Data communication and computer

networks
Physical layer

Data communication & computer networks

 Overview
• Introduction
• Transmission media
Guided and unguided media
• Data transmission
Digital and analog transmission
Bandwidth utilization
• Transmission impairments
Attenuation, distortion, noise

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 Physical layer
• It is a layer that interacts with the physical part of the network that connects
network components

• Converts the stream of 0s and 1s into signals, i.e. creates a signal that
represent the stream of bits

• The physical layer controls transmission mediums

The transmission medium is a passive entity – doesn’t have internal program or logic

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 Analog and digital Signals
• Data transmission occurs between transmitter over some transmission
medium
• To be transmitted data must to be transformed to electromagnetic signals
• Signal can be either analog or digital
• Depending of the suitability of the transmission medium either analog or
digital signals are used to convey information
• Analog signal
Has infinitely manly lever of intensity over a period of time

• Digital signal
Can have only a limited number of defined values

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 Digital transmission
• A data can be either digital or analog
• A signal that represent data can also be digital or analog
• In digital transmission the data is converted into digital signal

Representation of digital data using digital signal

• Line coding
 Converts a sequence of bits (0s and 1s) into a digital signal
At the sender- digital data are encoded into digital signal and at the receiver the
digital data are recreated by decoding the digital signal
Line coding schemes can be categorized into five groups
 Unipolar, polar, bipolar, Multilevel and multitransition

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 Line coding
• Unipolar scheme
Positive voltage defines bit 1 and zero voltage defines bit 0

Clock

• Polar scheme
• Three variations of polar scheme
Non return to zero –level NRZ-L and NRZ-invert (NRZ-I)
 Use two (non-zero) levels of voltage amplitude
Return to zero (RTZ)
 Uses three values: positive negative and zero
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 Line coding

RZ scheme

• Biphase
 Manchester
 the duration of bit is divided into halves
 The voltage remain at one level during the first half and
Move to the other level in the second half
differential Manchester
 There is a transition in the middle of the bit but the value is
determined at the beginning of the bit
 If the next bit is zero there is a transition otherwise no transition

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 Digital transmission
• Block coding
We need redundancy to ensure synchronization and to provide some kind of inherent
error detecting

Changes a block of m bits into a block of n bits, where n>m (mB/nB)

Extra bit are added in order to improve the reliability of the transmission

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 Analog to digital conversion
• Microphones and camera create analog voice and videos, respectively,
which are analog data
• To transmit this analog data over digital signals we need analog to digital
conversion
• Pulse code modulation (PCM) is one of the most commonly used method
to covert analog data into digital data
• A PCM encoder has three processes
Sampling- the analog signal is sampled
Quantizing – the sampled signal is quantized
Encoding – the quantized values are encoded as streams of bits

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 Pulse code modulation (PCM)
• Sampling
The analog signal is sampled every Ts interval
The inverse of sampling interval is called sampling rate or frequency

• Quantization
The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the
maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal
The set of amplitudes can be infinite with non-integral values between the two limits.
These values cannot be used in the encoding process.

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 Pulse code modulation (PCM)
• Quantization steps
Assume the original signal has instantaneous amplitudes between Vmin and V max
Divided the range into L levels, each of height delta Δ
Assign quantized value of 0 – L-1 to the mid point of each zone
Approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized value

4
3

1
0

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Pulse code modulation (PCM)
• Encoding
Each approximated value is converted to binary format

The number of bits for each sample is determined from the number of quantization
level

If the quantization level is L, the number of bits is

𝑁𝑏 =log 2 𝐿

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 Transmission modes
• Transmission mode decides how data is transmitted across a link
• The transmission of binary data can be accomplished in either parallel or
serial mode
• Parallel Transmission
Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits
In Parallel transmission binary bits are organized into groups and n bits of data is
transmitted at time instead of one
Uses n wires to send n bits at one time
Advantage – high speed
Disadvantage- expensive (cost of wire)

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 Transmission mode
• Serial transmission
In serial transmission one bit follow another, so we need one communication
channel
Since communication within device is parallel, conversion devices are required at
sender (parallel to serial) and receiver (serial to parallel) side

Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous, synchronous,

isochronous

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Transmission mode
• Asynchronous transmission
Information is received and translated by agreed upon patterns, i.e. the data bits have
a specific pattern
Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream into byte
To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group an extra bit is added to the
beginning and end of each byte
The transmission of each byte may be followed by a gap of varying duration

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 Transmission mode
• synchronous transmission
Bit stream is combined into longer frame, which may contain multiple bytes
No start or stop bits or gaps
To reconstruct the information the receiver separates the string into the bytes
Timing is very important
No extra bits, thus faster than asynchronous transmission
More useful for high speed applications, e.g., transmission of data from one
computer to another

• Note: Byte synchronization is accomplished in the data link layer

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 Analog transmission
• Amplitude denotes the intensity of a signal
• Period T refers to the amount of time a signal needs to complete a single cycle
1
• Frequency is the inverse of period (𝑓 = )
𝑇
• Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero
• Wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period
(λ=𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ∗ 𝑇)

Amplitude

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 Analog transmission
• For digital transmission a low-pass channel is need and analog transmission
is the only choice if we have a bandpass channel
Digital to analog conversion
 A process of changing one of the characteristics of analog signal based on the
information in the digital data
A signal can be defined by three characteristics : amplitude, phase and frequency
 A digital data can be represented by changing any of theses characteristics

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Digital to analog conversion

• In analog transmission the sending device produces a high frequency signal that acts
as a base for the information signal
 The base signal is called carrier signal
• Note: the receiving device has to be tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that is
expected from the sender

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 Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
• The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements
Both frequency and phase remain the same
• Binary amplitude shift keying (BASK)
ASK implemented using two levels

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 Frequency shift keying (FSK)
• In frequency shift keying the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
represent the digital data
Phase and amplitude of the signal remain constant
The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal
element, but changes for the next signal element if the data element changes
• Binary FSK (BFSK)

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 Phase shift keying (PSK)
• The phase of the carrier signal is varied to represent different signal
elements
Frequency and amplitude remain constant
More common than ASK and FSK
• Binary PSK (BPSK)
Has two signal elements

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Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
• QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
The possible variation of QAM are numerous
Seeks to increase the data rate

Constellation diagram

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 Analog to analog modulation
• Representation of analog information by an analog signal
• Why we need to modulate an analog signal?
A higher frequency may be needed for effective transmission
 To change the baseband signal to other frequency range (a communication channel
only operates at certain frequency ranges )
• Analog to analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways

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 Amplitude modulation (AM)
• In AM the amplitude of the carrier signal varies with the changing
amplitude of the modulated signal
The frequency and the phase of the carrier signal remain the same

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 Frequency modulation (FM)
• In FM transmission the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
amplitude of the modulating signal
The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant

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 Phase modulation (PM)
• The phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
amplitude of the modulating signal
 In FM the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal
 But, in PM the carrier frequency is proportional to the derivate of the amplitude of the modulating
signal

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 Bandwidth utilization
• We have links with limited bandwidth

Bandwidth is measured in hertz for analog and in bits per second for digital
transmission

• Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve specific goals

• Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing and privacy and anti-jamming can be

achieved by spreading

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 Multiplexing
• A bandwidth of a medium linking two or more devices is shared between
the connected devices
• Multiplexing- set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single transmission link
• In a multiplexed system n lines share the bandwidth of one link

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Multiplexing

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 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
• FDM combines analog signals
• The combined bandwidth of the signals to be transmitter has to be less than
the bandwidth of the link
• Channels share the same transmission media but are separated into different
carrier frequencies

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 FDM process
• Signals are fed into a multiplexer, which modulates each signal into a
different frequency
• Each modulated signal requires a certain bandwidth
To prevent interference, the channels are separated by guard bands
• The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite
signal

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 Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
• WDM is designed to use the high data rate capability of fiber-optic cable
Multiple beams of light at different frequency are transmitted on the same fiber
• A typical WDM system has the same general architecture as FDM system
A number of sources generate a laser beam at different wavelengths
The multiplexer consolidates the sources for transmission over a single fiber line
At the demultiplexer the component channels are separated and sent to receivers

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 Time division multiplexing (TDM)
• TDM allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link
Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth, as in FDM, time is shared
Each connection occupies a portion of time in a link
Possible when the achievable data rate of the medium exceeds the data rate of the
digital signal to be transmitted

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 Synchronous TDM

The data are organized into frames

Each frame contains a cycle of time slots
In each frame one or more slots are dedicated to each data source
Each input has a reserved slot in the frame– capacity wasted?
• Reading assignment – statistical TDM
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 Spread spectrum
• Multiplexing is for efficiency

• In Spread spectrum the signal is modulated so as to increase significantly

the bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted
 Designed to be used in wireless application to make jamming and interception more
difficult

• The spreading process uses a spreading code and spreads the bandwidth

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 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
• FHSS uses M different carrier frequencies
The signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals
A receiver needs to be in synchronization with the transmitter

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 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
• With DSSS each bit in the original signal is represented by multiple bits in
the transmitted signal using a spreading code
 Each data bit is replaced with n bits
The digital information is combined with the spreading code bit stream

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40
 Transmission impairment
• Signals travel through a transmission media which are not perfect

• Due to transmission impairments introduced by the medium a signal

received at the end of the medium may differ from the transmitted signal
E.g., for digital signals bit error may be introduced

• The most significant impairments

Attenuation
Distortion
Noise

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 Attenuation
• Attenuation is the loss of signal power
The strength of a signal falls off with distance
Beyond certain distance the attenuation becomes unacceptably great and repeaters or
amplifiers used to boost the signal
• To be detected by a receiver
A received signal must have sufficient strength
The signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise
• Attenuation is measure in decibel (dB)
𝑃𝑅
𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10
𝑃𝑇

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 Distortion
• Distortion occurs because of the variation in the propagation speed of signal
with frequency
Changes the signal form or shape
• Distortion can occur in a composite signal mode of different frequencies
Each signal component has its own propagation speed or delay in arriving at the final
destination
Difference in delay may create a difference in phase

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 Noise
• Noise is undesired signal created by the transmission medium or somewhere
between transmission and reception
• Types of noise
Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons (is a function of temperature)
Crosstalk is unwanted coupling between signal paths
 E.g., unwanted coupling between nearby twisted pairs
Impulse noise is generated from a variety of causes, e.g. electromagnetic
disturbance such as lightning and faults in the communication system

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 Transmission media
• Transmission media is the physical path between transmitter and receiver
Controlled by physical layer
• The transmission media that are used to convey information can be
classified as :
Guided
 Guided along solid medium e.g., Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable
Unguided
 Wireless transmission

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 Guided media
• All communication wires or cables are guided media
• A signal traveling along guided media is directed and contained by the
physical limit of the medium
Twisted pare (TP) cable
Consist of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern
One of the wires is used to carry signals and the other is used only as a ground
reference
The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk interference
The most commonly used medium in the telephone network

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 Twisted pair cables
• Unshielded TP (UTP) and shielded TP (STP)
• UTP is the most common twisted-pair cable used in telecommunication
• STP has a metal foil
The metal foil prevents the penetration of noise or crosstalk
But bulkier and more expensive

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 Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in TP
Constructed differently to permit it to operate over a wider range of frequencies
 Supports more stations on a shared line than TP

• Application
 Analog and digital telephone networks
Cable TV networks
Traditional Ethernet LANs

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 Fiber-optic cable
• A fiber optic cable is a thin, flexible medium capable of guiding an optical
ray
Is made of glass or plastic
Transmits signal in the form of light
• Principle
 Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform
substance
If enters another substance the ray changes direction

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 Fiber-optic cable
• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel
A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic
The difference in density of the two material must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the classing

• Characteristics
Greater capacity, lighter weight
Lower attenuation, greater repeater spacing
Immune to Electromagnetic interference
Unidirectional light propagation

• Application
Often found in backbone networks (because of its wide bandwidth)
LAN such as fast Ethernet

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 Unguided media: wireless
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor
Signals are broadcasted through free space
Transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna
• Unguided signals can travel several ways
Ground propagation
 Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere
Sky propagation
 Higher frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere,
where they are reflected back to earth
Line of sight propagation
 Very high frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines
directly from antenna to antenna

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 Unguided media: wireless
• Wireless transmission can be divided into three broad groups
Radio wave
 Ranges from between 3KHz and 1 GHz
 When an antenna transmits radio waves they are propagated in all directions
Microwave
 Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz
 Are unidirectional (line-of-sight)
Infrared
 Frequencies from 300GHz to 400THz

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