Chapter l

Distributed generation and Microgrid concept

1.1 Distributed generation

Around the world, conventional power system is facing the problems of gradual
depletion of fossil fuel resources, poor energy efficiency and environmental pol
lution. These problems have led to a new trend of generating power locally at
distribution voltage level by using non-conventional/renewable energy sources like
natural gas, biogas, wind power, solar photovoltaic cells, fuel cells, combined heat
and power (CHP) systems, microturbines, and Stirling engines and theirintegration
into the utility distribution network. This type of power generation is termed as
distributed generation (DG) and the energy sources are termed as distributed energy
resources (DERS). The term 'Distributed Generation' has been devised to distin
guish this concept of generation from centralised conventional generation. The
distribution network becomes active with the integration of DG and hence is termed
as active distribution network.
In late 1990s, the major issues related to DG were extensively investigated
by the working groups of the International Council on Large Electric Systems
(CIGRE) and the International Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribu
tion (CIRED) in their review reports.
Several country-specific strict definitions are available for DG all over the
world, depending upon plant rating, generation voltage level, etc. However, the
impact of DG on the power system is normally the same
irrespective of these dif
ferent definitions. According to several research studies, some
commonattributes of DG are as follows: universally accepted
(1) It is not centrally planned by the power
(2) It is normally smaller than 50 MW. utility, nor centrally dispatched.
(3) The power sources or distributed
generators are usually connected to the dis
tributionsystem, which are typically of voltages 230/415 V up to 145 kV.
This book mainly deals with the
management issues, economic viabilityconcept, technical features,
and market participation operational
in
and
environment of DGsystems and the integration of DERs in the form deregulated
and active distribution of Microgrid
networks in abroad perspective.
 2 Microgrids and active distributionnetworks

1.2 Why integration of distributed generation?

systems, the following
Jnspite of severaladvantages provided by conventional power development and
technical. cconomic and cnvironmentalbenefits have led to gradual
integration of DG systems:
conventional gencra
) Duc to rapid load growth, the need for augmentation of
tion brings about a continuous depletion of fossil fuel reserve. Therefore, most
of the countries are looking for non-conventional/renewable energy resOurces
as an alternative.
(2) Reduction of environmental pollution and globalwarming acts as a key factor in
preferring renewable resources over fossil fuels. As part of the Kyoto Protocol,
the EU. the UK and nany other countries are planning to cut down greenhouse
gas (carbon and nitrogenous by-products) emissions in order to counter climate
change and global warming. Therefore, they are working on new energy gen
eration and utilisation policies to support proper utilisation of these energy
sources. It is expected that exploitation of DERs would help to generate eco
friendly clean power with much lesser environmental impact.
(3) DG provides better scope for setting up co-generation, trigeneration or CHP
plants for utilising the waste heat for industrial/domestic/commercial applica
tions. This increases the overall energy efficiency of the plant and also reduces
thermal pollution of the environment.
(4) Due to lower energy density and dependence on geographical conditions of a re
gion, DERs are generally modular units of small capacity. These are geographically
widespread and usually located close to loads. This is required for technical and
economic viability of theplants. For example,CHP plants must be placed very close
totheir heat loads, as transporting waste heat over long distances is not economical.
This makes it easier to find sites for them and helps to lower construction time and
capital investment. Physical proximity of load and source also reduces the trans
mission and distribution (T&D) losses. Since power is generated at low voltage
(LV), it is possible to connect a DER separately to the utility distribution network or
they may be interconnected in the form of Microgrids. The Microgrid can again be
connected to the utility as a separate semi-autonomous entity.
(5) Stand-alone and grid-connected operations of DERs help in generation aug
mentation, thereby improving overall power quality and reliability. Moreover,
network also
a deregulated environment and open access to the distribution
the fuel
provide greater opportunities for DG integration. In some countries,
diversity offered by DG is considered valuable, while in some developing
generation is
cOuntries, the shortage of power is so acute that any form of
encouraged to meet the load demand.

1.3 Active distribution network

Diectricity networks are in the era of major transition from stable passive distri
Duion networks with unidirectional electricity transportation to active distribution
 Distributed generation and Microgrid concept
Distribution networkS with-
bidirectional clectricity transportation. by the
networks with
since the clectrical power is supplied
networks. national
out any DG units arc passive distribution It
grid systenm to the customers
cmbedded in the
distribution system leadingto
becomes
active when DG units are added to the bidirectional
cffect this transition, developing countries should
power flows inthe nctworks. To clectricity infrastructure while the de.
emphasise the development of sustainable for s
should take up the technical and economic challenges
veloped countrics UK industry regulator, the Office
oe
transformation of distribution networks. The
(Ofgem), has named this challenge as Rewiring
Gas and Electricity Markets need to incorporate flexitble and intelligent
Britain". Active distribution networks
order to harness clean energy from
Control with distributed intelligent systems. In should also employ future network
renewable DERS. active distribution networks
technologies leading tosmartgrid or Microgrid networks.
'fit-and-forget strategy of DG employment needs to be changed in
Present integration of DGs in distribu
active network management. It should incorporate has been demonstrated by the
tion networks and demand side management. It
Electrical Energy
UK-based Centre for Distributed Generation and Sustainable
can
([Link]) that the application of active network management methods
networks without active
greatly support more DG connections as compared to
management.
Several Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and Ofgem reports clearly in
dicate that intelligent active distribution networks have gained momentum. Several
factors are in favour of the evolution of active distribution networks, e.g. (i) pressing
customer expectations ofhigh-quality reliable power distribution, (ii) increasing desire
of policy makers for accommodation of renewable DERs with energy storage devices,
(üi) carbon commitment in reducing emissions by 50% by 2050, (iv) motivating the
distribution network operators (DNOs) towards better asset utilisation and manage
ment by deferral of replacement of age-old assets, etc.
In order to implement evolutionary active distribution networks for flexible
and intelligent operation and control, extensive research is necessary. The focus of
the research should be mainly in the following arcas: (i) wide area active control,
(ii) adaptive protection and control, (ii) network management devices, (iv) real
time network simulation, (v) advanced sensors and measurements, (vi) distributed
pervasive communication, (vii) knowledge extraction by intelligent methods and
(vii) novel design of transmission and distribution systems.

1.4 Concept of Microgrid

Microgrids are small-scale, LV CHP supply networks designed to supply
and heat loads for a small community, such as a housing estate or a electrical
suburban
locality, or an academic or public community such as a university or school, a
commercial area, an industrial site, a trading estate or a municipal region. Micro
grid is essentially an active distribution network because it is the
DG systems and different loads at distribution conglomerate ol
voltage level. The generators 0f
microsources employed in aMicrogrid are usually
renewable/non-conventional
 4 Microgrids and active distribution networks

DERs integratcd together to gcnerate power at distribution voltage. Fronm opera

tional point of view, the microsources must be cquipped with power electronic
interfaces (PEIs)and controls to provide the requircd flexibility to ensure opcration
as a single aggregated system and to maintain the specificd power quality and
energy output. This control flcxibility would allow the Microgrid to present itsclf to
the main utility power systen as asingle controlled unit that mccts local energy
necds for reliability and security.
The key differences between a Mierogrid and aconventional power plant are as
follows:

() Microsources are of muchsmaller capacity with respect tothe large generators

in conventional power plants.
(2) Power generated at distribution voltage can be directly fed to the utility dis
tribution network.
(3) Microsources are nomally installed close to the customers' premises so that
the electrical/heat loads can be efficiently supplicd with satisfactory voltage
and frequency profile and negligible line losses.
The technical features of a Microgrid make it suitable for supplying power to
remote arcas of a country where supply from the national grid system is either
difficult to avail due to the topology or frequently disrupted due to severe climatic
conditions or man-made disturbances.,
From grid point of view, the mainadvantage of a Microgrid is that it is treated
as acontrolled entity within the power system. It can be operated as a single ag
gregated load. This ascertains its easy controllability and compliance with grid
rules and regulations without hampering the reliability and security of the power
utility. From customers' point of view, Microgrids are beneficial for locally
meeting their electrical/heat requirements. They can supply uninterruptible power,
improve local reliability, reduce feeder losses and provide local voltage support.
and
From environmental point of view, Microgrids reduce environmental pollution
global warming through utilisation of low-carbon technology. of technical,
However, to achieve a stable and secure operation, a number
Microgrids can become
regulatory and economic issues have to be resolved before
attention are the inter
commonplace. Some problem areas that would require due
the DERs, low energy con
mittent and climate-dependent nature of generation of
operating the Microgrids
tent of the fuels and lack of standards and regulations forsuch issues would require
The study of
In synchronism with the power utility. which can be taken up by the leading
extensive real-time and off line research,
globe.
engineering and research institutes across the

1.5 A typical Microgrid configuration

Microgrid configuration is shownin Figure 1.1. It consists of electrical/
Atypical connected through an LVdistribution
network. The
neat loads and microsources
sources are placed close together to
l0ads (especially the heat loads) and the
 Distributed generation and Microgridd
concept
breaker
power
controller
circuit
and
-Central
controller
CC heat
Sectionalising
CBCircuit
breaker
MicrosourceCHPCombined

- SCB
MC

Non-CHP
device MC)
Storage SOurce
MO

SCB SCB

Non-CHP
SOurce (MC) Storage
device MC)

C
Feeder
Feeder
A
typical
Microgri
configur
Heatload Heatload
SCB B
Feeder SCB

SOurce
CHP CHPSOurce

’Microgrid
cc)
CBI CB3

Figure
I.1
A
gid
Main
 Microgrids and active distribution networks
minimise hcat lossduring heat transmission. The microsources have plug-and-play
features. They are provided with PEIs to implement the control, metering and pro
tection functions during stand-alone and grid-connccted modes of opcration. These
leatures also help scamless transition of Microgrid from one mode to another.
The Microgrid consists of three radial feeders (A, B and C) to supply the
alectrical and hcat loads. It also has two CHP and two non-CHP microsources
andstorage devices. MicrosOurces and storage devices are connected to feeders A
and C through micrOsource controllers (MCs). Some loads on feeders A and C are
assumed to be priority loads (i.c. requiring uninterrupted power supply), while
others are non-priority loads. Fecder B, however, contains only non-priority elec
trical loads.
The Microgrid is coupled with the main medium voltage (MV) utility grid
(denoted as 'main grid') through the PCC (point of common coupling) circuit breaker
CB4as pecr standard interfacc regulations. CB4 isoperated toconnect and disconnect
the entire Microgrid from the main grid as per the selected mode of operation.
Fecders A, B andC can however be connected and disconnected by operating breakers
CBI, CB2 and CB3, respectivcly. The microsources on feeders A and C are placed
quite apart from the Microgrid bus to ensure reduction in line losses, good voltage
profile and optimal use of waste hcat. Although the control of power flow and voltage
profile along radial feeders is quite complicated when several microsources are con
nected to a common radial feeder and not to a common generator bus, this contigu
ration is necessary to avail the plug-and-play feature of the microsources.
The Microgrid is operated in two modes: (1) grid-connected and (2) stand
alone. In grid-connected mode, the Microgrid remains connected to the main grid
either totally or partially, and imports or exports power from or to the main grid. In
case of any disturbance in the main grid, the Microgrid switches over to stand-alone
mode while still feeding power to the priority loads. This can be achieved by either
(i) disconnecting the entire Microgrid by opening CB4 or (ii) disconnecting feeders
Aand Cby opening CB1and CB3. For option (i), the Microgrid will operate as an
B
autonomous system with all the microsources feeding all the loads in feeders A,
and C, whereas for option (ii), feeders A and C will supply only the priority loads
while feeder B will be left to ride through the disturbance.
modes is controlled
The operation and management of Microgrid in different
(CC) whose func
and co-ordinated through local MCs and the central controller
tions are enlisted as follows:
independently control
0) Microsource controller -The main function of MC is to
in response to
the power flow and load-end voltage profile of the microsource
implies without any
any disturbance and load changes. Here 'independently' economic generation
Communications from the CC. MCalso participates in
con
scheduling, load tracking/management and demand side management by
each microsource rapidly
rolling the storage devices. It must also ensure that stand-alone mode and
load in
PiCks up its generation to supply its share of help of CC. The
automatically comes back to the grid-connected mode with the
responding to the locally
most significant aspect of MC is its quickness in
 Distributed generation and Microgrid concept
monitored voltagcs and currents irrespective ofthe data from the
MCs. This control feature cnables microsources to act as
ces and facilitates the addition of new microSources at any point
0f
neighbourdeviing-
plug-and-play
without affecting the control and protection of the existing units. Two
key features are that an MC will not interact independently with other MCs in
dMicrogrid
the Microgrid and that it will override the CCdirectives that may seem d
gerous for its microsource.
(2) Central controller - The CCexecutes the overall control of Microgrid opera
tion and protection through the MCs. Its objectives are () to maintain specified
voltage and frequency at the load end through power-frequency (P-f) and
voltage control and (ii) to ensure energy optimisation for the Microgrid. The
cC also perforns protection co-ordination and provides the power dispatch
and voltageset points for all the MCs. CC is designed to operate in automatic
mode with provision for manual intervention as and when necessary. Twó
main functional modules of CC are Energy Management Module (EMM) and
Protection Co-ordination Module (PCM).
() Energy Management Module-EMM provides the set points for active and
reactive power output, voltage and frequency to each MC. This function is
co-ordinated through state-of-the-art communication and artificial intelli
gence techniques. The values of the set points are decided according to the
operational needs of the Microgrid. The EMM must see that
(a) Microsources supply heat and electrical loads to customer satisfaction.
(b) Microgrids operate satisfactorily as per the operational a priori con
tracts with main grid.
(c) Microgrids satisfy its obligatory bindings in minimising system losses
and emissions of greenhouse gases and particulates.
(d) Microsources operate at their highest possible efficiencies.
(ii) Protection Co-ordinationModule - PCM responds to Microgrid and main
grid faults and loss of grid (LOG) scenarios in a way so as to ensure
correct protection co-ordination of the Microgrid. It also adapts to the
change in fault current levels during changeover from grid-connected to
stand-alone mode. For achieving this, there is proper communication be
tween the PCM and the MCs and upstream main grid controllers. For main
grid fault, PCM immediately switches over the Microgrid to stand-alone
mode for supplying power to the priority loads at a significantly lower
incremental cost. However, for some minor faults, the PCM allows tne
Microgridto ride through in the grid-connected mode for some time and
continues if any temporary fault is removed, Besides, if the grid tau the
endangers the stability of the Microgrid, then PCM m may disconnect
Microgrid fully from
case, effective all main
utilisation grid loads
of the (e.g. would
Microgrid feeder beB), lost
although in thi
in exporting
power. If a fault occurs within a portion of the Microgrid feeder (e.g.
maintain
feeder A or C), the smallest possible feeder zone is eliminated to
under-
supply to the healthy parts of the feeder. Under-frequency and for used
voltage protection schemes with bus voltage Support are normally
 Microgrids and active distribution networks
protecting the sensitive loads. PCM also helps to re-synchronise the
Microgrid to the nmain grid after the initiation of switchover to the grid
connccted mode of operation through suitable reclosing schemes.
The functions of the CC in the grid-connected mode are as follows:
() Monitoring system diagnostics by collecting information fromn the micro
sources and loads.
(2) Performing state estimation and security assessment evaluation, economic gen
eration scheduling and active and reactive power control of the microsources and
demand side management functions by using collected infornmation.
(3) Ensuring synchronised operation with the main grid maintaining the power
exchange at priori contract points.
The functions of the CC in the stand-alone mode are as follows:
(1) Performing active and reactive power control of the microsources in order to
maintain stable voltage and frequency at load ends.
(2) Adopting load interruption/load shedding strategies using demand side man
agement with storage device support for maintaining power balance and bus
voltage.
(3) Initiating a local black start to ensure improved reliability and continuity of
service.
(4) Switching over the Microgrid to grid-connected mode after main grid supply is
restored without hampering the stability of either grid.

1.6 Interconnection of Microgrids

Since Microgrids are designed to generate power at distribution voltage level along
with utilisation of waste heat, they have restricted energy handling capability.
MVA
Therefore, their maximum capacity is normally restricted toapproximately 10
a large load pocket
as per IEEE recommendations. Hence, it is possible to supply
splitting the
Irom several Microgrids through a common distribution network, by
supplied by one
load pocket into severalcontrollable load units, with each unit being
Microgrid. In this way. Microgrids can be interconnected to form much larger power
interconnected Microgrids, each CC
pools tor meeting bulk power demands. For neighbouring CCs. Thus, an
mustexecute its control in close co-ordinationwith the
controllability with a
nterconnected Microgrid would achieve greater stability and ensure better
to
distributed control structure, It would also have more redundancy
supply reliability.

I.7 Technical and economical advantages of Microgrid

energy industry
ne development of Microgrid is very promising for the electric
because of the following advantages:
 Microgrid concept
Distributed generation and
ncedless to say that Microgrids would have much
issues-It is conventional thermal power sta
(0 tmionmentul impuct than the large
lesser cnvironmental
mentioned that the successful implementation of
(ions, lowever, it must be plants will
storage (CCS) schemes for thermal power
Carbon capture and of the ben
environmental impacts. Nevertheless, some
rastieally reduce the
are as follows:
etitsof Microgrid in this regardparticulate cmissions due to close control of the
and
() Reduction in gaseous help combat global warming.
combustion process may ultimately microsources may help to increase
customers with
( ) Physical proximity of judicious energy usage.
the awareness of customers towards of physicaland electricaldistance
investment issues Reduction
(2) Operation and contribute to:
between microsource and loads can enhancing the
support of the whole system, thus
(1) Improvement of reactive
voltage profile.
(ii) Reduction of T&D feeder congestion.
(ii) Reduction of T&D losses to about 3%. expansion of transmission
investments in the
(1V) Reduction/postponement of
management.
and generation systems by proper asset
quality and reliability is achieved
(3) Power quality - Improvement in power
due to:
(i) Decentralisation of supply.
(ii) Better match of supply and demand.
generation
(iii) Reduction of the impact of large-scale transmission and
outages.
(iv) Minimisation of downtimes and enhancement of the restoration process
through black start operations of microsources.
(4) Cost saving -The following cost savings are achieved in Microgrid: mode of
(i) Asignificant saving comes from utilisation of waste heat in CHP
operation. Moreover, as the CHP sources are located close to the customer
Joads, no substantial infrastructure is required for heat transmission. This
gives a total energy efficiency of more than 80% as compared to a max
imum of 40% for a conventional power system.
Gi) Cost saving is also effected through integration of several microsources.
As they are locally placed in plug-and-play mode, the T&D costs are
drastically reduced or eliminated. When combined into a Microgrid, the
generated electricity can be shared locally among the customers, which
again reduces the need to import/export power to/from the main grid over
longer fecders.
(5) Murket issues The following advantages are attained in case of market
participation:
i) The development of market-driven operation procedures ofthe Microgrids
willlead to a signilicant reduction of market power exerted by the estab
lished generationcompanies.
(ii) The Microgrids may be uscd to provide ancillary services.
 Microgrids and active distribution networks
(ii) Widespread application of modular plug-and-play microsourccs may
contribute to a reduetion in energy price in the power market.
(iv) The appropriate cconomic balance between nctwork investment and DG
utilisation is likely to reducethe long-term clectricity customer prices by
about I0%.

1.8 Challenges and disadvantages of Microgrid development

In spite of potential bencfils, development of Microgrids suffers from several
challenges and potential drawhbacks as explaincd.
() igh costs of distributed energy resources The high installation cost for
Microgrids is agrcat disadvantage. This can be reduced by arranging some
form of subsidics from government bodics to encourage investmcnts. ThiS
should be done at lcast for a transitory period for meeting up environmental
and carbon capture goals. Therc is a global target set to enhance renewable
green power generation to 20% by 2020 and to reduce carbon emission by 50%
by 2050.
(2) Technical difficulties These are related to the lack of technical
experience in
controlling alarge number of plug-and-play microsources. This aspcct requires
extensive real-time and off line research on management, protection and con
trol aspects of Microgrids and also on the choice, sizing and placement of
microsources. Specific telecommunication infrastructures and communication
protocols must be developed in this area. Research is going on for the imple
mentation and roll-out of IEC 61850 in communication for Microgrid and
active distribution networks. However, lack of proper communication infra
structure in rural areas is a potential drawback in the implementation of rural
Microgrids. Besides, economic implementation of scamless switching between
operating modes is still a major challenge since the available solutions for
Teclosing adaptive protection with synchronism check are quite expensive.
(3) Absence of standaurds - Since Microgrid is a comparatively new area, standards
are not yet available for addressing operation and protection issues. Power
qualty data for different types of sources, standards and protocols for integra
tion of microsources and their participation in conventional and deregulated
power markets, safcty and protection guidelines, etc., should be laid down.
Slandards like G59/1 and JEEE J547 should be reassessed and restructured
1or thesuccessful implementation of Microgrid and active distribution networks.
9) Administrative and legal barriers - In most countries, no standard
legislation
and regulations are available to regulate the operation of Microgrids. Gov
Cmiments of some countries are encouraging the establishment of green power
MiCrogrids, but standard regulations are yet to be framed for implementation in
future.
(5) Murket monopoly - 1f the Microgrids are allowed tosupply energy autono-
mously to priority loads during any main grid contingency, the main question
lhat arises is who will then control energy supply prices during the period over
 Distributed generation and Microgrid,
concept
which nmain gridis not available. Sincc the main grid will be
the curTent electricity market will lose its control on the disconnect
energy price,
grids might retail energy at a very high price exploiting market
ed and
Micro-
monopoly..Thus,
suitable market infrastructure necds to be designed and implemented for
taining development of Microgrids. sus-

1.9 Management and operational issues of a Microgrid

Major management and operational issues related to a Microgrid are as folloue.
() For maintaining power quality, active and reactive power balance must k
maintained within the Microgrid on a short-term basis.
(2) A Microgrid should operate stand-alone in regions where utility supply is not
available or in grid-connected mode within a larger utility distribution net
work. Microgrid operator should be able to choose the mode of operation
within proper regulatory framework.
(3) Generation, supply and storage of energy must be suitably planned with re
spect to load demand on the Microgrid and long-tern energy balance.
(4) Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) bascd metering, control
and protection functions should be incorporated in the Microgrid CCs and
MCs. Provisions must be made for system diagnostics through state estimation
functions.
(5) Economic operation should be cnsured through generation
scheduling, eco
nomic load dispatch and optimal power flow operations.
(6) System sccurity must be maintaincd through contingency analysis and emer
gency opcrations (like demand side management, load shedding, islanding or
shutdown of any unit). Under contingency conditions, cconomic rescheduling
of generation should be done to take care of system loading and load-en
voltage/frcqucncy.
(7) Temporary mismatch between generation and load should be alleviated
through proper load forccasting and demand side management. The shifting ol
Joads might hclp to flatten the demand curve and hence to reduce storge
capacity.
(8) Suitable tclccomMunication inlrastructures and
communication protocols nus
be cmploycd Tor overall cnergy management, protection and control. Ca
Communication and 1:C 61850communication infrastruetures are most ti
to be cmnploycd.

1.10 Dynamie interactions of Mierogrid with main grid

The capacity of Mierogrid bciny sulliciently snall, the stability gridis not
affccted when il is connccted to the main grid. Ilowever, in iture, when Micro-
yrids will become more comOnplace with higher peneration o/ DERN, the slu-
bilityad sccurily of the main grid will bo intluenced NIPuilicntly, n such case
12 Microgrids and active distribution networks
the dynamic interactions bctween Microgrid and the main grid will be a key issue
in the operation and management of both the grids. However, as of now, since the
DERS in MicrogrIds are mainly meant to ensure only local energy balance within a
snall load pocket, the effects of DER penetration are likely to have a low impact on
the main grid. Nevertheless, Microgrids need to be designed properly to take care
of their dynamic impacts on main grid such that overall stability and reliability of
the whole system is significantly improved.

1.11 Conclusion
The Microgrid is an alternative approach of distribution level energy supply by
integrating small-scale DERs into LV as well as MV distribution networks. This
facilitates simultaneous generation of electricity and heat to locally supply
the electrical and heat loads of the customers. Traditional connection of separate
stand-alone DER units to the existing distribution network in fit-and-forget strategy
has considerable dynamic impacts on main utility grid behaviour. On the other
hand, integrating them as Microgrids (with intelligent controllers) is more likely to
enhance overall distribution system stability and safety. Microgrids can operate
independently as autonomous islands in synchronism with the main grid. They are
normally connected to main utility grid but are capable of isolating themselves
from the latter in case of any disturbance in the main grid. This ensures economic
and stable performance to customer satisfaction.
Technically, a Microgrid is an autonomous group of controllable plug-and
play microsources and energy storage devices that are optimally placed and operated
for the benefit of the customers. The microsources are basically renewable/non
conventional DERs driven by a diverse set of controllable prime movers. Storage
devices are incorporated through demand side management to enable flexible oper
ation of the microsources using their own MCs. Power electronic-based MC con
trollers are helpful to maintain energy balance and power quality in the system by
executing necessary local controls of the microsources and energy storage devices.
They are also capable of working both with and without the intervention of the CC.
They facilitate seamless connection, disconnection and reconnection of devices
without the necessity of reconfiguring existing or new equipments.
Asignificant feature of the Microgrid is its presentation to the main utility grid
as a single controlled unit of electric and heat loads with local generation. Ad
vanced PEIprovides the necessary flexibility, security and reliability of operation
beiween microsources and the surrounding AC distribution system to customer
salustaction. The Microgrid structure ensures minimum dynamic impacts on the
main utility. A Microgrid also benefits the main grid by decreasing congestion.
aeviating the immediate needs for generation augmentation, increasing system
responding to rapid changes in loads and maintaining quality of supply to
stability,
Customer satisfaction.
Microgrids, as active LV and MV networks, can potentially provide a large
umber of benefits to the main power utility by increasing its efficiency ot
 Microgrid and active distribution network management system
(3) Microgrids undergo a considerable change in its short-circuit capacity when 60it
changes from grid-conected mode to stand-alone mode. This has profound
cffcct on conventional overcurent rclays that opcrate on short-circuit CUrrent

ability to distinguish betwcen

sCnSig
requirements for the PCM
offw0 operating
the protection
is its modes and address the contingencies accord-
A kev fcature
ingiy Basic protection requiremecnts for the two modes arc bricfly discussed in the
next sccton with respect to sonne possible occurrences. Typical Microgrid config-
uration as shown in Figure 1.1 is considercd. However, additional protection features
mav bc incoporated in PCM. depcnding on the customer-specific requirements.

grid-connected mode
[Link] Protection scheme for possible events
grid-connected modc, the PCM detccts and acts for five
Inare (i) normal condition. (ii)) Microgrid feeder fault, (iii) utility fault, (iv) Microgrid
response ti
bus fault and ( )re-svnchronisation. PCM takes into acCOunt the
individual microsources, as well as that of the PCC(point of coommon coupling)
circuit breaker CB4.

(i) Normal condition

connected to the utility througk s
Under normal condition the Microgrid remains CB3 connect feeders A. Bandc
and
PCC circuit breaker CB4. Breakers CB1, CB2
respectivelv to the Microgrid bus. All the breakers remain closed during normal
microsources and the
grid-connected operation. The loads are jointly fed by the
utility.
(i) Microgrid feederfault in one direction
In passive radial distribution networks, fault power flow occurs
simply cleared by
only. from source to the fault point. So feeder faults are
magni
opening the feeder breaker. Fault sensing is done based on fault current
tude only and not its direction. But as Microgrid feeders contain generators, bi
directional power flow occurs into a feeder fault from all microsources on either
side of the fault point. If such fault is not cleared in time, all the microsources
may be disconnected from that feeder by their own MCs leading to an extensive
loss of generation. To avoid this, feeders Aand C are sectionalised into zones by
sectionalising breakers. The breakers contain directional overcurrent relays
detect the faulty zone and clear the fault. If the faulty zone contains any mi
source, then it is disconnected from that zone by its own MC but operation,
continu the
supply its local loads connected to the microsource bus. For this ZOne is iS0-
PCM grades the relay settings for all the relays such that the faulty beforethe
lated before all the microsources are disconnected from the feeder or mini-
ensures
entire Microgrid gets disconnected from the utility. This strategy FeedersA
mum loss of generation and Microgrid stability. However, for faults in the
side of
or C, if all the microsources connected to the feeder are located on one
 70
Microgrids and active distribution networks

Eolt then all will be disconnected by their MCs and the faulty feeder will be
disconnected from the Microgrid bus by opening its circuit breaker. If fault occurs
in Feeder B, then it can be simply disconnected by opening breaker CB2, since
Feeder B does not have any microsource.
(iüi) Utilin fault
For any utility fault. the Microgrid disconnects itsclf from the utility grid by
onening CB4. The protection strategy for this case is quite simple. CB4 relay
monitors the current magnitude and direction on cach phase and sends a trip signal
toCB4 if current limits are eXCeeded within a preset time. Relay setting is provided
hy the PCM to ensure that the isolation is accomplished without any significant
interruption to priority loads. This scheme also ensures that the microsources are
not spuriously tripped before the Microgrid separates itself from the utility. Other
wise. this may cause unnecessary loss of generation and reduction in service life
of breakers.

(iv) Microgrid bus fault

If fault occurson the Microgrid bus, then the Microgrid is disconnected from the
utility by opening CB4. Also the Feeders Aand Care disconnected from the bus by
opening CB1 and CB3 respectively. In case of any fault within the Microgrid, the
PCM grades the CB4 relay to co-ordinate with the 'upstream' protection in theutility.
CB4 relay is also graded with respect to the protective devices for the microsources to
minimise loss of generation, supply interruption and spurious tripping.
() Re-Synchronisation
When normal service is restored in the utility, then the PCM's responsibility is to
synchronise and reconnect the Microgrid to the utility through synchronism check
schemes. This is accomplished as soon as the grid stabilises and goes back to the
normal operating state after picking up all previously disconnected loads. However,
the
this may require several seconds to minutes, depending upon the nature of
feeder and loads. The PCM includes a control scheme to bring all microsources into
synchronisation with the utility by measuring the phase voltage magnitudes and
breaker CB4. The
phase angles, frequency and phase sequence on both sides of the
PCM provides both the options for automatic and manual re-synchronisation as per
necessity.
[Link] Protection scheme for stand-alone mode
short-circuit level at the
When the Microgrid operates in stand-alone mode, the
with power
Microgrid bus reduces remarkably. This is because the microsources
the load current to a
electronic converter systems may only supply up to 200% of
com
fault. Thus, astand-alone Microgrid provides much lower fault currents, as
adequately
pared to a grid-connected Microgrid. Low fault currents may not be
picked up by standard overcurrent relays used in conventional protection systems.
Therefore, this is likely to have significant impact on the fault detection capability of
relays
sensing. Standard
the protective relays of the Microgrid based on fault current
respond at all.
may take a long time to pick up lower fault currents or may not
 Microgrid and active distribution network management system

Thus. alternatefault detection schemes like impedance protection. differential CUr-

rent'voltagerelaying, zerosequence current/voltage relaying, directional overcurrent|
carth-fault schemes may be adopted for protection of stand-alone Microgrids. Basic
operation philosophy for the PCM is briefly described in the following text wth

respect to the possible events.

()
UnderNormal
nomal operation
operation, the Microgrid operates autonomously. PCC breaker CB4
is open. Feeders A, Band Cremain connected to the Microgrid bus and their loads
are fed from the microsources.

(2) Microgrid feeder fault

The feeder protection for stand-alone Microgrid is similar to that for grid-connectd
Microgrid. The only difference is that the relays should be more sensitive to detect
lower fault currents. The main objectives of protection are minimum loss of gen.
eration and supply interruption.
The design and operation of PCM must take into
account the complexity of the
Microgrid scheme, the number of microsources, the types
gies,the number of priority loads and the of generation technolo
devices. response characteristics of the protective
4.4.3 Information needed for
Microgrid operation is dependent oncentral a set
controller operation
details, microsource information, viz, tariff and regulatory
natureperformance
and diagnostics,
heterogeneous
whereas some are quite
of service.
Some data can be weather and load forecasts and
capturing, the expensive to
capture. easily
In order to caaptured economically
data in
Microgriinformation
d control. Duemust be graded according to theoptimise the cost of data
relative
procurement
of and costs of consi derat
acquisition and ion should also be
Importance
for acqui
CC ring alternative data through processing of the data and the possibility
given to the feasibility.
usefulnessfunctandionicostng are discussed in Sections
estimation technigues. Some data Important
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