sometimes a clock signal, but more often a read or write strobe.
Gated D latch

A D-type transparent latch based on an SR NAND latch

A gated D latch based on an SR NOR latch

This latch exploits the fact that, in the two active input combinations (01 and 10) of a gated SR
latch, R is the complement of S. The input NAND stage converts the two D input states (0 and 1)
to these two input combinations for the next SR latch by inverting the data input signal. The low
state of the enable signal produces the inactive "11" combination. Thus a gated D-latch may be
considered as a one-input synchronous SR latch. This configuration prevents application of the
restricted input combination. It is also known as transparent latch,data latch, or simply gated
latch. It has a data input and an enable signal (sometimes named clock, or control). The
word transparent comes from the fact that, when the enable input is on, the signal propagates
directly through the circuit, from the input D to the output Q.
Transparent latches are typically used as I/O ports or in asynchronous systems, or in
synchronous two-phase systems (synchronous systems that use a two-phase clock), where two
latches operating on different clock phases prevent data transparency as in a master–slave flip-
flop.
Latches are available as integrated circuits, usually with multiple latches per chip. For example,
74HC75 is a quadruple transparent latch in the 7400 series.
 Gated D latch truth table

E/C D Q Q Comment

0 X Qprev Qprev No change

1 0 0 1 Reset Symbol for a gated D latch

1 1 1 0 Set

The truth table shows that when the enable/clock input is 0, the D input has no effect on the
output. When E/C is high, the output equals D.

J-K Flip-flop
This simple JK flip Flop is the most widely used of all the flip-flop designs and is considered to
be a universal flip-flop circuit. The sequential operation of the JK flip flop is exactly the same as
for the previous SR flip-flop with the same “Set” and “Reset” inputs. The difference this time is
that the “JK flip flop” has no invalid or forbidden input states of the SR Latch even
when S and R are both at logic “1”.
The JK flip flop is basically a gated SR Flip-flop with the addition of a clock input circuitry that
prevents the illegal or invalid output condition that can occur when both inputs S and R are
equal to logic level “1”. Due to this additional clocked input, a JK flip-flop has four possible input
combinations, “logic 1″, “logic 0″, “no change” and “toggle”. The symbol for a JK flip flop is
similar to that of an SR Bistable Latch as seen in the previous tutorial except for the addition of
a clock input.
Both the S and the R inputs of the previous SR bistable have now been replaced by two inputs
called the J and K inputs, respectively after its inventor Jack Kilby. Then this equates
to: J = S and K = R.
The two 2-input AND gates of the gated SR bistable have now been replaced by two 3-
input NANDgates with the third input of each gate connected to the outputs at Q and Q. This
cross coupling of the SR flip-flop allows the previously invalid condition of S = “1” and R = “1”
state to be used to produce a “toggle action” as the two inputs are now interlocked.
If the circuit is now “SET” the J input is inhibited by the “0” status of Q through the
lower NAND gate. If the circuit is “RESET” the K input is inhibited by the “0” status of Q through
the upper NAND gate. As Qand Q are always different we can use them to control the input.
When both inputs J and K are equal to logic “1”, the JK flip flop toggles as shown in the
following truth table.

The Truth Table for the JK Function

Input Output
Description
J K Q Q

0 0 0 0 Memory
same as no change
0 0 0 1
for the
0 1 1 0
SR Latch
Reset Q » 0
0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1
Set Q » 1
1 0 1 0

toggle 1 1 0 1 Toggle
 action 1 1 1 0

Shift registers

Shift registers are a type of sequential logic circuit, mainly for storage of digital data. They are a
group of flip-flops connected in a chain so that the output from one flip-flop becomes the input
of the next flip-flop. Most of the registers possess no characteristic internal sequence of states.
All flip-flop is driven by a common clock, and all are set or reset simultaneously.

Register:
n A set of n flip-flops
n Each flip-flop stores one bit
n Two basic functions: data storage (Fig 1.2) and data movement (Fig 1.1).
Shift Register:
A register that allows each of the flip-flops to pass the stored information to its adjacent
neighbour. Fig 1.1 shows the basic data movement in shift registers.
Counter:
A register that goes through a predetermined sequence of states

Figure 1.1: Basic data movement in shift registers [Floyd]

Fig 1.2: The flip-flop as a storage element

Storage Capacity:
The storage capacity of a register is the total number of bits (1 or 0) of digital data it can retain.
Each stage (flip flop) in a shift register represents one bit of storage capacity. Therefore the
number of stages in a register determines its storage capacity.
Classification
The shift registers can be classified as
· Serial In - Serial Out(SISO) Shift Registers
· Serial In - Parallel Out (SIPO)Shift Registers
· Parallel In - Serial Out (PISO)Shift Registers
· Parallel In - Parallel Out (PIPO)Shift Registers
Serial In - Serial Out Shift Registers
The serial in/serial out shift register accepts data serially – that is, one bit at a time on a single
line. It produces the stored information on its output also in serial form.
Basic four-bit shift register
A basic four-bit shift register can be constructed using four D flip-flops, as shown in Fig 2.1.
The operation of the circuit is as follows.
· The register is first cleared, forcing all four outputs to zero.
· The input data is then applied sequentially to the D input of the first flip-flop on the left
(FF0).
· During each clock pulse, one bit is transmitted from left to right.
· Assume a data word to be 1001.
· The least significant bit of the data has to be shifted through the register from FF0 to
FF3.

Fig 2.1: Basic four-bit shift register

In order to get the data out of the register, they must be shifted out serially. The data is loaded
to the register when the control line is HIGH (ie WRITE). The data can be shifted out of the
register when the control line is LOW (ie READ).
 Simplifications Using Boolean Algebra
What is a Karnaugh Map (K-Map)?
K-Map is a graphical tool used for simplifying Boolean expressions represented in their
standard form to obtain their minimal form.

The K-Map is basically a graph or chart that composed of an arrangement of adjacent cells
or squares, where each cell represents a particular combination of variables of the function
either in sum or product form.

The number of cells in the K-Map depends upon number of variables in the Boolean
function, i.e., K-map has 2n adjacent cells, where n is the number of variables in the
Boolean expression. Therefore, the number of cells in a 2 variable K-map are 4 (22), in 3
variable KMap, the number of cells are 8 (23), in 4 variable K-map, the number of cells are
16 (24), and so on.

However, we can use the K Map for any number of variables. But, for simplifying Boolean
functions in variables more than 5, it becomes tedious.

Now, let us discuss the procedure of simplifying a Boolean expression using K-Map.

Steps to Simplify a Boolean Expression using K Map

The following steps are involving in simplification of a given Boolean expression by using
K-Map −

Step 1 − Select a K-Map as per the number of variables in the given Boolean function.

Step 2 − Identify the minterms (in SOP form) or maxterms (in POS form).

Step 3 − For SOP (Sum of Products) Form, put 1s in cells of the K-Map with respect to
the minterms of given function. Read the K-Map as follows −

Read the K-map for 1s which are not adjacent to any other 1. These 1s are the
isolated minterms, thus they are to be read as they are, because they cannot be
combine in groups.

Read the K-map for 1s which are adjacent only one other 1. Combine such minterms
in 2-squares.

Read the K-map for quads (4-squares), octets (8-squares), and so on of adjacent 1s
even if they have some 1s which are already combined in other groups. The only
thing to remember that they must geometrically form a rectangle or a square.
 Read the K-map for any 1s that have not been grouped yet and group them into
bigger squares or rectangles if possible.

Finally, obtain product terms of all the groups, and then sum up them to form the
minimal SOP expression.

For POS (Product of Sums) Form, put 0s in cells of the K-Map with respect to the
maxterms of given function. Read the K-Map as follows −

Read the K-map for 0s which are not adjacent to any other 0. These 0s are the
isolated maxterms, thus they are to be read as they are, because they cannot be
combine in groups.

Read the K-map for 0s which are adjacent only one other 0. Combine such maxterms
in 2-squares.

Read the K-map for quads (4-squares), octets (8-squares), and so on of adjacent 0s
even if they have some 0s which are already combined in other groups. The only
thing to remember that they must geometrically form a rectangle or a square.
Read the K-map for any 0s that have not been combined yet and combine them into
bigger squares or rectangles if possible.
Finally, obtain sum terms of all the groups, and then product them to form the
minimal POS expression.

Let us understand this procedure of simplifying Boolean expression using K-map with the
help of some solved examples.

Example 1
Simplify the following 3-variable Boolean function in SOP form using K-Map.

F(P, Q, R) = ∑ m(0, 1, 3, 5, 7)

Solution
The K-Map representation of the given Boolean function is shown in Figure-1.

The simplification of this K-map is done as per the following steps −

 There are no isolated 1s.

The minterm m1 forms a 4-square with minterms m3, m5, and m7. Make it and read
it as R.

The minterm m0 forms a 2-square with the minterm m1. Make it and read it as P̄ Q̄
Write all the product terms in SOP form.

Thus, the simplified SOP expression is,

F = R + P̄Q̄

Example 2
Simplify the following 3-variable Boolean function in POS form using K-Map.

F(A, B, C) = Π M(1, 2, 4, 6)

Solution
The POS K-map representation of the given Boolean function is shown in Figure-2.

The simplification of this POS K-map is done as per the following steps −

The maxterm M1 has no adjacency. Thus, keep it as it is and read it as

(A + B + C̄) .
The maxterm M2 has only one adjacency M6. Hence, expand the maxterm M2 into a
2-square with the maxterm M6 and read the 2-square as (B̄ + C).
The maxterm M4 also has only one adjacency M6. Hence, expand the maxterm M4
into a 2-square with the maxterm M6 and read the 2-square as (Ā + C).
Write all the sum terms in POS form.

Therefore, the simplified POS expression is,

F = (A + B + C̄) (B̄ + C) (Ā + C)

Example 3
Simplify the following 4-variable Boolean function in SOP form to obtain the minimal SOP
expression.

F(A, B, C, D) = ∑ m(0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 6, 10, 13, 14, 15)

Solution
SOP K-map representation of the given Boolean function is shown in Figure-3.

The simplification of this SOP K-map is done as per the following steps −

There are no isolated 1s.

The minterm m1 has three adjacencies m3, m5, and m7. So expand m1 into a 4-
square with minterms m3, m5, and m7, and read the 4-square as ĀD.
The minterm m5 has three adjacencies m7, m13, and m15. Expand m5 into a 4-
square with minterms m7, m13, and m15, and read the 4-square as BD.

The minterm m6 also has three adjacencies m7, m14, and m15. Expand m6 into a 4-
square with minterms m7, m14, and m15, and read the 4-square as BC.

The minterm m10 has only one adjacency m14. Expand m10 into a 2-square with
minterm m14 and read the 2-square as ACD̄.
The minterm m0 also has only one adjacency m1. Expand m0 into a 2-square with
minterm m1 and read the 2-square as ĀB̄C̄ .
Write all the product terms in SOP form.

Hence, the simplified SOP expression is,

 F = ĀD + BD + BC + ACD̄ + ĀB̄C̄

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Conclusion
In this way, we can simplify a given Boolean expression using K-map to obtain the minimal
expression. Try solving the following tutorial problems for better understanding.

Q. 1 − Simplify the following 3-variable Boolean function in SOP form to obtain its minimal
expression.

F(A, B, C) = ∑ m(1, 2, 4, 5, 7)

Q. 2 − Simplify the following 4-variable Boolean function in SOP form to obtain the
minimal Boolean expression.

F(A, B, C, D) = ∑ m(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15)