Module III: TRANSFORMER

LESSON 1

HISTORY

A transformer is used to bring voltage up or down in an AC electrical circuit. A transformer

can be used to convert AC power to DC power.

Who invented it?

Ottó Bláthy Miksa Déri Károly Zipernowsky

Lucien Gaulard Sebst Ferranti Ian William Stanley

William stanley’s first transformer built in 1885. single phase ac power

Stanley’s first transformer which was used in the electrification of great barrington,
Massachusetts in 1886.’

LESSON 2
PARTS AND CONSRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSFORMER
[Link]’S CORE- the core of the transformer is constructed from laminations of sheet
steel or silicon steel assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path.

The purpose of the laminations is to reduce certain losses

2 main shapes of cores used in laminated-steel-core transformers:

Core Type Transformers- the core is shaped with a hollow square through the center.

Shell-Core Transformers- each layer of the core consists of E- and I-shaped sections of metal

COILS- made up of copper coated with very

thin layer of insulation.

TRANSFORMER INSULATION- consist of fluid—either liquid or gas—together with solid

materials. E.g. Insulating oil, Insulation paper, Insulating tape.

CONSERVATOR TANK- this is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof
the transformer main tank. It conserves the transformer oil. It is an airtight, metallic,
cylindrical drum that is fitted above the transformer.

BREATHER- when the temperature of the transformer rises, the insulating oil in the
transformer gets heated up. This oil expands and contracts. When the oil heats up and
expands the transformer breaths air in and thus the oil gets cooled and the level of oil goes
down and the air is absorbed in it. This process of taking air in and out is called breathing of
the transformer

EXPLOSION VENT-the explosion vent is a thin aluminum pipe placed at both the ends of the
transformer to prevent the transformer from the damage. When the temperature increases in
the transformer drastically and the excessive pressure is created inside the transformer, the
explosive vent helps in releasing the pressure.

BUCCHOLZ RELAY- protective device container housed over the connecting pipe from the
main tank to the conservator tank. It is used to sense the faults occurring inside the
transformer.

LESSON 3
Equivalent Circuit of An Ideal Transformer

Under certain conditions, the transformer can be treated as an ideal transformer. The
assumptions necessary to treat it as an ideal transformer are:
(a) Primary and secondary windings have zero resistance. This means that ohmic loss
(I2 R loss), and resistive voltage drops in windings are zero.
(b) There is no leakage flux, i.e. the entire flux is mutual flux that links both the primary and
secondary windings.
(c) Permeability of the core is infinite this means that the magnetizing current needed for
establishing the flux is zero.
(d) Core loss (hysteresis as well as eddy current losses) are zero.
E1= (4.44) (N1)(f1)( Φm1) E2=(4.44)(N2)(f2)( Φm2)

Equating E1 and E2

E1 = E2

gives us

(E1/ E2)= (N1/N2)= a

Where a= turn ratio

Also using current ratio

(I1/ I2)= (N1/N2)= 1/a

Using Impedance ratio

(Z1/ Z2)= (N1/N2)2 = a2

Equivalent Circuit of An Ideal Transformer at Full Load

Under certain conditions the transformer can be treated as an ideal transformer. The
idealizing assumptions are listed below:
(a) Both primary and secondary windings have zero resistance. This means, no ohmic power
loss and no resistive voltage drop.
(b) No leakage flux, i.e. all the flux produced is confined to the core and links both the
windings
(c) Infinite permeability of the core. This means no zero magnetizing current is needed to
establish the requisite amount of flux in the core, i.e. Im = 0.
(d) Core-loss (hysteresis as well as eddy-current loss) is zero, i.e. Ic = 0.
POWER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
η= (Pout) / (Pin)

finding Pout

Pout= (V2) (I2)

finding Pin

Pin= Pout + Pcore + Pcopper

WHERE:

Pcopper= I12R1 + I22R2

Also

Pcore =Peddy + Physteresis

MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. It is
denoted by ἠ.

As the output power is always less than the input power due to losses in the transformer,
practically the transformer efficiency is always between 0 and 1 i.e. 0% and 100% but it can
never be 1 or 100%.

The efficiency of an ideal transformer is equal to 1 or 100% since the losses in the ideal
transformer are zero.
The graph of output power versus efficiency of transformer is shown in the figure. The figure
shows that the efficiency increases with the increase in the output power up to a certain
value and after a particular value of output power, the transformer efficiency decreases.

The value of transformer efficiency will be maximum when the copper losses will be equal
to iron losses in the transformer. The value of maximum efficiency can be found by taking
total losses equal to 2Pi. It also depends on load power factor and has the maximum value at
a power factor of unity.

The transformer on which load is variable (like distribution transformer) is designed to give
maximum efficiency at about 75% of full load.

And if it is continuously operated near the full load (like power transformers), then it is
designed to give maximum efficiency at or near the full load.
The transformer has no moving parts so the losses due to friction and windage are absent
therefore its efficiency is very high. It can be at least equal to 90%. Its output and input are
almost of the same value. Hence their ratio cannot be found accurately by measuring input
and output power.

To overcome this problem it is better to measure the transformer losses separately and then
find the transformer efficiency by the transformer efficiency formula. The iron
losses and copper losses of can be determined very easily and accurately by no-load
test and short-circuit test on transformer respectively.

All Day Efficiency of Transformer

The efficiency discussed so far is the ordinary or commercial or power efficiency of the
transformer. But for the distribution transformer, it does not give the true idea about the
transformer performance because the load on distribution transformer fluctuates throughout
the day. This transformer is energized for twenty-four hours, but for the major portion of the
day, it delivers the very light load.
Thus iron losses take place for the whole day but copper losses take place only when the
transformer is loaded.

Hence, the performance of such transformer (like distribution transformer) cannot be judged
by the power efficiency. But it can be judged by the special type of transformer efficiency
known as energy efficiency or all-day efficiency. The all-day efficiency is computed on the
basis of energy consumed during the period of twenty-four hours.

The all day efficiency of transformer is defined as the ratio of output energy (in kWh) to input
energy (in kWh) for twenty-four hours.

Where:

WOUT = Totaloutput energy

Wcore = Total energy losses due to core losses

Wcu = Total energy losses due to copper losses

t= time of usage

LESSON IV
Open and Short Circuit Test of Transformer

Open Circuit or No-Load Test on Transformer

This test is performed to find out the shunt or no-load branch parameters of equivalent
circuit of a transformer. This test results the iron losses and no-load current values, thereby
we can determine the no load branch parameters with simple calculations.

As the name itself indicates, secondary side load terminals of the transformer are kept open
and the input voltage is applied on the other side. Since this test is carried out by without
placing any load, this test is also named as no load test.

The OC test is carried out by connecting LV side (as primary) of the transformer to the AC
supply through voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter instruments. The secondary side or HV
side terminals are left open and in some cases a voltmeter is connected across it to measure
the secondary voltage.

The primary side voltmeter reads the applied voltage to the transformer, ammeter reads the
no load current, wattmeter gives the input power and the variac used to vary the voltage
applied to transformer so that rated voltage is applied at rated frequency. The OC test
arrangement of a transformer is the rated value of the primary voltage is adjusted by varying
test, we get rated
When single phase supply is given to the transformer, the rated value of the primary voltage
is adjusted by varying the variac. At this rated voltage, the ammeter and wattmeter readings
are to be taken. From this test, we get rated voltage Vo, input or no-load current Io and input
power Wo.

As we know that when the transformer is on no load, the no load current or primary current is
very small, typically 3 to 5 percent of the rated current value. Thus, the copper loss in the
primary winding is negligible. In OC test, transformer is operated at rated voltage at rated
frequency so the maximum will be the flux in the core. Since the iron or core losses are at
rated voltage, the power input is drawn to supply the iron losses by the transformer under no
load.

Wo = Iron losses

The no load shunt parameters are calculated from the OC test as the no load power factor,
Cos Φo = Wo/VoIo

Once the power factor is obtained, the no load component currents are determined as

Magnetizing component of no-load current, Im = Io sin Φo

Core loss component of no-load current, Im = Io cos Φo

Then, the magnetizing branch reactance, Xo= Vo / Im

Resistance representing core loss, Ro = Vo / Ic

This test is performed to find series branch parameters of an equivalent circuit such as
equivalent impedance (Zo1 or Zo2), total winding resistance (Ro1 or Ro2), and total leakage
reactance (Xo1 or Xo2). Also, it is possible to determine copper losses at any desired load and
total voltage drop of the transformer referred to primary or secondary. In this test, usually LV
winding is shorted by a thick wire. And the other side, i.e. HV side this test is conducted.

In this test, the primary or HV winding is connected to the AC supply source through
voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter and a variac as shown in figure. This test is also called as
reduced voltage test or low voltage test. This is because as the secondary winding is short
circuited, at rated voltage the transformer draws a very large current due to its very small
winding resistance.
Such high current can cause the overheating and also burning of the transformer. Thus, to
limit the high current, the primary winding must be energized with a low voltage which is just
enough to produce the rated current in the transformer primary.

The SC test is conducted on HV side due to the two main reasons. The first one is, the SC test
conducted by applying rated current and the HV side rated current is much less than the LV
side. Therefore, the rated current is easily achieved at HV side (due to the low current value)
as compared to the LV side.

On the other hand, if we short the HV terminals by connecting measuring instrument on LV

side, voltage in the secondary is zero. Therefore, the current flow through HV side is very
high (as VA rating is constant) compared to the LV side and hence it will cause to burn the
transformer.

During this test, by varying the variac slowly, we apply a low voltage to the primary typically
5 to 10 percent of the rated voltage to cause a rated current to flow in both primary and
secondary windings that we can observe on ammeter reading (some cases secondary is
shorted through an ammeter). At this rated current, we are to record the voltmeter (Vsc),
ammeter (Isc) and wattmeter (Wsc) readings.

In this test, the current flow is rated value and hence no-load current is very small and is 3 to
5% percent of rated current. In other words, the voltage applied to the primary winding is
very low, thereby the flux level in the core is very small. In turn there is negligible core loss.
Therefore, the no load shunt branch is considered as absent in equivalent circuit of this test
as core loss is negligible.

As the iron or core losses are function of voltage, these losses are very small. Therefore, the
wattmeter reading shows the power loss or I2 R loss equal to the full load copper losses of the
whole transformer.

Wsc = Full load copper losses

From the test results we determine the series branch parameters of an equivalent circuit as

Equivalent resistance referred to HV side, Re= Wsc/ Isc2

Equivalent impedance referred to HV side, Ze= Vsc / Isc

Equivalent leakage reactance referred to HV side, Xe = √ (Z201 – R201)

And also, short circuit power factor, Cos Φsc = Wsc/VscIsc

Calculation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests

The practical transformer has two types of major losses namely copper and core losses. The
temperature of the transformer rises due to these losses which are dissipated as heat. Due to
these losses, input power drawn by the primary no longer equal to the output delivered at
secondary. Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer is given as

Efficiency, η = Power output in KW/ Power input in KW

 = Power output in KW/ (Power output in KW + Losses)

= Power output in KW/ (Power output in KW + Copper loss + Core loss)

The core loss Pcore remains constant from no load to full load as the flux in the core remains
constant. And the copper losses depend on the square of the current. As the winding current
varies from no load to full load, copper losses are also varied.

Consider that the KVA rating of the transformer is S, a fraction of the load is x and the power
factor of the load is Cos Φ. Then

The output power in KW = xSCos Φ

Suppose the copper loss at full load is Pcu (since x =1),

Then copper loss at x per unit loading = x2Pcu

Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer is

Efficiency, η = xSCos Φ / (xS Cos Φ + x2 Pxcu + Pxcore)

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
1. A transformer has a primary coil and a secondary coil with the number of loops are 500
and 5000. Input voltage is 220 V. What is the output voltage?

Given:

Primary coil (NP) = 500 loops

Secondary coil (Ns) = 5000 loops

Primary voltage (VP) = 220 Volt

Rqd: Secondary voltage (VS)

Solution:

Vs / Ns =Vp / Np

Vs / 5000 = 220 / 500

Vs / 5000 = 0.44

Vs = (0.44) (5000)

Vs = 2200 Volt

2. A transformer has primary coil with 1200 loops and secondary coil with 1000 loops. If
the current in the primary coil is 4 Ampere, then what is the current in the secondary
coil.
Given:

Primary coil (NP) = 1200 loops

Secondary coil (NS) = 1000 loops

The current in the primary coil (Ip) = 4 Ampere

Rqd: The current in secondary coil (IS)

Solution:

Is/Ip = Np/Ns

The current in the secondary coil:

Is4 = 1200/1000

Is/4 = 1.2

Is = 1.2 (4)

Is = 4.8 Ampere

3. The secondary voltage is 220 Volt and primary voltage is 110 volts, then a comparison
of the secondary coil and primary coil is…
Given:

Secondary voltage (VS) = 220 Volt

Primary voltage (VP) = 110 Volt

Rqd: Ns / Np

Solution:

VS/VP = Ns/Np

220/110 = Ns/Np

22/11 = Ns/Np

2/1 = Ns/Np

12/6 = Ns/Np

4. Based on figure below, what is the primary voltage of the transformer.

Given:

Secondary voltage (Vs) = 24 Volt

Primary turns (Np) = 11 turns

Secondary turns (Ns) = 1 turn

Rqd: Primary voltage (Vp)

Solution:

Vs / Ns= Vp / Np

24 / Ns = Vp / 11

24 / 1 = Vp / 11

24 = Vp / 11

Vp = (24)(11)

Vp = 264 Volts

5. Based on figure below, what is the input voltage of the transformer.

Given:

Primary coil (Np) = 21 coils

Secondary coil (Ns) = 3 coils

Secondary voltage (Vs) = 20 Volts

Rqd: Primary voltage (Vp)

Solution:

Vs/ Ns= Vp / Np

20 / 3 = Vp / 21

20 / 1 = V1 / 7

20 = Vp/ 7
Vp= (7)(20)

Vp = 140 Volt

6. According to figure below, what is the amount of the secondary loops of the
transformer.

Given:

Primary voltage (Vp) = 220 Volt

Primary loops (Np) = 200 loops

Secondary voltage (Vs) = 1100 Volt

Rqd: Secondary loops (Ns)

Solution:

Vs / Ns = Vp / Np

1100 Volt / Ns = 220 Volt / 200 loops

1100 / Ns = 220 / 200

1100 / Ns = 1.1

Ns = 1100 / 1.1

Ns = 1000 loops

7. According to figure below, what is the amount of the secondary loops of the
transformer.

Given:

Primary voltage (VP) = 220 Volt

Primary loops (NP) = 200 loops

Secondary voltage (VS) = 1100 Volt

Rqd: Secondary loops (NS)

Solution:

Vs / Ns = Vp / Np

1100 / Ns = 220 / 200

1100 / Ns = 22 / 20

1100 / Ns = 1.1

Ns = 1100 / 1.1

NS = 1000 loops

8. Given:
Transformer Np Ns Vp Vs Ip Is

1 1000 120 12 0.4 2

2 80 8 20 2 2.5

Based on the above table, if the efficiency of both transformers is the same, 50%, Determine
N

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Ns1 and Ip2

Solution:

The equation of transformer 1 efficiency:

Calculate Ns1 of the transformer 1:

Calculate Ip2 of the transformer 2:

9.

Based on the above figure, which of the following statements about the figure above is
correct.

A. Figure 1 is a step-up transformer and figure 2 is a step-down transformer

B. Figure 1 is a step-down transformer and figure 2 is a step-up transformer

C. Figure 1 and 2 are a step-down transformer

D. Figure 1 and 2 are a step-up transformer

Solution

Step-up transformer serves to raise the electrical voltage while the step-down transformer to
reduce electrical voltage. In Figure 1, the primary voltage is greater than the second voltage
(20 Volts > 5 Volts) so that Figure 1 is a step-down transformer. In Figure 2, the primary
voltage is smaller than the second voltage (5 Volts < 40 Volts) so that Figure 2 is a step-up
transformer.

The correct answer is B.

10.

If the primary coil has 800 loops, then determine the secondary coil.

Given:

Primary loops = Np = 800 loops

Primary voltage =VP = 220 Volt

Secondary voltage = VS = 55 Volt

Rqd: Secondary loops (NS)

Solution:

Vs / Ns = Vp / Np

55 / Ns = 220 / 800

55 / Ns = 22 / 80

Ns = (80)(55) / 22

NS = 4400 / 22

Ns = 200 loops
 11.

The correct statement about transformer P and Q is…

A. P is a step-down transformer because of Is < Ip

B. P is a step-up transformer because of Vp < Vs

C. Q is a step-up transformer because of Vp > Vs

D. Q is a step-up transformer because Is > Ip

Solution

P is step-up transformer because primary voltage (Vp = 110 V) < secondary voltage (Vs = 200
V).

Q is step-down transformer because primary voltage (Vp = 220 V) > secondary voltage (Vs = 110
V).

The correct answer is B.

12. Transformer all day efficiency

Transformers are on operation 24/7 whether they are partially or heavily loaded for a
particular length of time. It is, therefore, for this consideration that a transformer must be
evaluated for its 24 hours efficiency which is the ratio of energy output and energy input for
24 hours period:

A 500KVA, 1ph, 13.8/4.160kV, 60hz transformer has a primary resistance of R1 = 0.8 ohms and
secondary resistance of R2 = 0.04 ohms. The iron loss is 3,000 watts. Calculate the copper loss
and the full load efficiency when the transformer's daily load is 3hrs @ full load, 5hrs @ 3/4
load and 7hrs @ 1/4 load.

Solution:

Ipri = Rated kVA x 1000/Rated primary voltage = 500 x 1000/13,800 = 36.2 Amp

Copper losspri = (Ipri)2x R1 = 36.22 x 0.8 = 1,048 watts

Isec = Rated kVA x 1000/Rated secondary voltage = 500 x 1000/4,160 = 120.2 Amp
Copper losssec = (Isec)2 x R2 = 120.22 x 0.04 = 578 watts

Total full load copper loss = 1,048 + 578 = 1,626 watts

Since the input is equal to the output + the total losses, the all day efficiency is:

Output x 100/Output + losses; with the copper loses varying directly as the square of the
fractional load.

Assuming a 100% power factor, the output energy is:

Energyoutput = (500 x 3hrs) + (500 x 3/4 x 5hrs) + (500 x 1/4 x 7hrs) = 2, 750 kw-hrs

Thus, the Energy input = energy output + loses

Energyinput = Output + total loses loss

Total copper and iron losses = (1.626kw x 3hrs x 12) + (1.626kw x 5hrs x 0.752) + (1.626kw x
7hrs x 0.252) + (3kwiron loss x 24hrs)] = [4.878 + 6.40 + 0.711 + 72 = 84kw-hr

All day efficiency = (2,750/2,750 + 84)100% = 97%

Typical efficiency calculation is: (500/500 + 3+ 1.048 + 0.578)100% = 99.3%

13. Parallel operation of transformers with different ratings

Explain how two single phase transformers of different ratings can be connected in parallel on
both the primary and secondary for them to share a common load in proportion to their kva
ratings.

Answer: The following should be strictly observed:

1. Ensure that the transformers' reactance and resistance ratio are the same.

2. The transformers must have the same transformation ratios; Epri/Esec i.e., for both the
primary and secondary voltage.

3. The transformers must have the same %regulation, i.e., the reduction in the voltage level
of both transformers in the primary and secondary are the same when they are loaded.

Question-3: Utilizing a 3ph transformer for 1ph service

For a particular service, a single-phase transformer is needed but what's available is one
three-phase transformer. If the available transformer has the same voltage ratio and
frequency, (1) how can you configure the three-phase transformer for a single-phase service
for the maximum single-phase output, and (2), what is the percentage of the three-phase kva
can be utilized?

Answer: The requirement of this set up must utilize the maximum power from the 3ph
transformer to which only 2/3 of the transformer's kva rating is possible:

1. Parallel the two windings of the transformer - say Phase-A and Phase-B - taking care that
polarity markings are observed; parallel their corresponding secondaries in same manner

2. The maximum load that can be utilized for 1ph service is 2/3 x 100% = 66.67%
 14. Why transformers are rated in volt-amperes or kilovolt-amperes:

Explain why transformers are rated in volt-ampere (va) or kilovolt-ampere (kva)? Justify and
prove your answer.

Answer: The heat equivalent of current Idriven into the circuit by the voltage E is determined
by Joule's Law: Q = 0.24EI x time. Thus advantageous and practical to rate a transformer in
volt-amperes rather than in watts, because the crucial relationship of the primary and
secondary volt-ampere are equal when the core and copper losses amounting to about 1 to 3%
is neglected. Since the power factor of a transformer is unity or close to unity, the volt-
ampere rating provides the engineer the ease to calculate the output and input expeditiously.

On the other hand, if transformers are rated in watts or kilo-watts, the rating would not be
depictive of its actual performance. Consider the power conveyed by a three-phase
system:the Power = EI x 31/2 Cosø.

Note: The 31/2 is equivalent to square root of 3.

15. A 460-V:2400-V transformer has a series leakage reactance of 37.2 Ω as referred

to the high-voltage side. A load connected to the low-voltage side is observed to
be absorbing 25 kW, unity power factor, and the voltage is measured to be 450 V.
Calculate the corresponding voltage and power factor as measured at the high-
voltage terminals.

Power factor at primary terminals: cos (9.58) = 0.9861 lagging

16. The resistances and leakage reactance of a 30-kVA, 60-Hz, 2400-V:240-V distribution
transformer respectively R1 = 0.68 Ω, R2 = 0.0068 Ω, Xl1 = 7.8 Ω, Xl2 = 0.0780 Ω, where
subscript 1 denotes the 2400-V winding and subscript 2 denotes the 240-V winding. Each
quantity is referred to its own side of the transformer.

a. Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (i) the high- and (ii) the low-voltage sides. Label
the impedances numerically.

b. Consider the transformer to deliver its rated kVA to a load on the low-voltage side with 230
V across the load. (i) Find the high-side terminal voltage for a load power factor of 0.85
lagging. (ii) Find the high-side terminal voltage for a load power factor of 0.85 leading.
 c. Consider a rated-kVA load connected at the low-voltage terminals operating at 240V. Use
MATLAB to plot the high-side terminal voltage as a function of the power-factor angle as the
load power factor varies from 0.6 leading through unity power factor to 0.6 pf lagging.

17. A single-phase load is supplied through a 35-kV feeder whose impedance is 95

+ j360 Ω and a 35-kV:2400-V transformer whose equivalent impedance is (0.23
+ j1.27) Ω referred to its low-voltage side. The load is 160 kW at 0.89 leading
power factor and 2340 V.
a. Compute the voltage at the high-voltage terminals of the transformer.

b. b. Compute the voltage at the sending end of the feeder.

Compute the power and reactive power input at the sending end of the feeder.
18. The following data were obtained for a 20-kVA, 60-Hz, 2400:240-V distribution
transformer tested at 60 Hz:
 a. Compute the efficiency at full-load current and the rated terminal voltage at 0.8
power factor.

b. Assume that the load power factor is varied while the load current and secondary
terminal voltage are held constant. Use a phasor diagram to determine the load power
factor for which the regulation is greatest. What is this regulation?

Solution:

a. Rated current on the HV side = 20 kVA / 2400 = 8.33 A. Therefore, total power loss
at full load current:
 19. A three-phase generator step-up transformer is rated 26-kV:345-kV, 850 MVA and
has a series impedance of 0.0035 + j0.087 per unit on this base. It is connected to a 26-kV,
800-MVA generator, which can be represented as a voltage source in series with a reactance
of j1.57 per unit on the generator base.

a. Convert the per unit generator reactance to the step-up transformer base.

b. The unit is supplying 700 MW at 345 kV and 0.95 power factor lagging to the system at the
transformer high-voltage terminals.

i. Calculate the transformer low-side voltage and the generator internal voltage behind its
reactance in kV.

ii. Find the generator output power in MW and the power factor.
Learning activity 3
1. A single-phase, 250-kVA, 11-kV/415-V, 50-Hz transformer has 80 turns on the secondary.
Calculate (a) the approximate values of the primary and secondary currents, (b) the
approximate number of primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of the flux. [Ans.: (a) 22.7
A, 602 A; (b) 2121; (c) 23.4 m Wb]

2. The primary winding of a 50-Hz transformer has 480 turns and is fed from a 6400-V supply.
Determine (a) the peak value of the flux in the core, and (b) the secondary voltage if the
secondary winding has 20 turns. [Ans.: (a) 0.06 Wb; (b) 266.4 V]

3. A single phase, 50-Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and 400 turns on
the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 200 cm. If the primary
winding is connected to 240-V, 50-Hz supply, determine (a) the emf induced in the secondary
winding, and (b) the maximum flux density in the core. [Ans.: (a) 1200 V; (b) 0.675 T]

4. A 10-kVA, single-phase transformer has its primary connected to a 2000-V supply. It has 60
turns on the secondary winding and voltage across it is found to be 240 V. Assuming the
transformer to be ideal, calculate (a) the number of turns on its primary winding; (b) the full-
load primary and secondary currents. [Ans.: (a) 500; (b) 5 A, 41.67 A]

5. A 200-kVA, 3300-V/240-V, 50-Hz, single-phase transformer has 80 turns on the secondary

winding. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate (a) primary and secondary currents on full
load, (b) the maximum value of flux, and (c) the number of primary turns. [Ans.: (a) 60.6 A,
833.33 A; (b) 0.0135 Wb; (c) 1100]

6. A single-phase transformer with 10:1 turns-ratio and rated at 50 kVA, 2400-V/240- V, 50-Hz
is used to step down the voltage of a distribution system. The low tension (LT) voltage is to
be kept constant at 240 V. Find the value of the load impedance of the LT side so that the
transformer is loaded fully. Find also the value of the maximum flux inside the core if the LT
side has 23 turns. [Ans.: 1.152 Ω, 0.047 Wb]

7. The primary of a single-phase transformer takes 1 A at power factor of 0.4 when connected
to a 240-V, 50-Hz supply and the secondary is on open circuit. The number of turns on the
primary is twice that on the secondary. A load taking 50 A at a lagging power factor of 0.8 is
now connected across the secondary. What is now the value of the primary current? (Neglect
the voltage drops in the transformer.) [Ans.: 25.9 A]

8. A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has 100 turns on the primary winding and 400 turns on
the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 250 cm2. If the primary
winding is connected to a 50-Hz, 230-V supply, calculate (a) the emf induced in the secondary
winding, and (b) the maximum value of the flux density in the core. [Ans.: (a) 920 V; (b)
0.414 T]

9. The no-load current of a single-phase transformer is 5.0 A at 0.3 power factor when
supplied from a 240-V, 50-Hz source. The number of turns on the primary is 200. Calculate (a)
the maximum value of the flux in the core, (b) the core losses, and (c) the magnetizing
current. [Ans.: (a) 5.4 m Wb; (b) 360 W; (c) 4.77 A]

10. A transformer on no-load takes 1.5 A at a power factor of 0.2 lagging when its primary is
connected to a 50-Hz, 230-V supply. Its transformation ratio (N2/N1) is 1/3. Determine the
primary current when the secondary is supplying a current of 300 A at a power factor of 0.8
lagging. Neglect the voltage drops in the windings. [Ans.: 14.5 A]

Module IV – AC GENERATOR
LESSON 1
HISTORY

The first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by British
scientist Michael Faraday.

The first public demonstration of a more robust "alternator system" took place in 1886.

Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H.
Gordon, in 1882

Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies
between 100 and 300 Hz.

In 1891, Nikola Tesla patented a practical "high-frequency" alternator (which operated around
15 kHz)

Later alternators were designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen
and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric
motors.

LESSON II

PRINCIPLES AND PARTS OF AC GENERATOR

Alternators may be classified by method of excitation, number of phases, the type of

rotation, cooling method, and their application.

ALTERNATOR COMPONENTS

Alternators typically consist of front plate, back plate, stator, rectifier, rotor,
front bearing, back bearing, pulley, and a regulator. These are the main parts of an
alternator.
Parts of alternator current generator

FRONT AND BACK PLATE

The front and back plate of an alternator is used to enclose the alternator together. With the
through bolts properly installed you will have the two halves tightly secured. Many times
these are two aluminum castings, but sometimes the back plate is just a plastic cover or tin
to pretty much cover up the back of the alternator.

STATOR

The stator is the alternator component that is stationary inside of the casing. Its purpose is
to be the other half of the electrical power source. They commonly have a 3-phase wire set
up with laminated iron plates. Then the wires connect to the rectifier.
ROTOR

The rotor is yet another major part of an alternator. This is the other half of the electrical
power source, only instead of remaining stationary, this part is rotating with engine RPM. As
the rotor is turns it induces a current in the stator windings to be stored in the cars battery.
TWO TYPES OF ROTOR USED IN AN AC GENERATOR / ALTERNATOR

A. SALIENT POLE TYPE

Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed alternators. This type of rotor
consists of large number of projected poles (called salient poles), bolted on a magnetic
wheel. These poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy current losses. Alternators
featuring this type of rotor are large in diameters and short in axial length.

B. CYLINDRICAL TYPE
Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators, especially in turbo alternators. This
type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having slots along its outer
periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots. The DC supply is given to the rotor
winding through the slip rings and brushes arrangement.

C. RECTIFIER
The rectifier is an alternator part that converts the alternating current into a direct current.
This way the electricity that is produced can be sent to your car battery the proper way.
The rectifiers has diodes that make this process possible. This also allows the current to
flow in one (and only one) direction.
 D. ALTERNATOR PULLEY
The alternator pulley is attached to the drive end of the rotor. This allows the rotor to be
hooked up to the engines belt also referred to as the serpentine/drive belt. This makes a
good way for your vehicle to run and charge itself at the same time.
 E. REGULATOR
Time for the last main alternator part to be mentioned. This is the regulator. This part
helps regulate the current that flows from the alternator to the battery. This is in most
alternators today, however you do still have alternators that are not equipped with a
regulator. In those cases the cars computer regulates the current that flows from the
alternator to the cars battery.

On the back side of the alternator you'll find several terminals (or connecting points in
an electrical circuit).

S terminal - Senses battery voltage

IG terminal - Ignition switch that turns the voltage regulator on

L terminal - Closes the circuit to the warning lamp

B terminal - Main alternator output terminal (connected to the battery)

F terminal – Full- field bypass for regulator

REVOLVING FIELD AND GENERATED VOLATAGE

ROTATING-FIELD ALTERNATORS

The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature winding and a rotating-field winding as
shown in figure. The advantage of having a stationary armature winding is that the generated
voltage can be connected directly to the load. A rotating armature requires slip rings and
brushes to conduct the current from the armature to the load. The armature, brushes, and
slip rings are difficult to insulate, and arc-overs and short circuits can result at high voltages.
For this reason, high-voltage alternators are usually of the rotating-field type.

Since the voltage applied to the rotating field is low voltage dc, the problem of high voltage
arc-over at the slip rings does not exist. The stationary armature, or stator, of this type of
alternator holds the windings that are cut by the rotating magnetic field. The voltage
generated in the armature as a result of this cutting action is the AC power that will be
applied to the load.
Generated Voltage

An average of 1 volt is generated in one turn of wire if the flux passing through that
turn changes at the rate of 100,000,000 (10 ) maxwells per second

GENERATED VOLTAGE FORMULA

AVERAGE GENERATED VOLTAGE

EAVE =N𝞍/(t )x10⁻ volts

WHERE:

N= number of turns in a coil

𝞍=flux per pole

t= time , seconds
General induced emf equation

EAVE =4fN𝞍x10^-8

EFFECTIVE VALUE OF INDUCED EMF

E=4.44fN𝞍x10^-8

LESSON 3: Alternator Voltage Regulation and phasor diagram

VOLTAGE DROP

WHAT IS VOLTAGE DROP?

Voltage drop is defined as the amount of voltage loss that occurs through all or part of a
circuit due to impedance. ... The national electrical code recommends limiting the voltage
drop from the breaker box to the farthest outlet for power, heating, or lighting to 3 percent
of the circuit voltage.

FORMULA OF VOLTAGE DROP

Voltage drop = IaRa + IaXLa

Where:

Ia= armature current

Ra= armature resistance

XLa = armature inductive reactance

CAUSE OF VOLTAGE DROP

Voltage drop is not caused by poor connections, bad contacts, insulation problems, or
damaged conductors; those are causes of voltage loss. It's important to distinguish voltage
drop from voltage loss. You can have both voltage drop and voltage loss in any circuit.

VOLTAGE REGULATION

Voltage Regulation is the percent rise in the terminal voltage of the alternator when
the alternator load is removed.

%VR= Ep-Vp/Vp

Where:

Ep= Generated emf per phase (volts)

Vp= Terminal Voltage per phase (volts)

LESSON 4- EFFICIENCY AND PARALLEL OPERATION

CONDITIONS

The same phase sequince

Equal magnitude of terminal voltage

Equal of operating frequency

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
1. A 60-cycle alternator has 2 poles.

a. What is the speed of the alternator?

b. A 60-cycle alternator has a speed of 120 rpm and how many poles have it?

Solution:

a. f = [PS / (120)] cycles/sec

Where: f = frequency, P = number of poles, S = rpm

S = [(120f) / P]

= [(120 × 60) / 2]

= 3600 rpm

b. This may be solved without using Eqn. (1) directly. The 2-pole, 60-cycle alternator
rotates at 3,600 rpm. Therefore the 60-cycle, 120 rpm alternator must have

[(3,600) / (120)] 2 = 60 poles

2. An a-c generator has six poles and operates at 1,200 rpm.

a. What frequency does it generate?

b. At what speed must the generator operate to develop 25 cycles? 50 cycles?

c. How many poles are there in a generator that operates at a speed of 240 rpm and
develops a frequency of 60 cycles?
Solution:

a. f = [(P × rpm) / (120)]

f = [(6 × 1,200) / (120)] = 60 cycles/sec.

b. rpm25 = [(120 × 25) / 6] = 500.

rpm50 = [(120 × 50) / 6] = 1,000.

c. P = [(120 × f) / (rpm)] = [(120 × 60) / (240)] = 30 poles

The diagrams in the figure represent graphically the manner in which the

number of cycles per revolution increases with an increase in the number

of poles.

3. The effective voltage for a 5-turn coil on a 6-pole generator is 10.6 volts. The flux per
pole is 0.00795 weber. Calculate the frequency and the speed of the machine, and write
the equation for the voltage per coil assuming it to be sinusoidal.

Solution:

The average voltage per conductor is

Eavg = [(Eeff) / (number of turns × 2 × 1.11)];

Also,

Eavg = (ɸ / t) volts per conductor

 Eavg = [(10.6) / (5 × 2)] × [1 / (1.11)] = [(0.00795) / t] volts per conductor

= 0.00833 second per half cycle

f = (1 / 2t) = 60 cycles per second

Now,

f = (P / 2) × [(rpm) / 60] cycles per second.

= [(6 × rpm) / (2 × 60)] cycles per second

Therefore,

speed = 1,200 rpm and

e = 10.6√ (2) sin 2π60t

= 15 sin 377t volts

If the average voltage per turn is used, the time taken to change the flux through the loop
from maximum to zero is 0.00417 sec, corresponding to (1 / 4) cycle. Whereas one conductor
moves one pole pitch of 180 electrical degrees in cutting the flux of one pole, the coil (of
two conductors) need move only 90 electrical degrees to cut the same flux. An alternate
method of solution is to use the expression for the maximum voltage generated. The
maximum voltage generated m a coil of N turns is

Emax = Nωɸ

√2(0.6) = 5 × 2πf (0.00795)

f = [15 / (0.25)] = 60 cycles per second

4. Assume the cross-sectional area of the poles in the figure to be 800 square centimeters,
and that the flux density is 5,000 lines of induction per square centimeter.

a. What is the pressure between the brushes when the single loop armature makes 3,600
rotations per minute?

b. How many inductors will have to be connected in series if the electromotive force in
part (a) is to be 48 volts?

c. A six-pole generator operating at a speed of 900 revolutions per minute has 960
inductors on the armature.

d. What will be the electromotive force developed if a two-circuit winding is used and if
the flux emanating one pole is 1,200,000 lines?
Solution:

a. E = [(2nZ ɸ) / (60 × 108)] volts

n = 3,600 rpm

Z=2

ɸ = 5,000 × 800 = 4,000,000 = 4 × 106 maxwells.

Then,

E = [(4 × 106 × 3,600 × 2 × 2) / (60 × 108)]

= 9.6 volts.

b. Two inductors in series generate 9.6 volts. Hence one inductor generates 4.8 volts. To
generate 48 volts will require 48 ÷ 4.8 = 10 inductors, or a loop of 5 turns.

c. E = [(pɸZn) / (a’60 x 108)]

p=6

a’= 2

ɸ = 1,200,000 = 1.2 × 106

n = 900 rpm

Z = 960

Then,

E = [(6 × 1.2 × 106 × 960 × 900) / (2 × 60 × 108)]

 = 518.18 volts

5. A 60-kva 220-volt 60-cycle alternator has an effective armature resistance of 0.016 ohm
and an armature leakage reactance of 0.070 ohm. Determine induced emf when the
machine is delivering rated current at a load power factor of unity.

Solution:

The current

I = [(60,000) / (220)] = 273 amp,

Armature resistance drop is

IR = 273 × 0.016 = 4.37 volts,

Armature leakage reactance drop is

IX = 273 × 0.070 = 19.1 volts,

The induced emf is then given by

Ea = √ [(V + IR)2 + (IX)2]

= √ [(220 + 4.4)2 + (19.1)2]

= 225 volts.

6. A six-pole generator has a lap winding. If there are 300 inductors on the surface of the
armature, and if the flux is 900,000 lines per pole,

a. what will be the voltage between the brushes at a speed of 1,500 revolutions per
minute?

b. What voltage will the generator in part (a) develop if the winding be wave connected,
other conditions remaining as before?

Solution:

a. E = [(pnZɸ) / (a’ × 60 × 108).

p = 6.

n = 1,500 rpm.

ɸ = 900,000 = 9 × 105
 a’ = 6.

Z = 300.

Then

E = [(6 × 1,500 × 9 × 105 × 300) / (6 × 60 × 108)]

= 67.5 volts.

b. All the conditions are the same as before, except q which is 2

instead of 6, hence

E = [(6 × 1,500 × 9 × 105 × 300) / (2 × 60 × 108)]

= 202.5 volts.

7. 1. A four-pole generator has a total of 500 inductors on its armature and is designed to
have 2 × 106 lines of magnetic flux per pole crossing its air gap with normal excitation.
What voltage will be generated at a speed of 1800 rpm

a. if the armature is simplex wave wound,

b. if the armature is simplex lap wound?

c. If the allowable current is 5 amp per path, what will be the kilowatts generated by
the machine in each case?

2. A six-pole generator is driven at a speed of 1200 rpm. the flux per pole is 5 ×
10 maxwells. Calculate the inductors necessary to generate 250 volts when armature is
6

a. simplex lap wound and

b. duplex wave wound.

c. If the normal generation capacity is 100 kw, what must be the current capacity per
path for each type of winding?

Solution:

1. E = [Z / (Paths)] × ɸ × Poles × [(rpm) / 60] × 10–8 volts

Where,

Z = Number of inductors

a. E = [(500) / 2] × 2 × 106 × 4 × [(1800) / 60] × 10–8

 = 600 volts, for wave-wound machine

b. E = [(500) / 4] × 2 × 106 × 4 × [(1800) / 60] × 10–8

= 300 volts for lap-wound machine

c. Total current = 5 × 2 = 10 amp for wave winding

Kilowatts = [(10 × 600) / (1000)] = 6

Total current = 5 × 4 = 20 amp for lap winding

Kilowatts = [(20 × 300) / (1000)] = 6

2. a. 250 = (z / 6) × 5 × 106 × 6 × [(1200) / 6] × 10–8 volts from which

Z = 250 inductors

b. For the duplex wave winding, there being four paths, only 167

inductors will be required for the same voltage per path.

c. Line current = 100,000 ÷ 250 = 400 amp

For lap winding

Current capacity per path = [(400) / 6] = 66(2 / 3) amp

For wave winding

Current capacity per path = [(400) / 4] = 100 amp

Note that the kilowatt values here given would not represent the power that the generator
could supply to an external load, since an appreciable part of the power generated would be
absorbed in overcoming internal losses in the machine itself.

8. A 72-slot three-phase stator armature is wound for six poles, using double-layer lap coils
having 20 turns per coil with a (5 / 6) pitch. The flux per pole is 4.8 × 106 lines, and the
rotor speed is 1200 rpm. Calculate:

a. The generated effective voltage per coil of a full- pitch coil.

b. The total number of turns per phase.

c. The distribution factors.

d. The pitch factors.

e. The total generated voltage per phase from (a), (c), and

f. above, and by the following equation:

 Egp = 4.44 ɸ NpfKpkd × 10–8 V

Solution:

a. Eg/coil = 4.44 ɸNcf × 10–8 V

= 4.44(4.8 × 106) (20) [(6 × 1200) / (120)] × 10–8

= 256 V/coil

b. Np = [(CNc) / p]

= [(total armature coils × turns/coil) / (number of phases)]

= 72 coils/3 phase × 20 turns/coil

= 480 turns/phase

c. kd = [{sin (nα / 2) / (n sin(nα / 2))}]

where

n = [(72 slots) / (3 phase × 6 poles)]

= 4 slots/pole-phase

and

α = [(6 poles × 180°/pole) / (72 slots)] = 15°/ slot

kd = [{sin [(4 × 15) / 2]} / {4 sin (15 / 2)] = [(sin 30°) / (4 sin 7.5°)] = 0.958

d. kp = sin (p° / 2) = sin [(5 / 6) × {(180) / 2}] = sin 75° = 0.966

e. Egp = 4.44 × 480 turns/phase × 4.8 × 106 × 60 × 0.966× 0.958 × 10–8

= 5680 V [from Eq. (1)]

Egp = 256 V/coil × 24 coils/phase × 0.966 × 0.958

= 5680 V/phase [from (a), (c), and (d)].

9. A 3-phase, 4-pole machine stator has 36 slots. The winding

is double-layered and short pitched, being made up of 6-turn

coils whose pitch is 140° electrical. Determine the winding

factor K1w and the effective turns per phase Nse.

Solution:

Since there are 36 slots with two coil-sides per slot, there will be 36 coils in the winding,
giving 12 coils per phase. Thus

Ns = 6 × 12 = 72 turns

The winding is 4-pole; there will, therefore, be three coils per pole per phase and three slots
in a phase belt. The angle subtended by one slot pitch at the rotor axis is (2π / 36) radians =
(4π / 36) electrical radians = 20° electrical. The coil pitch is 140° electrical, so that each coil
spans seven slot pitches. The arrangement of the coil sides of phase "a" in the slots will
therefore be

as shown in Fig. (a).

The peak amplitude of the stepped wave produced by this winding [(Nsia) / p]. Since 6 coils
produce this amplitude, the amplitude of the rectangular wave produced by one coil is [(Nsia)
/ 6p]. The amplitude of the fundamental component produced by one coil is thus (4 / π)
[(Nsia) / 6p] A. The vector diagram from which the resultant fundamental component may be
obtained is shown in Fig. (b), where it is seen that the fundamental component of the
stepped wave produced by the whole phase "a" winding

(4 / π) [(Nsia) / 6p] (2 + 2 cos 20° + 2 cos 40°) A

From the following equation:

Fsgl = (4 / π) (Ns / p) is A

it is seen that the fundamental mmf amplitude for a concentrated winding of Ns turns would
be (4 / π) [(Nsia) / p].

Thus,

(K1W) = [(Fundamental mmf amplitude for distributed winding of Ns turns) / (Fundamental

mmf amplitude for concentrated winding of Ns turns)]

= (1 / 6) (2 + 2 cos 20° + 2 cos 40°) = 0.902

and

Nse = K1W (4 / π) Ns

= 0.902 × (4 / π) × 72 = 83.5 turns.

This paradoxical result, namely that Nse > Ns, is due to the fact that Nse is

calculated from the amplitude of the fundamental component.

10. If the windings of a 2500-kva, 3-phase, 60-cycle, 32- pole, 2300-volt alternator making
225 rpm are connected to a 3-phase supply, rated current will flow when 85 volts are
applied and the power supplied will be 31 kw. Determine the effective resistance and
armature leakage reactance for the machine if wye-connected; if delta-
connected. Ohmic resistance between terminals is 0.03149 ohm. What is the ratio of
effective to ohmic resistance? What is the per cent Ra, Xa, and Za?

Solution:

I = [(2500 × 100) / {√ (3) × 2300}] = 627.57 line current in amps.

Ip = [(627.57) / {√ (3)}] = 362.32 (delta-connected) amps.

V = 2300line voltage = Vɸ(delta-connected) volts.

Vp = [(2300) / {√ (3)}] = 1327.94 (wye-connected) volts.

Power per phase = [(31,000) / 3] = 10,333 watts per phase

Ra = [W / (Ia2)] = [(10,333) / (627.572)] = 0.02624 ohm for wye

Ra = [W / (Ia2)] = [(10,333) / {(627.572) / [√ (3)]}] = 0.07872 ohm for delta

R0 = (Rt / 2) = [(0.03149) / 2] = 0.01574 ohm for wye

 R0 = (3 / 2) Rt = (3 / 2) × 0.03149 = 0.04721 ohm for delta

%Ra = [(0.02624 × 627.57 × 100) / (1327.94)] = 1.24%.

Ratio (Ra / R0) = [(0.02624) / (0.01574)] = [(0.07872) / (0.04721)] = 1.67.

Za = [{85 / [√ (3)]} / (627.57)] = 0.0780 ohm for wye

Za = [85 / (362.32)] = 0.23460 ohm for delta

%Za = [(0.07820 × 627.57) / (1327.94)] × 100 = 3.70%.

Xa = √ (Za2 – Ra2)

Xa = √ [(0.07820)2 – (0.02624)2] = 0.07367 ohm for wye

Xa = √ [(0.2346)2 – (0.07872)2] = 0.22100 ohm for delta

%Xa = [(0.07367 × 627.57) / (1327.94)] × 100 = 3.48.

Summary

Per Phase

V I R0 Ra %Ra Xa %Xa Za %Za

Wye 1328 628 0.0157 0.0262 1.24 0.0737 3.48 0.0782 3.7

Delta 2300 362 0.0472 0.0787 1.24 0.2210 3.48 0.2346 3.7

11. A 50-kva 550-volt single-phase alternator has an open- circuit emf of 300 volts when the
field current is 14 amp. When the alternator is short-circuited through an ammeter, the
armature current is 160 amp, the field current still being 14 amp. The ohmic resistance of
the armature between terminals is 0.16 ohm. The ratio of effective to ohmic resistance
may be taken as 1.2. Determine

a. synchronous impedance;

b. synchronous reactance;

c. regulation at 0.8 power factor, current lagging.

Solution:

The rated current I = [(50,000) / (550)] = 91 amp,

a. The synchronous impedance Zs is given by

zs = (E1 / I1')

where E1 is the open circuit emf and I1' is the short- circuit current.

Zs = [(300) / (160)] = 1.87 ohms.

The effective resistance R = 1.2 × 0.16 = 0.192 ohm.

b. Xs = √(Zs2 – R2) = √[(1.87)2 – (0.192)2] = 1.86 ohms.

c. cos θ = 0.8, sin θ = 0.6.

The armature induced emf,

Ea = √[(V cos θ + IR)2 + (V sin θ + IX)2]

= {[(550 × 0.8) + (91 × 0.192)]2 + [(550 × 0.6) + (91 × 1.86)]2 }(1/2)

= √ (209,000 + 249,000) = 677 volts.

As the synchronous reactance was used in computing E, the armature reaction was taken into
consideration, so that the no-load voltage of the alternator is presumably 677 volts. The
regulation, therefore, is given by

Regulation = [(Ea – V) / V] × 100

= [(677 – 550) / (550)]100 = [(127) / (550)]100 = 23.1 per cent.

12. A 2,000-kva 2,300-volt three-phase alternator operates at rated kilovolt-amperes at a

power factor of 0.85. The d-c armature-winding resistance at 75°C between terminals is
0.08 ohm. The field takes 72 amp at 125 volts from exciter equipment. Friction
and windage loss 18.8 kw, iron losses are 37.6 kw, and stray-load losses are 2.2 kw.
Calculate the efficiency of the alternator. (Assume that the effective armature-
winding resistance is 1.3 times the d-c value.)

Solution:

Output = 2,000 × 0.85 = 1,700 kw.

IL = [(2,000,000) / {√(3) × 2,300}] = 503 amp.

RA (per phase) = [(0.08) / 2] × 1.3 = 0.052 ohm.

 Losses Kilowatts

Friction and windage……………………….. 18.8

Iron……………………….………………….. 37.6

Field winding = (125 × 72) ÷ 1,000………. 9.0

Armature winding = 3 × (503)2 × 0.052….. 39.4

Stray load…………………………………… 2.2

Total…………………………………………. 107.0

Per cent efficiency

= [1 – {(kw losses) / [(kva output × PF) + (kw losses)]}] × 100

= [1 – {(107) / (1,700 + 107)}] × 100 = 94.1.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4
1. A three phase alternator has generated EMF per phase at 230 V with 10
percent third harmonic and 6 % fifth harmonic content. Calculate the
RMS line voltage for a) star connection b) delta connection. Find also
the circulating current in delta connection if the reactance per phase of
the machine at 50 hz is 10 Ω.
2. A 72 slot three phase stator armature is wound for six poles. Using
double layer lap coils having 20 turns per coil with pitch. The flux per
pole is 4.8 x 106 lines, and the rotor speed is 1200 RPM. Calculate:
a) The generated effective voltage per coil of a full pitch coil
b) The total no. of turns per phase
c) The distribution factor
d) The pitch factor
e) The total generated voltage per phase.
2. A 250 KVA 60 cycle, 440 V, 3 phase, 8 pole altelnator has an ohmic
resistance between terminals of 0.038 Ω. The ratio of effective to
ohmic is 1.30. The friction and windage loss is 1900 watts; the core loss
corresponding to the resultant field at 0.8 power factor is 3800 watts;
the field takes 39 amperes at 125 V. At rated load and 0.8 power factor
lagging, determine a) the efficiency b)the horse power input c) the
torque on the driving shaft.
 3. i) A 100 KVA. 4600 V three phase wye-connected alternator has an
armature resistance of 2 Ω per phase and synchronous armature
reactance, Xs’ of 20 Ω per phase. Find the full load generated voltage
per phase at: a)Unity power factor b) A power factor of 0.75 lagging ii)
Repeat part i) to determine the generated voltage per phase at full load
with: a) A leading load of 0.75 power factor b) A leading load of 0.4
power factor.
4. A 6 pole 3 phase 60 cycle alternator has 12 slots per pole and four
conductor per slots. The windind is pitch. There are 2,500,000
maxwells entering the armature from each north pole, and this flux is
sinusoidally distributed along the air gap. The armature coils are
connected in series. The winding is Y-connected. Determinete the open
circuit EMF of the alternator.
5. A given 3 MVA, 50 hz. 11KV, 3 phase Y-connected alternator when
supplying 100 A at zero power factor leading has a line to line voltage of
12, 370 V, when the load is removed, the terminal voltage falls down to
11,000 V. Predict the regulation of the alternator when supplying full
load at 0.8 power factor lagging. Assume an effective resistance of 0.4Ω
per phase.

Module V: SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

LESSON 1-TYPES of SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Electrical motors are an electro-mechanical device that converts electrical energy to

mechanical energy. Based on the type of input we have classified it into single phase and 3
phase motors.

The most common type of 3 phase motors are synchronous motors and induction motors.
When three-phase electric conductors are placed in certain geometrical positions (i.e. in a
certain angle from one another) – an electrical field is generated. The rotating magnetic field
rotates at a certain speed known as the synchronous speed.

If an electromagnet is present in this rotating magnetic field, the electromagnet is

magnetically locked with this rotating magnetic field and rotates with the same speed of
rotating field.

This is where the term synchronous motor comes from, as the speed of the rotor of the motor
is the same as the rotating magnetic field.

It is a fixed speed motor because it has only one speed, which is synchronous speed. This
speed is synchronised with the supply frequency. The synchronous speed is given by:
Where:

 N= The Synchronous Speed (in RPM – i.e. Rotations Per Minute)

 f = The Supply Frequency (in Hz)

 p = The number of Poles

There are different types of synchronous motors based on the way they are excited

1. Non-Excited Synchronous Motors

2. Current Excited Synchronous Motors

Let us take a look at the different types one by one.

Non-Excited Synchronous Motor

The rotor is made up of steel. The external magnetic field magnetizes the rotor, and it
rotates in synchronism with it. The rotor is generally made of high retentivity steel such as
cobalt steel.

3. Non-excited motors are available in three designs:

Hysteresis Motor

single phase motors in which the rotor is made up of ferromagnetic material. The rotors are
cylindrical in shape and have high hysteresis loss property. They are generally made up of
chrome, cobalt steel or alnico. The stator is fed by single phase AC supply. The stator has two
windings:
 1. main windings and

2. auxiliary windings.

The combination of the two produces a revolving magnetic field from single phase supply.
They are self-starting and do not need additional windings. When single phase AC supply is
given, a rotating magnetic field is produced. This rotating magnetic field induces eddy
currents in the rotor. The rotor starts to move initially with a slip. When the rotor reaches
synchronous speed, the stator pulls the rotor into synchronism. So initially the motor starts as
an induction motor and later runs as a synchronous motor.

Reluctance Motor

The reluctance motor is based on the principle that an unrestrained piece of iron will move to
complete a magnetic flux path where the reluctance is minimum. The stator has the main
winding and the auxiliary windings just like the hysteresis motor. These help to create a
rotating magnetic field. The rotor of a reluctance motor is a squirrel cage rotor with some
teeth removed to provide the desired number of salient poles. The reluctance becomes
minimum when the rotor is aligned with the magnetic field of the stator.

When single phase AC supply is given, the motor starts as an induction motor. The rotor tries
to align itself with the magnetic field of the stator and experiences reluctance torque. But
due to inertia, it exceeds the position and again tries to align itself during the next
revolution. In this manner, it starts to rotate. Once it reaches 75% of synchronous speed, the
auxiliary windings are cut off. When the speed reaches synchronous speed, the reluctance
torque pulls it into synchronism. The motor remains in synchronism due to synchronous
reluctance torque.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors

The rotor is made up of permanent magnets. They create a constant magnetic flux. The rotor
locks in synchronism when the speed is near synchronous speed. They are not self-starting and
nee

electronically controlled variable frequency stator drive.

Direct Current Excited Motor

Direct current excited synchronous motors need a DC supply to the rotor to generate rotor
magnetic field. A direct current excited motor has both stator windings as well as rotor
windings. They can either have cylindrical rotors or salient pole rotors. They are not self-
starting and need damper windings to start. Initially, they start as an induction motor
andlater attains synchronous speed.
LESSON II:
Construction of Synchronous Motor

Usually, its construction is almost similar to that of a 3phase induction motor, except the fact
that here we supply DC to the rotor, the reason of which we shall explain later. Now, let us
first go through the basic construction of this type of motor. From the above picture, it is
clear that how do we design this type of machine. We apply three phase supply to the stator
and DC supply to the rotor.

Main Features of Synchronous Motors

1. Synchronous motors are inherently not self-starting. They require some external
means to bring their speed close to synchronous speed to before they are
synchronized.

2. The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence for
constant supply frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective of load
condition

3. This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical power
factor. This makes it being used in electrical power factor improvement.
LESSON III
Torque Equation of DC Motor

When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors carry
current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus, each conductor
experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius
from its center. Hence torque is produced at the circumference of the rotor and rotor starts
rotating. The term torque as best explained by Dr. Huge d Young is the quantitative measure
of the tendency of a force to cause a rotational motion, or to bring about a change in
rotational motion. It is in fact the moment of a force that produces or changes a rotational
motion.
The equation of torque is given by,

Where, F is force in linear direction.

R is radius of the object being rotated,
and θ is the angle, the force F is making with R vector

The DC motor as we all know is a rotational machine, and torque of DC motor is a very
important parameter in this concern, and it’s of utmost importance to understand the torque
equation of DC motor for establishing its running characteristics.
To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a DC motor,
and its voltage equation.
Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply voltage, Eb is the back emf
produced and Ia, Ra are the armature current and armature resistance respectively then the
voltage equation is given by,

But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque equation of DC motor we
multiply both sides of equation (2) by Ia.

Now [Link] is the power loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true effective
mechanical power that is required to produce the desired torque of DC machine is given by,

The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

Where, ω is speed in rad/sec.

Now equating equation (4) and (5) we get,

Now for simplifying the torque equation of DC motor we substitute.

Where, P is no of poles,
φ is flux per pole,
Z is no. of conductors,
A is no. of parallel paths,
and N is the speed of the DC motor.

Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get:

The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic torque of DC motor, and
subtracting the mechanical and rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque.
Therefore,

This is the torque equation of DC motor. It can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with
only flux φ and armature current Ia.
The Torque equation of a DC motor can also be explained considering the figure below.

Current/conductor Ic = Ia A
Therefore, force per conductor = fc = BLIa/A
Now torque Tc = fc. r = BLIa.r/A
Hence, the total torque developed of a DC machine is,

This torque equation of DC motor can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with
only flux φ and armature current Ia.
Principle of Operation Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motors are a doubly excited machine, i.e., two electrical inputs are provided to
it. Its stator winding which consists of a We provide three-phase supply to three-phase stator
winding, and DC to the rotor winding.

The 3phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux.
The rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux. Considering the 50 Hz power
frequency, from the above relation we can see that the 3phase rotating flux rotates about
3000 revolutions in 1 min or 50 revolutions in 1 sec.

At a particular instant rotor and stator poles might be of the same polarity (N-N or S-S)
causing a repulsive force on the rotor and the very next instant it will be N-S causing
attractive force. But due to the inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due
to that attractive or repulsive forces, and the rotor remains in standstill condition. Hence a
synchronous motor is not self-starting.

Here we use some mechanical means which initially rotates the rotor in the same direction as
the magnetic field to speed very close to synchronous speed. On achieving synchronous speed,
magnetic locking occurs, and the synchronous motor continues to rotate even after removal
of external mechanical means.

But due to the inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due to that
attractive or repulsive forces, and the rotor remains in standstill condition. Hence a
synchronous motor is not self-starting.

Here we use some mechanical means which initially rotates the rotor in the same direction as
the magnetic field to speed very close to synchronous speed. On achieving synchronous speed,
magnetic locking occurs, and the synchronous motor continues to rotate even after removal
of external mechanical means.

Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor

1. Motor starting with an external prime Mover: Synchronous motors are mechanically
coupled with another motor. It could be either 3 phase induction motor or DC shunt
motor. Here, we do not apply DC excitation initially. It rotates at speed very close to
 its synchronous speed, and then we give the DC excitation. After some time when
magnetic locking takes place supply to the external motor is cut off.

2. Damper winding:In this case, the synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional
winding is placed in rotor pole face. Initially, when the rotor is not rotating, the
relative speed between damper winding and rotating air gap flux is large and an emf is
induced in it which produces the required starting torque. As speed approaches
synchronous speed, emf and torque are reduced and finally when magnetic locking
takes place; torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous motor first
runs as three phase induction motor using additional winding and finally it is
synchronized with the frequency.

Application of Synchronous Motors

1. Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power
factor improvement. Owing to its characteristics to behave at any electrical power
factor, it is used in power system in situations where static capacitors are expensive.

2. Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is less (around 500 rpm)
and high power is required. For power requirement from 35 kW to 2500 KW, the size,
weight and cost of the corresponding three phase induction motor is very high. Hence
 these motors are preferably used. Ex- Reciprocating pump, compressor, rolling mills
etc.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
1. A 20 pole, 40 hp, 660 V, 60 Hz, three-phase, wye-connected, synchronous motor is
operating at no-load with its generated voltage per phase exactly equal to the phase
voltage applied to its armature. At no-load, the rotor is retarded 0.5 mechanical
degree from its synchronous position. The synchronous reactance is 10 ohms, and the
effective armature resistance is 1 ohm per phase. Calculate:

a. The rotor shift from the synchronous position, in electrical

degrees

b. The resultant emf across the armature, per phase

c. The armature current, per phase

d. The power per phase, and the total power drawn by the motor from the bus

e. The armature power loss, and the developed horsepower.

2. Repeat part- 1 with a mechanical displacement of 5° between rotor and synchronous

position.

Solution:

1. a. α = P (β/2) = 20 (0.5 / 2) = 5°

b. Vp = (VL / √3) = {(660) / (1.73)} = 381 V;

Egp = 381 V also, as given

Er➙ = (Vp – Egp cos α) + j(Egp sin α)

= (381 – 381 cos 5°) + j(381 sin 5°)

= 1.54 + j33.2 = 33.2 ∠87.3° V/phase.

c. Zs➙ = Ra + jXs = 1.0 + j10 = 10∠84.3° Ω/phase

Ia➙ = (Er➙ / Zp➙) = {(33.2∠87.3°) / (10∠84.3°)}

= 3.32∠3.0° A/phase

d. Pp = VpIa cos θ = 381 × 3.32 cos 3° = 381 × 3.32 × 0.999

 = 1265 W/phase

Pt = 3Pp = 3 × 1265 W = 3795 W

e. 3 × Ia2Ra = 3 × (3.32)2 × 1.0 = 33 W.

Horsepower = {(3795 – 33 W) / (746 W/hp)} = 5.3 hp.

2. A. α = (Pβ / 2) = {(20 × 5) / 2} = 50° (electrical degrees).

b. Er➙ = (Vp – Egp cos α) + j(Egp sin α)

= 381 – 381 cos 50° + j381 sin 50°

= 141 + j292 = 334∠64.2° V/phase.

c. Ia➙ = (Er➙ / Zp➙) = {(324∠64.2° V) / (10∠84.3° Ω)} = 32.4 ∠– 20.1° A.

d. Pp = VpIa cos θ = 381 × 32.4 cos 20.1° = 11,600 W.

Pt = 3Pp = 3 × 11,600 = 34,800 W.

e. 3Ia2Ra = 3 × (32.4)2 1.0 = 3150 W

Horsepower = {(34,800 – 3150 W) / (746 W/hp)} = 42.5 hp.

 3. A 75-HP, three-phase, six-pole, 60-Hz, Y-connected, cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor
has synchronous reactance of 9.6 Ω per phase. Its rated terminal voltage is 500 v per
phase.

a. Find the value of excitation voltage that makes maximum torque to be 120 percent
of rated torque.

b. The machine is operated with the excitation voltage set as in part (a). For rated
load torque, find the armature current, the power factor, and the torque angle.

Solution:

a. Synchronous speed is

ωs = (4πf / p) = [{4π(60)} / 6] = 40π rad/sec

Prated = 75 × 746 = 56,000 w

Trated = {(56,000) / (40π)} = 446 nm

The excitation voltage can be found from the following equation:

Tmax = {1 / (ω(x)m)} {(3VEf) / (Xs)}

Tmax = {3(500) (Ef) / 40π (9.6)} = 1.2(446)

Ef = 430 v

b. The torque angle can be found from the following equation:

P = {(3VEf) / (Xs)} sin δ

P = [{3(500) (430)} / (9.6)] sin δ = 56,000

δ = 56.5°
For the equivalent circuit shown in the figure, Kirchhoff's voltage equation is given by the
following equation:

Ef➙ = V➙ – jXsIa➙ (1)

Use the terminal voltage as the reference

v➙ = 500∠0° v.

For motor operation, the excitation voltage lags behind the terminal voltage by angle δ

Ef➙ = 430∠– 56.5° v.

Solve Eq. 1 for the armature current

Ia➙ = {(V➙ – Ef➙) / (jXs)} = {(500∠0° – 430∠– 56.5°) / (j9.6)}

= 53.3 ∠ – 45.3° amp.

Thus,

Ia = 53.3 amp. The power factor is

P.F. = cos 45.3° = 0.7 lagging.

4. a. Determine the resultant current when a three-phase, 2500-kva, 2300-volt

synchronous motor with Ra = 1.24 percent and Xs = 24.9 per cent is operating idle at 20
per cent overexcitation. The no-load losses are to be neglected. Assume wye connection
and Ec out of phase with V by 180°.

b. the machine in Part-(a) has normal excitation, and the shaft load causes the induced
electromotive force to fall back 8°. Determine the angles α, Δ, γ, and θ, and also the power
delivered (including the friction and windage), the power required, and the copper losses, not
neglecting the no-load losses.
Solution:

a. IL = {(2500 × 1000) / (√3 × 2300)} = 627.57 amp

Vp = {(2300) ÷ √3} = 1327.94 volts

Xs = (VP / IL)

= {(0.249 × 1327.94) / (627.57)} = 0.5269 ohm

E0➙ = (V➙ + EC➙) = (1327.94 + j0) + (– 1327.94 + j0) × 1.2

= – 265.58 + j0 V

I➙ = (E0➙ / Xs) = {(265.58 + j0) / (0 + j0.5269)} (R neglected)

I➙ = 0 + j504

I = 504 amp.

b. cos 8° = 0.9903 sin 8° = 0.1392

Ec➙ = – (0.9903 × 1327.94) + j (0.1392 × 1327.94)

= – 1315.06 + j184.85 V

V➙ = 1327.94 + j0 V.

E0➙ = (Ec➙ + V➙) = 12.88 + j184.85 V.

I➙ = {(12.88 + j184.85) / (0.02624 + j0.5269)} = 351.18 – j6.96 amp.

Angle

(Fig. 1b) Sin Cos

Α 8° 0.1392 0.9903 V = 1327.94 volts

Γ 86.1° 0.9976 0.0695 E0 = 185.30 volts

Δ 87.2° 0.9988 0.0488 EC = 1327.94 volts

Θ 1.1° 0.0198 0.9998 I = 351.25 amp

Pcu = {(3 × 185.3 × 351.25 × 0.0488) / (1000)} = 9.5 kw (copper losses).

 P = {(√3 × 2300 × 351.25 × 0.9998) / (1000)} = 1399 kw (input).

Pdel = [{3VpI cos (θ ± α)} / (1000)] kw

= [{3 × 1327.94 × 351.25 × cos (θ ± α)} / (1000)] = 1389 kw delivered.

c. A 2300-V, three-phase synchronous motor driving a pump is provided with a line

ammeter and a field rheostat. When the rheostat is adjusted so that the a-c line
current is a minimum, the ammeter reads 8.8A. Approximately what horsepower is
being delivered to the pump? How should the rheostat be adjusted so that the motor
is operating at 0.8 power-factor leading? How many kVARs is the motor supplying to
the system at 0.8 power factor leading?

Solution:

At minimum line current, the power factor is unity. The power drawn from the line is thus

P = √3 VLIL = √3 × 2300 × 8.8 = 35 kW

Neglecting losses, HP ≅ {(35,000) / (746)} = 47 hp. The a-c power is practically independent of
field current. Then at 0.8 power factor,

S| = (P / p.f.) = {(35,000) / (0.8)} = [{(√3 × 2300) × 8.8} / (0.8)]

= {√3 × (2300)} × 11.0 VA

Thus, the line current should be 11.0A. To make sure the power factor is leading, the d-c
field current should be increased until the a-c ammeter reads 11.0 amperes. This is
accomplished by decreasing the field rheostat resistance.

The kVARs supplied by the motor are given by

Q = |S| sin θɸm = |S| sin cos–1 (p.f.)

= {(35 kW) / (0.8)} sin cos–1 0.8

= {(35) × (0.8)} × 0.6 = 26.25 kVAR

d. A 3-phase, 100-h.p., 440-V, star-connected synchronous motor has a synchronous

impedance per phase of 0.1 + j1Ω. The excitation and torque losses are 4 kW and
may be assumed constant. Calculate the line current, power factor and efficiency
when operating at full load with an excitation equivalent to 400 lines volts.

Solution:

α = sin–1 (R / Zs) = sin–1 [(0.1) / √{(0.1)2 + 12}]

= sin–1 {(0.1) / (1.005)} = 5.7°

Gross output = 100 × 746 + 4,000 = 78,600 watts.

δ can be found by using the figure and the following equation:

EfI cos (δ + θ) = {(VsEf) / Zs} sin (δ + α) – {(Ef2R) / (Zs2)}

78,600 = 3[{(440 / √3) (400 / √3)} / (1.005) sin (δ + 5.7 )°– {(400 / √3)2 × 0.1} /
(1.005)2]

= {(400 × 440) / (1.005)} [sin (δ + 5.7)° – {(400 × 0.1) / (440 × 1.005)}]

0.45 = sin (δ + 5.7)° – 0.0905

from which δ = (sin–1 0.5405) – 5.7° = 27.1°

Ef➙ = 400(– cos δ + j sin δ) = 400 (– 0.89 + j0.455)

= – 356 + j182 V

I➙ = {(Vs➙ + Ef➙) / Zs➙} = {(440 – 356 + j128) / (0.1 + j1)} = 109 – j38.1

= 115.5A

cos θ = {(109) / (115.5)} = 0.945 lagging

The answer can be checked by calculating √3VI cos θ – copper losses and comparing with the
gross mechanical output i.e. √3 × 440 × 109 – 3 × 115.52 × 0.1 = 83,000 – 4000 = 79,000 watts.
The error is only about 0.5% and is within slide rule accuracy. Efficiency = [{(746) × (100)} /
(√3 × 440 × 109)] = 89.6%.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 5
1. A 2300-V, three-phase synchronous motor driving a pump isprovided with a line
ammeter and a field rheostat. When the rheostat is adjusted so that the a-c line
current is a minimum, the ammeter reads 8.8A. Approximately what horsepower is
being delivered to the pump? How should the rheostat be adjusted so that the motor
is operating at 0.8 power-factor leading? How many kVARs is the motor supplying to
the system at 0.8 power factor leading?
2. A manufacturing plant takes 200 kw, at 0.6 power factor, from a 600-volt 60-cycle 3-
phase system. It is desired to raise the power factor of the entire system to 0.9 by
means of a synchronous motor, which at the same time is to drive a direct-current
shunt generator, requiring that the synchronous motor take 80 kw from the line.
What should be the rating of the synchronous motor in volts and amperes?
3. The load of an industrial concern is 400 kva at a power factor of 75 per cent,
lagging. An additional motor load of 100 kw is needed. Find the newkilovolt-ampere
load and the power factor of the load, if the motor to be added is (a) an induction
motor with a power factor of 90 per cent, lagging, and (b) an 80 per cent power
factor (leading) synchronous motor.
4. A three-phase, Y-connected load takes 50 A current at 0.707 lagging power factor at
220 V between the lines. A three-phase Y-connected round-rotor synchronous motor,
having a synchronous reactance of 1.27 ohm per phase, is connected in parallel with
the load. The power developed by the motor is 33 kW at a power angle of 30°.
Neglecting the armature resistance, calculate (a) the reactive kVA of the motor, and
(b) the overall power factor of the motor and the load.

Prepared by: Recommending Approval: Approved:

BONIFACIO C. CABRADILLA MELCHOR A. MEANA HARRISON R. FLORES

JR.
Instructor Program Chair Dean
July 6, 2020 July 13, 2020 July 13, 2020