‭Table of Contents‬

‭ able of Contents‬
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1
‭The Tragedy of the Commons (5-74)‬ ‭1‬
‭Clearcutting (5-75)‬ ‭5‬
‭The Green Revolution (5-76)‬ ‭10‬
‭The Impacts of Farming (5-77)‬ ‭15‬
‭Irrigation (5-78)‬ ‭19‬
‭Pest Control Methods (5-79)‬ ‭22‬
‭Pesticide Resistance (5-80)‬ ‭27‬
‭Meat Production Methods (5-81)‬ ‭31‬
‭Managing Rangelands (5-82)‬ ‭40‬
‭Impact of Overfishing (5-83)‬ ‭43‬
‭Impacts of Mining (5-84)‬ ‭48‬
‭Urbanization (5-85)‬ ‭57‬
‭Introduction to Sustainability (5-87)‬ ‭62‬
‭Integrated Pest Management (5-89)‬ ‭69‬
‭Sustainable Agriculture (5-90)‬ ‭71‬
‭Reducing Soil Erosion (5-91)‬ ‭77‬
‭Aquaculture (5-92)‬ ‭80‬
‭Sustainable Forestry (5-93)‬ ‭88‬
 ‭The Tragedy of the Commons (5-74)‬
‭The Tragedy of the Commons‬

‭ ey Question: What is the effect of exploiting a shared resource when individuals act according‬
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‭to their own interests?‬

‭ he Tragedy of the Commons is a paper originally written by Garrett Hardin in 1968 explaining‬
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‭how commonly held resources are depleted over time. A commons is a shared resource. Often‬
‭today commons are thought of as parks and reserves, but common land can include areas for‬
‭grazing. Common areas can also include areas for fishing, such as ponds, rivers, and the sea and‬
‭oceans. With many people using the same resource and acting independently there is a risk of‬
‭over exploitation, especially if each person using the resource is unaware of other people's use of‬
‭the resource.‬

‭Exploiting the commons‬

I‭ n the United States, permits are required to graze public land. Grazing on public land is‬
‭regulated by the Bureau of Land Management and the United States Forest Service. This is in‬
‭response to a series of "range wars'' in the mid to late 19th century during which there was open‬
‭conflict between ranchers over perceived grazing rights. Before the introduction of the Taylor‬
‭Grazing Act in 1934, which formally regulated grazing rights, rangelands in the West were‬
‭exploited as a common resource.‬
‭Why a tragedy?‬

‭ common resource is one which is both non-excludable and rival. This means it is a resource‬
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‭that people cannot be stopped from using (by some inalienable right of use or by no current‬
‭regulation) but the more people that use the resource, the less there is of that resource for anyone‬
‭else i.e. the resource becomes depleted. These two combined characteristics often result in the‬
‭over-exploitation of a resource as people try harder to use what resource there is remaining‬
‭before someone else does. Virtually all fisheries in international waters are examples of this, and‬
‭most fisheries in exclusive economic zones are as well. Fisheries such as South American‬
‭anchovies, Pacific bluefin tuna, and North Sea cod have all suffered catastrophic tragedy of the‬
‭common scenarios since the 1970s.‬

‭Scenario‬

‭ he important question is why does the tragedy of the commons occur in common resources but‬
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‭not in privately owned resources? Consider the difference between common fisheries with no‬
‭regulatory constraints over harvest and a beef farmer who owns a herd of breeding cattle that can‬
‭be sold for a profit.‬

‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ W
‭ hat would happen to the income of the beef farmer if they sold all of their stock at‬
‭once?‬
‭2.‬ W
‭ hat would happen to the income of the beef farmer if they sold only the stock that had‬
‭reached sale-able age and size each season?‬

‭3.‬ ‭Which is the better long term strategy for the farmer?‬

‭4.‬ N
‭ ow consider a fisher fishing a common fishery in rivalry with other fishers. What‬
‭happens if the fisher does not go fishing for a day?‬

‭5.‬ ‭Why does this provide no incentive to not fish for a day?‬

‭6.‬ ‭Why does this in fact provide an incentive to fish as much as possible?‬

‭7.‬ ‭Explain how the tragedy of the commons occurs:‬

 ‭Clearcutting (5-75)‬
‭Clearcutting‬

‭ ey Question: What is clearcutting, what are its advantages and disadvantages, and what effects‬
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‭does it have?‬

‭ learcutting is a forestry method in which all the trees in a specified area are felled and removed.‬
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‭This method of logging is very common and is by far the easiest and cheapest method of‬
‭obtaining lumber. However, unless practiced carefully it is also extraordinarily destructive. Clear‬
‭Cutting is carried out in different ways in different parts of the world, usually based on factors‬
‭such as common or public ownership of forest, historical land use, and government regulations.‬

‭Why clearcut?‬

‭ he reasons for clearcutting vary from country to country. Many of these reasons are based on‬
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‭economic factors including the skill of the foresters and the equipment required. However some‬
‭factors may be social and in some cases even political.‬

‭Advantages of clearcutting‬
‭ he advantages of clearcutting vary. Some of these are economic, some are environmental. It‬
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‭costs less to enter the forest once, log the trees, and leave. This may reduce the impact of‬
‭repeated entry to the forested area. In some cases, clearcutting may mimic natural events such as‬
‭land slides, wind damage, and forest fires. Clear Cutting is also simpler. It does not require‬
‭specialized equipment or planning to remove specific trees. This can reduce costs.‬

‭Disadvantages of clearcutting‬

‭ here are some serious environmental disadvantages of clearcutting. Initial biodiversity is‬
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‭reduced along with ecosystem services and processes. Forest surrounding the cleared area is‬
‭more susceptible to wind damage and weed invasion. Large openings can expose the forest floor‬
‭to erosion. However if branches and debris are left, the ground is more protected from wind and‬
‭rain, and buffer strips left on waterways help reduce the impact of floods.‬

‭Clearcutting and the environment‬

‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ F
‭ orestry companies working on regulated public land and those working on private‬
‭plantations have incentives to keep their operations sustainable. Identify these incentives‬
‭and compare and contrast them for the two types of operations:‬

‭2.‬ U
‭ nregulated forests in areas where regulations cannot be enforced are vulnerable to‬
‭tragedy of the commons scenarios. Explain why. Provide examples of where this kind of‬
‭forestry might be happening.‬

‭3.‬ ‭What is clearcutting?‬

‭4.‬ ‭Describe how this can be economically advantageous:‬

 ‭5.‬ ‭Describe the disadvantages of clearcutting:‬

‭6.‬ H
‭ ow can clear cutting practices mitigate (reduce) the effect they have on the‬
‭environment?‬

‭Scenario‬

‭ onsider the following scenario: You are a subsistence farmer in a third-world country (low‬
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‭economic development and generally poorly regulated government). Your small piece of land is‬
‭next to a larger forest. Government laws prohibit logging and deliberate clearing of the forest but‬
‭law enforcement in your area is often underfunded and ineffective. Illegal loggers have been‬
‭operating nearby, and some neighboring farmers have recently cleared land to increase their‬
‭cropland. International conservation groups insist that the forest should be saved and are‬
‭lobbying the government to stop small landowners clearing land. You have never seen any‬
‭conservationist in your area. You agree that the forest should be left standing and is an important‬
‭natural resource but you can only just grow enough for your family on your small piece of land.‬
‭Having a little more would do a lot to improve your income and quality of life. Some of the‬
‭timber from the forest would come in useful for fences or buildings. You are worried the loggers‬
‭and other farmers may claim the area and remove this resource or ruin the soil so it can't grow‬
‭anything.‬

‭7.‬ W
‭ hat would you do? Should you follow the regulations and the advice of the‬
‭conservation groups and leave the forest standing, or should you get in before the loggers‬
‭clearcut and claim some more land in case the government listens to the conservation‬
‭groups and regulates the activities of small farmers? Discuss this with your groups, then‬
‭summarize your discussion below and provide a reasoned argument for your view point.‬
 ‭The Green Revolution (5-76)‬
‭The Green Revolution‬

‭Key Question: What was the Green Revolution and how has it affected global food production?‬

‭ here have been three agricultural revolutions in the history of human agriculture. The first‬
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‭occurred during the transition of human societies from hunting and gathering to farming‬
‭(between about 10,000 BC and 2,000 BC). This is also called the Neolithic Revolution. The‬
‭second, called the British Agricultural Revolution, began around the mid 1600s and saw a‬
‭massive increase in agricultural production due to new cropping techniques (including crop‬
‭rotation), improved irrigation and cultivation, and an increase in farm labor. The third revolution‬
‭(the Green Revolution) occurring between the 1940s and the late 1960s was the result of‬
‭adopting new technologies to increase crop yields, including selective crop breeding, increased‬
‭mechanization, and use of agrochemicals and irrigation. This suite of practices vastly increased‬
‭global yields of staple food crops (e.g. wheat, rice, maize) on which populations depended for‬
‭food. The center of this revolution was Mexico with support from the United States. Many‬
‭believe we are now on the brink of a fourth agricultural revolution, aided by new digital‬
‭technologies capable of improving farming efficiencies and outcomes.‬

‭What was involved in the Green Revolution?‬

‭Problems with intensification and Green Revolution practices‬

‭●‬ F ‭ ailure to use pesticides carefully or correctly has led to resistance in some pest species.‬
‭Overuse of fertilizers lead to eutrophication of waterways.‬
‭●‬ ‭As with any technology, seed development is open to commercialization. Seed‬
‭production companies hold the rights to many important seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides.‬
‭This has led to moral conflicts. Should those who invested in the development have‬
‭control of seed supplies? What if a small operation cannot remain viable because it can't‬
‭afford seed?‬
‭●‬ ‭The increase in mechanization during the Green Revolution has been accompanied by‬
‭rise in fossil fuel use in the agricultural sector globally. Increased irrigation can lead to‬
‭salinization of the soil in dryland areas as evaporation and irrigation losses concentrate‬
‭salts near the surface.‬
‭●‬ ‭The Green Revolution has had conflicting outcomes. Intensification allows the‬
‭production of more food, but uses more fossil fuel. More food supports increased‬
‭population growth, and larger population demand more food and so on. It may end only‬
‭when we reach the carrying capacity of the planet. But how does carrying capacity‬
‭change as technology advances?‬
‭The gene revolution‬

‭●‬ T ‭ he second stage of the Green Revolution is sometimes called the‬‭gene revolution‬‭. It is‬
‭based on developments in‬‭selective breeding‬‭and, later‬‭on,‬‭genetic engineering‬‭.‬
‭Although cross breeding and hybridization has grown rapidly in scope and importance‬
‭since it began in 1967, extensive research has been carried out on genetically modified‬
‭seeds since the 1980s. Genetic modification (GM) has been used to create plants with‬
‭higher yields and specific tolerances (e.g. pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, or drought‬
‭tolerance). GM seed is also used to improve the nutritional quality of crops e.g. by‬
‭increasing protein and vitamin levels.‬
‭●‬ ‭An example of this is golden rice (below). Golden rice is genetically engineered to‬
‭contain higher than normal levels of beta-carotene, which is converted int he body to‬
‭vitamin A. This may allow better nutrient delivery to people in developing countries‬
‭where rice is the staple food. Other areas of research include improving yields and‬
‭improving the resistance of rice to insects, bacteria, and herbicides.‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭What were the important factors in the beginning of the Green Revolution?‬
‭ he data below shows the crop yields for corn and wheat in the United States. Plot the corn yield‬
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‭on the left axis and the wheat yield on the right axis. Include a key.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Upload your graph.‬

‭3.‬ ‭Explain how the technologies of the Green Revolution were used to improve crop yields:‬

‭4.‬ H
‭ ow has the Green Revolution led to some conflicting outcomes for the population of the‬
‭Earth?‬

‭5.‬ S
‭ ome authorities argue the Green Revolution failed in many countries including Mexico,‬
‭normally touted as the birthplace and one of the best examples of the Green Revolution.‬
‭Use the internet to search for one of these arguments. Describe the author's perspective‬
‭and any assumption they made. Are they presenting a reasoned, unbiased argument?‬
‭Write your argument and conclusion below.‬
 ‭The Impacts of Farming (5-77)‬
‭The Impact of Farming‬

‭Key Question: How do some agricultural practices cause environmental damage?‬

‭ gricultural practices vary widely between countries and between regions within countries.‬
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‭While all agriculture will affect the environment in some way, some practices can cause‬
‭significantly more environmental damage than others. In many industrialized nations these‬
‭practices have been replaced, either because they are no longer appropriate environmentally,‬
‭socially, or economically, or because more efficient, sustainable techniques have been‬
‭implemented. Changing to less damaging techniques is not always easy. In industrialized‬
‭countries it can mean the difference between being an importer rather than an exporter of food.‬
‭In many developing countries, changing farming practices without suitable education and‬
‭upgrades to technology (which many countries can't afford) could mean widespread famine.‬

‭Slash and burn‬

‭ lash and burn is a farming method in which forested or scrub-covered land is cut down and‬
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‭burnt. The ashes remaining act as fertilizer for the crop. This method is ancient and, not‬
s‭ urprisingly, very damaging to the environment. Many industrialized nations used it during‬
‭periods of colonization to clear land for pasture. However, if the land is to continue to be‬
‭productive it has to be properly managed, as many industrialized farms are today. Slash and burn‬
‭is still used in many developing nations, often by small farmers. In Brazil, it is estimated 0.5‬
‭million hectares of forest a year is lost as a result of slash and burn.‬

‭Tillage‬

‭ illage is an important agricultural practice as it prepares a flat even surface for planting. This is‬
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‭especially the case for vegetable crops. Done carefully and on suitable ground it can have a‬
‭relatively low impact on the environment. Tillage is usually done in two stages. The first stage‬
‭plows the field into furrows, lifting the surface and turning it over. The second stage breaks up‬
‭the furrows and prepares an even surface. Tillage exposes the topsoil to the wind and rain so it‬
‭can result in a loss of topsoil through erosion. Tillage at the wrong time of season can result in‬
‭heavy soil losses.‬
‭Fertilizers‬

‭ he use of synthetic fertilizers (e.g. urea) has increased crop yields many times over. However‬
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‭overuse can have long lasting detrimental effects on the environment. This is often in the form of‬
‭eutrophication of waterways. Fertilizers leach nutrients into nearby rivers and lakes and can‬
‭cause a rapid growth in algae, often resulting in waterways becoming clogged with algal growth.‬
‭Algal decomposition depletes oxygen levels in the water and can result in large die-offs of‬
‭aquatic organisms.‬
‭Pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides‬

‭ hemical sprays are used extensively to control pests and diseases in industrialized agriculture.‬
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‭Indiscriminate use of these leads to increased resistance to commonly used chemicals,‬
‭contamination of land and water, and often loss of beneficial non-target species. Some species,‬
‭such as the Colorado potato beetle are now resistant to many different pesticides. The genetic‬
‭engineering of some crops to be herbicide resistant (e.g. roundup ready crops) has contributed to‬
‭overuse of chemical sprays.‬

‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭Describe the effects intensive farming can have on the environment:‬
 ‭Irrigation (5-78)‬
‭Irrigation‬

‭ ey Question: What methods of irrigation are used to water crops, and which are the most‬
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‭efficient?‬

‭ rops require water. Humans have designed a range of techniques to deliver water to crops.‬
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‭Some are very simple, others require a high degree of technology. Some methods are very‬
‭wasteful, others are highly efficient. The method of irrigation depends on how the water is being‬
‭sourced, where it is being used, and the technology available to deliver the water. Irrigation of‬
‭crops is so important that 70% of the world's freshwater withdrawals are used for that one‬
‭purpose.‬

‭Methods of irrigation‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ D
‭ escribe the methods of irrigation below and their advantages and disadvantages in terms‬
‭of water delivery:‬
‭a.‬ ‭Trickle irrigation:‬

‭b.‬ ‭Spray irrigation:‬

‭c.‬ ‭Flood irrigation:‬

‭d.‬ ‭Furrow irrigation:‬

‭ he diversion and storage of water in dams and its use by pumps was part of the solution to‬
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‭feeding the people of the world. As with many solutions, there are always unseen consequences.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Describe some of these unseen consequences in relation to irrigation:‬

‭3.‬ D
‭ iscuss the benefits and undesirable consequences of irrigating arid lands. Describe if the‬
‭benefits outweigh the consequences and what might be done to mitigate the detrimental‬
‭effects. Summarize your points here.‬
 ‭Pest Control Methods (5-79)‬
‭Pest Control Methods‬

‭Key Question: What are the advantages and disadvantages of different methods of pest control?‬

‭ ontrol of pests in agriculture is very important because single-species crops (monocultures) are‬
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‭very vulnerable to pest infestations. They provide an enormous amount of food for pest species‬
‭and, without control, these pests can feed and reproduce rapidly, quickly ruining a crop.‬
‭Although biological and cultural methods of pest control are widely used, chemical pest control‬
‭is often the preferred and simplest option, especially if an infestation has occurred. This applies‬
‭not only to insect pest in commercial agriculture, but also in urban areas, e.g. cockroaches.‬
‭Pesticides are also used to control rodents, weeds, and fungi in both agricultural and urban areas.‬

‭●‬ A ‭ pesticide is any chemical that kills or discourages pests (unwanted or damaging‬
‭organisms). Pests generally include insect pests on crops or animals, damaging fungi and‬
‭microbes, and vermin such as rats and mice. Various specific chemicals have been‬
‭developed to control these pests and are named after their specific use, e.g. herbicide,‬
‭fungicide, insecticide, or rodenticide.‬
‭●‬ ‭Chemical controls must be used carefully to avoid pests becoming resistant or bait shy.‬
‭Also care must be taken to avoid build up of residues in the environment, and many‬
‭sprays now degrade quickly. However this means they must be regularly applied.‬
‭ n important piece of legislation concerning pesticides and food was the Delaney Clause of the‬
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‭Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. This clause prohibits the use of any food additive found‬
‭to cause cancer. It is applied to pesticides in processed foods where the pesticide residue‬
‭becomes more concentrated during processing. The clause was very restrictive because it set a‬
‭zero level of risk. No amount was permitted, even when well below the level that would cause‬
‭any health issues. As testing became more sensitive, pesticides were found more often, and the‬
‭clause became more difficult to administer. It was replaced in 1996 with the Food Quality‬
‭Protection Act which placed specific standards and limits on pesticide residues.‬

‭Genetic engineering‬
‭●‬ G ‭ enetic engineering (GE) is the introduction into or removal of genes from an organism.‬
‭Numerous GE crops have been developed, for example Bt corn.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bt corn is a corn variety genetically engineered to contain a gene from the soil bacterium‬
‭Bacillus thuringiensis‬‭. The gene allows the corn to‬‭produce a toxin, which acts as a‬
‭pesticide against butterfly and moth larvae but does not affect other insects such as‬
‭beetles or bees (or indeed any other animal).‬
‭●‬ ‭Some GE crops are engineered for enhanced crop production or resistance to drought. In‬
‭1996, "Roundup Ready" corn became available, engineered to withstand glyphosate‬
‭herbicide. Corn corps could be sprayed with herbicide and while the weeds would die the‬
‭corn would keep on growing, allowing less targeted spraying applications.‬
‭●‬ ‭One of the problems with crops engineered to be pest resistant is that over time the pests‬
‭also become resistant in the same way that they become resistant to conventional‬
‭engineered or cross-bred to produce different strains.‬
‭●‬ ‭Similarly, where glyphosate has been incorrectly applied, weed species are also becoming‬
‭resistant.‬
‭●‬ ‭Plant breeders must be careful to preserve the genetic diversity of crops. A lack of genetic‬
‭diversity makes a crop more vulnerable to a disease or pest outbreak. In a genetically‬
‭diverse crop, some individuals will be naturally more resistant.‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭What was the trend in pesticide use between 1960 and 1980?‬

‭2.‬ ‭What was the trend in pesticide use between 1980 and the present?‬

‭3.‬ ‭What has driven these trends?‬

‭4.‬ ‭Which type of pesticide has seen the greatest increase in use over time?‬

‭5.‬ ‭Why might this be?‬

‭6.‬ ‭Why does glyphosate target plants specifically?‬

‭7.‬ ‭What are some advantages and disadvantages of pesticides?‬

‭8.‬ ‭What is the trend in the use of Bt corn over time?‬

‭9.‬ ‭What effect has this had on the use of insecticides on corn crops?‬

‭10.‬‭Suggest some advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering for pest resistance in‬
‭crop plants:‬

‭11.‬‭Why is genetic diversity important in crop plants?‬

 ‭Pesticide Resistance (5-80)‬
‭Pesticide Resistance‬

‭Key Question: How does pesticide resistance occur?‬

I‭ nsecticides and pesticides used to control insects considered harmful to humans, their‬
‭livelihood, or environment. Insecticide use has increased since the advent of synthetic‬
‭insecticides in the 1940s. Their widespread but often inefficient use can lead to resistance to the‬
‭insecticide in the target species. Mutations may also produce traits that further assist with‬
‭resistance. Ineffectual application may include application at the wrong time, e.g. before the‬
‭majority of the population has established or close to rain, and applying contact sprays that may‬
‭be avoided by hiding under leaves. To combat increasing resistance, higher doses of more potent‬
‭pesticides are sometimes used. This drives the selection process, so that increasingly higher dose‬
‭rates are required to combat rising resistance (the‬‭pesticide treadmill‬‭). This cycle of increasing‬
‭resistance in response to increased doses is made worse by the development of multiple‬
‭resistance in some insect pest species such as the Colorado potato beetle.‬
‭ he Colorado potato beetle (leptinotarsa decemlineata) is a major potato pest that was originally‬
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‭found living on buffalo-bur (Solanum rostratum) in the Rocky mountains. It has an extraordinary‬
‭ability to develop resistance to synthetic pesticides. Since the 1940s, when these pesticides were‬
‭first developed, it has become resistant to more than 50 different types.‬

‭Mechanism of resistance in insect pests‬

‭Insecticide resistance in insects can arise through a combination of mechanisms.‬

‭ ‬ I‭ ncreased sensitivity to an insecticide will cause the pest to avoid a treated area.‬
●
‭●‬ ‭Certain genes result in stronger physical barriers, decreasing the rate at which the‬
‭chemical penetrates the insect's cuticle.‬
‭●‬ ‭Detoxification by enzymes within the insect's body can render the insecticide harmless.‬
‭●‬ ‭Structural changes to the target enzymes make the insecticide ineffective.‬
‭●‬ ‭No single mechanism provide total immunity, but together they transform the effect from‬
‭potentially lethal to insignificant.‬

‭The evolution of resistance‬

‭ he application of an insecticide can act as a potent selection pressure for resistance in pest‬
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‭insects. Insects with a low natural resistance die from an insecticide application, but those with a‬
‭higher natural resistance may survive if the insecticide is not effectively applied. These will act‬
‭as founders for a new generation which will, on average, have a higher resistance to the‬
‭insecticide.‬

‭Questions‬
‭1.‬ E
‭ xplain how repeated insecticide applications acts as a selective agent for evolutionary‬
‭change in insect populations:‬

‭2.‬ S
‭ ome insects have become resistant to various type of pesticides. Suggest a way that this‬
‭resistance and future development of resistance might be reduced. Explain your claim.‬
 ‭Meat Production Methods (5-81)‬
‭Meat Production Methods‬

‭ ey Question: What are some common meat production methods and what are their advantages‬
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‭and disadvantages?‬

‭ he method of meat production depends greatly on the type of livestock being raised and often‬
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‭on the country and local environment it is raised in. Global meat production, which includes‬
‭beef, pigs, poultry, and sheep, has been steadily increasing since the 1950s. Part of this is‬
‭because of the increasing wealth of the middle classes in developed and now increasingly in‬
‭developing countries. This increase in wealth allows more expenditure on luxury items,‬
‭including meat, which for the longest part of human history has been a luxury item. Meat‬
‭production requires a large amount of land for grazing and supplemental feed and, due to the‬
‭laws of trophic efficiency, will always be less efficient than growing crops for food. However‬
‭different methods of raising livestock can increase or decrease this efficiency.‬

‭CAFOs‬
 ‭●‬ C ‭ oncentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are used in areas where grazing land is‬
‭limited or not available throughout the year, or as a way to quickly raise animals to‬
‭slaughter weight. As defined by the USDA, a CAFO is specifically an operation where‬
‭over 1000 animal units are raised in a confined space (e.g. a barn or stall) for over 45‬
‭days of the year. An animal unit is about 500 kg of live weight, so equates to 1000 cattle.‬
‭Confinement of animals varies depending on the type of animal and the particular method‬
‭being used, as well as local legislation.‬
‭●‬ ‭A CAFO is typically made up of one or more large covered barns. Because of the waste‬
‭produced by the animals inside, the barns are usually located near a large wastewater‬
‭lagoon where effluent is stored. Large CAFOs may be made up of dozens of large barns.‬
‭There is no upper limit to the number of barns or animals within a CAFO. For example,‬
‭some of the largest swine (pig) CAFOs house more than 79,000 animals.‬
‭●‬ ‭There are many benefits of CAFOs, including faster growing rates, being able to raise‬
‭animals in all climate conditions, and providing low cost meat to consumers. However,‬
‭there are also numerous disadvantages. Having the animals so close together means‬
‭disease can spread quickly. Animals are regularly given antibiotics to guard against this,‬
‭whether they are sick or not. Waste management is an important issue. Failure to store,‬
‭treat, and dispose of waste correctly can cause major environmental problems, including‬
‭air and water pollution. There are also many animal health issues, often to do with the‬
‭rate of animal growth and confinement of and proximity to other animals.‬

‭Free range‬
 ‭●‬ F ‭ ree range grazing requires a large amount of land. Typically one cattle beast needs‬
‭slightly less than a hectare of grass to graze over a year. This varies depending on the‬
‭breed of cattle and the growing conditions. Thus farms and ranches with hundreds of‬
‭cattle require hundreds of hectares. This can be reduced by providing supplemental‬
‭winter feed (e.g. sillage or corn) that was grown in the spring and summer during better‬
‭growing conditions.‬
‭●‬ ‭There are several advantages to raising free range animals. Essentially, these are the‬
‭results of removing the disadvantages of CAFOs. Animals do not require regular‬
‭antibiotics because they are less confined, and waste management problems are reduced‬
‭because the animal waste acts as fertilizer on the pasture. Animals tend to grow more‬
‭slowly and have room to move easily so there are fewer animal health issues.‬
‭●‬ ‭Free range livestock take longer to grow, so costs are higher, and each animal requires‬
‭more food and water over its lifetime to reach slaughter weight.‬
‭●‬ ‭Because energy is lost in the conversion of forage to animal protein, raising animals is‬
‭always less efficient than growing crops. However, efficiency can be increased through‬
‭careful management and taking advantage of environmental conditions. For example,‬
‭studies have shown it is four times more energy efficient to raise and process lamb in‬
‭New Zealand and ship it 18,000 km to the UK, then to raise and process the lamb in the‬
‭UK itself. This is partly because New Zealand has a generally mild climate suited to year‬
‭round production, as opposed to England's cooler climate. This means production costs‬
‭are lower and yields are higher.‬

‭Global meat production‬

‭The environmental impact of beef production‬

‭ eef production in the United States is an important part of the economy, both in the production‬
B
‭and export of beef, and in the associated industries. About 20% of the global beef supply is‬
‭produced in the United States, worth around US$8 billion in exports per year. However beef‬
‭production and agriculture in general produces a significant proportion of the country's‬
‭greenhouse gas emissions and also contributes to other environmental issues.‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭Describe the advantages and disadvantages of CAFOs:‬

‭2.‬ ‭Describe the advantages and disadvantages of free-range grazing:‬

‭3.‬ ‭Which part of the globe has increased its production of meat the most since 1961?‬

‭4.‬ B
‭ y approximately how many times has meat production increased in North America‬
‭since 1961?‬

‭5.‬ ‭What is the relationship between a country's GDP and the amount of meat eat per capita?‬
‭6.‬ ‭What does this actually mean?‬

‭7.‬ ‭Which food produces the most greenhouse gasses in its production?‬

‭8.‬ W
‭ hat are the two largest factors contributing to greenhouse gas emissions in the‬
‭production of this food?‬

‭9.‬ ‭Which meat is the least efficient to produce in terms of calories per square meter?‬

‭10.‬‭What does this data tell us overall about meat production?‬

‭11.‬‭What gas is the largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions?‬

‭12.‬‭What contributes most to the energy used?‬

‭13.‬‭What does this include?‬

‭14.‬‭What are the major uses of water in beef production?‬

‭15.‬‭N‬‭2‭O
‬ makes up approximately what % of greenhouse gas‬‭emissions?‬
‭16.‬‭What gas contributes most to reactive nitrate losses?‬

‭17.‬‭Lower meat consumption would lead to a reduction in CO‬‭2‬‭, methane, and N‬‭2‬‭O emissions,‬
‭conserve water, and reduce use of antibiotics. This may have a positive effect on the‬
‭environment but is it reasonable to expect farmers to reduce production, ask consumers to‬
‭eat less meat, and expect grain farmers to grow and sell less feed? With your group,‬
‭debate this topic on two sides, those arguing for a reduction in beef production, and those‬
‭arguing for the status quo. Outline the arguments of each side below, and summarize what‬
‭you debated.‬
 ‭Managing Rangelands (5-82)‬
‭Managing Rangelands‬

‭ ey Question: How can managing rangelands help maintain or improve productivity while‬
K
‭grazing?‬

‭ angelands are large, relatively undeveloped areas populated by grasses, grass-like plants, and‬
R
‭scrub. They are usually semi-arid to arid areas and include grasslands, tundra, scrublands, coastal‬
‭scrub, alpine areas, and savanna. Globally, rangelands cover around 50% of the Earth's land‬
‭surface. The US has about 3.1 million km‬‭2‬ ‭of rangeland.‬‭Rangelands are often used to graze‬
‭livestock such as sheep and cattle but, because they occur in low-rainfall areas, they do not‬
‭regenerate rapidly. Careful management is required to prevent damage and soil loss as a result of‬
‭overgrazing.‬

‭●‬ G ‭ rasses grow continuously from a meristem close to the ground, so the left can be‬
‭cropped without causing growth to stop. This allows a field to be grazed in a‬
‭near-continuous fashion. Grazing by animals stimulates grass to grow and removes dead‬
‭material. Grasslands cropped at their optimum capacity can be much more productive‬
‭than if left uncropped.‬
‭●‬ ‭Overgrazing occurs when too many animals are grazed for too long on a section of‬
‭pasture and the grass does not have enough time between cropping to regrow.‬
‭Overgrazing may destroy the meristem, in which case plant regeneration stops. exposed‬
‭soils may become colonized by invasive species or eroded by wind and rain.‬
‭Effect of grazing on productivity and plant species composition‬
I‭ ntensive grazing causes changes in species composition. Species that perform better under‬
‭grazing will increase their range, while others will reduce their range. Grazing also opens gaps in‬
‭plant distribution, which allows invasive species to establish or increase in range.‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭Describe the effect of grazing on the diversity of rangeland plants:‬

‭2.‬ D
‭ iscuss the relationship between a rangeland's productivity and the number of animals‬
‭grazed on the land:‬

‭3.‬ ‭Describe the effect of livestock rotation on pasture and rangeland biodiversity:‬

‭4.‬ ‭Explain why overstocking could eventually lead to ecosystem collapse:‬

 ‭Impact of Overfishing (5-83)‬
‭Impact of Overfishing‬

‭Key Question: What has been the effect of overfishing on commercial fish populations.‬

‭ ishing is an ancient human tradition, and is economically, socially, and culturally important.‬
F
‭Today, it is a worldwide resource extraction industry. Several decades of overfishing in all of the‬
‭world's oceans has pushed commercially important species (such as cod) into steep decline. The‬
‭United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports that, of the commercially‬
‭targeted marine fish stocks in 2017, ~34% are overfished, ~60% are maximally sustainably‬
‭fished, and ~6% under-fished. This is somewhat improved on the 1989 figures partly because of‬
‭better fisheries management. In general though, the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is too‬
‭often exceeded, often using wasteful and destructive methods.‬
‭Human impacts on fisheries‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭Describe some effects of overfishing:‬

‭2.‬ ‭What is meant by the by-catch and why is it important:‬

‭3.‬ E
‭ xplain why setting a maximum sustainable yield for a fish species is not a complete‬
‭solution to overfishing:‬
‭4.‬ ‭Why is returning by-catch to the sea not always as useful as it might appear?‬

‭5.‬ ‭Identify three ways in which fish stocks are over-exploited:‬

 ‭Impacts of Mining (5-84)‬
‭Impacts of Mining‬

‭Key Question: What are the main mining practices and how does mining affect the environment?‬

‭ ining minerals has been part of human culture for thousands of years, with the oldest mines‬
M
‭known dated to about 43,000 years old. Minerals are the raw materials for the multitude of‬
‭human uses and technologies. However these mineral resources are non-renewable. As they‬
‭become harder to find or more in demand, mining operations turn from extracting the more‬
‭easily found or higher grade deposits to harder to extract or lower grade deposits. In either case,‬
‭it costs more in both energy and equipment. Either more ore has to be extracted or more time and‬
‭effort must be taken to find it. The result of changes in mineral availability is often that the‬
‭mining operation results in more waste and air and water pollution.‬
‭●‬ S ‭ urface mining includes strip mining, open-pit mining, and mountaintop removal. In each‬
‭case, overlying material (such as soil and subsoil), called‬‭overburden‬‭, is removed to‬
‭expose the mineral containing layer.‬
‭●‬ ‭Surface mining usually occurs on a large scale (often tens or hundreds of hectares) where‬
‭the removal of the overburden is relatively easy, such as a flat plain or open and‬
‭accessible mountain tops with deposits close to the surface.‬
‭●‬ ‭Preparing the site involves removing the site's vegetation. The overburden, which‬
‭consists of hundreds of thousands of cubic meters of soil and rock must be stored, often‬
‭creating huge mounds of unstable rock that can leach minerals into waterways.‬
‭Subsurface mining‬

‭●‬ S ‭ ubsurface mining is used when mineral deposits are too deep for removing the surface‬
‭layers to be feasible or economic. The world's six deepest mines extend more than 3 km‬
‭into the ground. The deepest is the Mponeng gold mine, which descends 4 km‬
‭underground (equivalent to 10 Empire State Buildings end to end). The trip from top to‬
‭bottom takes nearly 90 minutes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Subsurface mining causes far less land disturbances than surface mining. However, it is‬
‭far more dangerous and requires specialized equipment. Risks include roof collapse,‬
‭build up of explosive or toxic gasses, and lung diseases from inhaling fine dust. Although‬
‭less land is disturbed by digging, land subsidence can leave ripples or holes in the land‬
‭above.‬
‭●‬ ‭Subsurface mining is usually used only when surface deposits have become rare and it is‬
‭too risky and costly to mine them.‬
‭●‬ ‭Two methods dominate in subsurface mining. Room and pillar mining remove large areas‬
‭of ore or coal, leaving rock pillars that help support the roof of the mine (below). In long‬
‭wall mining, machines move along the ore face (below).‬
‭Environmental effects of mining‬

‭●‬ A
‭ ll mining operations affect the environment, most in multiple and negative ways.‬
‭Regulations on mining have become tighter over time but even old decommissioned‬
‭mines can still have long lasting effects on the environment around them.‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭When is surface mining used?‬

‭2.‬ G
‭ ive a general description of how surface mining is carried out and its advantages and‬
‭disadvantages:‬

‭3.‬ ‭When is subsurface mining used?‬

‭4.‬ G
‭ ive a general description of how subsurface mining is carried out and its advantages and‬
‭disadvantages:‬

‭5.‬ ‭Why is it getting harder to find high grade ores?‬

‭6.‬ ‭Why is it sometimes still economic to mine a low grade ore?‬

‭7.‬ ‭What is the difference between overburden and tailings?‬

‭8.‬ ‭Why must tailings be carefully stored and disposed of?‬

‭9.‬ D
‭ escribe some of the detrimental environmental effects of both surface and subsurface‬
‭mining:‬
‭ mining company explores two potential surface mining areas using a drill to provide core‬
A
‭samples. The costs and mineral content of each site are shown below:‬

‭10.‬‭As well as these findings, the potential mine sites are located within forested areas. In‬
‭order for the mine to operate, the forest would have to be removed and roads and other‬
‭infrastructure put in place. Both sites are away from areas commonly used by the public,‬
‭but have particularly diverse habitats. The state government determines the income and‬
‭job opportunities from either mine would exceed from the forest in terms of tourism or‬
‭logging.‬
 ‭Urbanization (5-85)‬
‭Urbanization‬

‭ ey Question: What is urbanization and what are its positive and negative effects on the‬
K
‭environment?‬

‭ rbanization describes the movement of people out of rural areas into cities. In the United‬
U
‭States, an urban area is an area with more than 386 people per square km (1000 people per‬
‭square mile). For most of human history, more people have lived in rural areas than in cities.‬
‭Rural areas provided land to grow crops, raise livestock, or hunt game to supply food and‬
‭income. Only those who could afford to have other people do this, via trade or wealth, could live‬
‭in any kind of urban environment. The Industrial Revolution changed this. The increasing‬
‭mechanization of farming meant fewer people were needed to work on farms to grow food. At‬
‭the same time, the mechanization and expansion of industry in urban areas required more‬
‭workers in factories. As a result, cities grew as people moved in from rural areas. In 2007 (by‬
‭UN estimate) the world passed the milestone of more people living in cities and urban areas than‬
‭in rural areas. Today, approximately 4.1 billion people lie in urban areas and 3.4 billion are‬
‭designated rural. Urbanization has occurred more quickly in industrialized nations. In the US, the‬
‭50% urban population milestone was passed around 1940 and approximately 84% of the US‬
‭population now lives in urban areas. In contrast, more than 50% of sub-Saharan Africa is still‬
‭rural.‬

‭The benefits of cities‬

‭●‬ C ‭ ities (urban areas) have one major benefit over rural areas and that is economies of‬
‭scale. This benefit encompasses all other benefits. Concentrating people in one place‬
‭makes it simpler to provide services to the population. These may be economic, such as‬
‭factories and shops, or recreational such as swimming pools and museums. If populations‬
‭are dispersed, it is more costly to operate and maintain these facilities and more difficult‬
‭for people to access them. In a city, the cost per person is very low.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cities provide benefits such as more jobs, better utilities, faster access to medical‬
‭facilities, and more options for education. Cities also provide some environmental‬
‭benefits in terms of footprint. Concentrating development in one place allows wild places‬
‭to be preserved. For example, ~3% of land area in the USA is defined as urban, yet it‬
‭contains over 80% of the population.‬
‭Environmental effects of urbanization‬

‭ oncentrating people in cities inevitably has consequences (i.e. unwanted effects). The problems‬
C
‭of what to do with waste or where to get water are magnified by the daily requirements of large‬
‭numbers of people. Extensive infrastructure is needed to deal with these problems.‬

‭Stormwater surges and flooding‬

‭●‬ C ‭ ities are known as concrete jungles for good reason. Aside from the buildings, must of‬
‭the ground is covered with concrete or asphalt, e.g. roads, sidewalks, and carparks. This‬
‭aids safety and ease of movement, but these surfaces are also impervious to water. Water‬
‭from rainfall cannot soak naturally into the ground and moves directly, without treatment,‬
‭into stormwater drains and then into streams and rivers. this has a number of‬
‭consequences:‬
‭○‬ ‭Urban runoff includes pollutants that have accumulated on hard surfaces,‬
‭including sediment, bacteria, metals, plastics, and residues from vehicle exhausts.‬
‭○‬ ‭As runoff increases, the amount of water that soaks into the soil (groundwater‬
‭recharge) reduces, so urban development can result in a low water table.‬
‭●‬ ‭Any blockages to water into stormwater drainage can very quickly lead to surface‬
‭flooding. The flow rate of rivers that flow through cities can rise and fall very quickly‬
‭due to sudden stormwater inflows after rain (below). Natural drainage systems show a‬
‭much more moderate response to rainfall.‬
‭Resource depletion and salt water intrusion‬

‭●‬ S
‭ upply of fresh water for domestic and industrial use is a major challenge to cities with‬
‭rapidly growing populations. Some urban centers are naturally better supplied with fresh‬
‭water than others. New York City for example has well protected watersheds and has‬
‭restricted development surrounding them. In other coastal cities, which depend at least in‬
‭part on groundwater supplies of freshwater, intrusion of saltwater into coastal aquifers is‬
‭a significant problem and threatens reliable supplies of freshwater.‬
‭●‬ M ‭ ultiple factors, including increases in the number of large storm surges and rising sea‬
‭levels, contribute to coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion into groundwater aquifers and‬
‭estuaries. The construction of levees to control flooding and navigation canals, as in New‬
‭Orleans, also contribute to saline intrusion.‬
‭●‬ ‭The increased water demand of urbanization can result in groundwater aquifers becoming‬
‭depleted and this alone increases the tendency for saline water to enter freshwater‬
‭aquifers, even before climate change factors, such as rising sea levels, are considered.‬
‭Near the coast, saline water and fresh water are hydraulically connected. Water flowing‬
‭into a freshwater aquifer normally produces enough pressure to overcome the inflow of‬
‭the denser saltwater. However overuse of the freshwater aquifer can lower this pressure‬
‭and so allow the denser saltwater to push into the aquifer. Over time this can lead to the‬
‭salt contamination of the remaining fresh water.‬
‭Urban sprawl‬

‭●‬ U ‭ rban sprawl (below) occurs when the city's population begins to move out of the city‬
‭proper and into surrounding areas. These people remain close enough to benefit from the‬
‭city's facilities but generally have larger properties and individual houses. These areas are‬
‭termed suburban and the areas occupied are called suburbs. Suburbs can take up vastly‬
‭more space than urban areas due to the population living in individual single family‬
‭properties, rather than in dense apartment buildings. This movement away from the city‬
‭directly affects the surrounding environment as land is taken up for housing development.‬
‭●‬ ‭Having thousands or millions of people in one place presents challenges for waste‬
‭disposal, both solid rubbish and sewage. New York city produces more than 14 million‬
‭tonnes of rubbish a year. Although most Western cities have effective waste systems‬
‭involving a complex system of transport and disposal, many cities in developing‬
‭countries do not. Large amounts of rubbish and sewage are still dumped directly into‬
‭rivers and the sea. Rivers such as the Ganges (India) and the Citarum (Indonesia) act as‬
‭open waste dumps and are the most polluted in the world. Rubbish that is not dumped‬
‭may be incinerated. While this produces useful energy, it also produces a large amount of‬
‭air pollution (including greenhouse gasses) if not filtered carefully.‬
‭●‬ ‭Cities are transport hubs. People commute to and from them everyday, often many‬
‭kilometers. Most of this transport relies on fossil fuels, mostly as diesel and gasoline in‬
‭cars, trucks, and buses. Burning in fossil fuels produces CO‬‭2‬ ‭which contributes to global‬
‭warming. However it also produces various other polluting gasses, such as NO‬‭2‬ ‭and CO,‬
‭which contribute to smog (below).‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭What are some of the reasons people move into urban areas?‬

‭2.‬ ‭Explain the socioeconomic and environmental benefits of urbanization:‬

‭3.‬ H
‭ ow does urbanization affect the hydrology of the watershed, including flooding and‬
‭groundwater recharge?‬

‭4.‬ D
‭ iscuss the contribution of urbanization to the problem of saltwater intrusion into‬
‭groundwater aquifers:‬

‭5.‬ ‭How does air pollution change during the day in Shanghai?‬

‭6.‬ ‭How would you explain this pattern?‬

‭7.‬ ‭Describe the (often unintended) consequences of urbanization on the environment:‬

 ‭Introduction to Sustainability (5-87)‬
‭Introduction to Sustainability‬

‭Key Question: What is sustainability and how do we ensure we use resources sustainably?‬

I‭ n general, sustainability means the ability to use resources without using them up faster than‬
‭they are renewed. The unfortunate outcome of this statement is that the vast majority of the‬
‭resources used by humans are either non-renewable (such as coal) or are being used faster than‬
‭they are being renewed, i.e. unsustainably. The human world, as it currently stands, depends on‬
‭non-renewable resources, such as coal. This is because the energy required to run the human‬
‭world is currently nearly 550 x 10‬‭18‬ ‭J per year. Only‬‭fossil fuels are currently able to provide this‬
‭kind of energy. However, aside from the pollution they cause, because they are non-renewable,‬
‭they will eventually run out. For human society to become sustainable it will need to‬
‭substantially reduce its energy use and build new more sustainable energy sources.‬

‭Indicators for sustainability‬

‭Sustainable yield‬

‭●‬ T ‭ he sustainable harvesting of any resource requires that its rate of harvest is no more than‬
‭its replacement rate. If the harvest rate is higher than the replacement rate then the‬
‭resource will reduce at ever increasing percentages (assuming a constant harvest rate) and‬
‭eventually be lost. This applies to many renewable resources.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭sustainable‬‭yield‬‭(SY) is the amount of resources‬‭that can be removed (the harvest)‬
‭without reducing the available supply year to year. Sustainable yields are often described‬
‭with reference to forestry or fisheries, but they are applied without considering‬
‭environmental variations (or real changes in the stock). It assumes that the environmental‬
‭conditions are stable and do not contribute to fluctuations in the resource.‬

‭●‬ T ‭ he equation above is often simplified as the annual gain in biomass or energy through‬
‭growth and recruitment.‬
‭●‬ ‭A yield curve is derived from the logistic curve of population growth. The theoretical‬
‭maximum sustainable yield (N‬‭MSY‬‭) occurs when a population‬‭is at half the carrying‬
‭capacity (1/2K). At this point, the population growth rate will also be at its maximum.‬
‭●‬ ‭Fisheries managers must determine to what level they can reduce the stock biomass to‬
‭maximize yield and remain sustainable.‬
‭Questions‬
 ‭1.‬ W
‭ hy will human society need to reduce its energy use or build new sustainable energy‬
‭sources?‬

‭2.‬ ‭Why would a decrease in biodiversity indicate an unsustainable practice occurring?‬

‭3.‬ W
‭ hy might studying human population growth help us understand if the growth is‬
‭sustainable?‬

‭ town has a population of 70,230 in the year 2020. Over the next five years, 6556 people‬
A
‭moved into the town for work, but 4096 moved to other parts of the country. A baby boom sees‬
‭the birth of 5225 babies but there are also 4978 deaths. What is the population of the town in‬
‭2025?‬
‭4.‬ ‭What is the population of the town in 2025?‬

‭5.‬ ‭What is the percentage growth over the 5 years?‬

‭6.‬ T
‭ he town uses water from a reservoir that holds 200 million L and is replenished at a rate‬
‭of 60 million L a day. In 2020, the town used 46 million L per day. Calculate the average‬
‭water use per person per day.‬

‭7.‬ H
‭ ow much water would be used per day in 2025 if each person used the same amount of‬
‭water as in 2020?‬

‭8.‬ A
‭ ssuming the town underwent the same rate of growth every 5 years into the future,‬
‭when would the reservoir begin to fill more slowly than it was being used (i.e. the tipping‬
‭point at which the water supply becomes unsustainable)?‬
 ‭9.‬ A
‭ t the end of 2035, the town introduced measures to extend the life of the water supply‬
‭by asking people to cut their water use by 10%. Under these new measures, when will the‬
‭water supply become unsustainable?‬

‭10.‬‭What is a sustainable yield?‬

‭11.‬‭In the production curve above, explain why harvesting above the red dashed line is not‬
‭sustainable:‬

‭ fishery has a population of 5 million fish. Studies show that this number fluctuates slightly‬
A
‭over time. At 1/2K the growth rate is estimated at 2% of the population annually.‬
‭12.‬‭How many fish can be removed from the population before 1/2K is reached?‬

‭13.‬‭What is the sustainable yield of this population at 1/2K?‬

‭14.‬‭Why would this number be dangerous for the population to be fished at 1/2K?‬
 ‭Integrated Pest Management (5-89)‬
‭Integrated Pest Management‬

‭ ey Question: How do integrated pest management (IPM) schemes reduce pest damage to‬
K
‭crops?‬

I‭ ntegrated pest management is an approach to pest control that uses a combination of chemical,‬
‭biological, and mechanical controls. The aim of most IPM programs is to reduce crop damage by‬
‭pests to economically tolerable levels rather than total pest eradication. Well managed IPM‬
‭programs can have outstanding success and provide economically and ecologically sound‬
‭alternatives to conventional pest management methods. IPM can be slower to take effect than‬
‭conventional controls and expert knowledge of crop and pest ecology is required to obtain the‬
‭best results. Well designed IPM programs can reduce costs and pesticide use by 50-90%, reduce‬
‭fertilizer use, and slow the development of pesticide resistance. IPM emphasizes the use of‬
‭ecologically sensitive pesticides which tend to be specific to the target pest and harmless to‬
‭non-target species. They are less likely to cause resistance, and are non-persistent and cost‬
‭effective.‬
‭IPM for control of gypsy moth (‬‭lymantria dispar dispar‬‭)‬

‭●‬ T ‭ he gypsy moth is a Eurasian moth that was introduced to Massachusetts, USA in 1869‬
‭with the intention of using it in the silkworm industry. It quickly became a pest, spreading‬
‭both south and west. Its larvae cause widespread defoliation of over 300 species to trees‬
‭and shrubs, including oaks, apples, alders, and birches. Defoliation losses have cost‬
‭millions in damages and have had a profound effect on forest ecology.‬
‭●‬ ‭Initially, outbreaks were controlled using chemical pesticides but 100 years of research‬
‭has replaced this with a comprehensive IPM program involving rigorous monitoring and‬
‭containment of outbreaks, pheromone trapping, male sterilization, biopesticides, and‬
‭biocontrols. Eradication is not possible so slowing the spread is the primary goal.‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ E
‭ xplain why a well managed IPM program can be as cost effective as conventional pest‬
‭control methods on farms:‬

‭2.‬ ‭Which method, IPM or conventional, is more likely to be sustainable and why?‬
‭3.‬ I‭ dentify the main features of an IPM program, stating the importance of each to an‬
‭effective pest management solution:‬
‭a.‬ ‭Feature #1‬

‭b.‬ ‭Feature #2‬

‭c.‬ ‭Feature #3‬

‭d.‬ ‭Feature #4‬

‭4.‬ ‭Explain the general principle underlying the biological control of pests:‬

‭5.‬ ‭Explain what precautions should be taken when implementing a biocontrol program:‬
 ‭Sustainable Agriculture (5-90)‬
‭Sustainable Agriculture‬

‭ ey Question: How can changes to agricultural practices help to provide a more sustainable‬
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‭way of farming?‬

‭ ustainable agriculture refers to farming practices that maximize the net benefit to society by‬
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‭meeting current and future food and material demands while maintaining ecosystem health and‬
‭services. Two key issues in sustainable agriculture are biophysical and socio-economic.‬
‭Biophysical issues center on soil health and the biological processes essential to crop‬
‭productivity. Socio-economic issues center on the long-term ability of farmers to manage‬
‭resources, such as labor, and obtain inputs, such as seed. Sustainable agricultural practices aim to‬
‭maintain yields and improve environmental health. Crops are often grown as polycultures (more‬
‭than one crop type per area), which reduces pest damage by proving a trap crop or pest confuser‬
‭(e.g. planting onions in a carrot crop masks the carrots' odor and reduces damage by carrot‬
‭sawfly). However yields obtained using sustainable practices can be up to 25% lower than those‬
‭obtained using intensive practices. Food needs are projected to be 50% greater by 2050 than‬
‭today, so this is a major disadvantage that must be overcome, either in the management of‬
‭agriculture or by society as a whole.‬
‭Farming and tillage‬

‭●‬ T ‭ illage is the mechanical agitation of the ground by plowing and overturning the soil. It‬
‭has several benefits including the aeration of the soil, mechanical destruction of weeds,‬
‭and plowing the nutrients in green crops into the ground ready for the next crop.‬
‭●‬ ‭Despite advantages, there are several disadvantages to tillage, including the exposure of‬
‭soil to the wind, increasing erosion, and loss of water. One method of reducing soil‬
‭erosion is the no-tillage system in which the residue of the previous crop is left on the‬
‭surface and seed is planted beneath the ground with special machinery.‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭What is sustainable agriculture?‬

‭2.‬ E
‭ xplain how sustainable agriculture manages each of the following resources to meet the‬
‭goals of long term sustainability:‬
‭a.‬ ‭Biodiversity:‬

‭b.‬ ‭Water:‬
 ‭c.‬ ‭Soil:‬

‭3.‬ D
‭ iscuss the issues associated with resource use and crop yield in agriculture. Produce a‬
‭reasoned argument as to the best combination of agricultural practices to feed the‬
‭growing human population over the next 30 years:‬

‭4.‬ ‭Describe the main difference between no-till and tillage farming methods:‬

‭5.‬ C
‭ ontrast the effort required for no-till and intensive tillage methods and suggest when‬
‭each of these methods might be advantageous.‬
 ‭Reducing Soil Erosion (5-91)‬
‭Reducing Soil Erosion‬

‭ ey Question: How does soil erosion occur and how can different agricultural methods reduce‬
K
‭soil erosion?‬

‭ oil is important for plant growth. Soil contains various minerals and materials that help it to‬
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‭retain water and remain bound together. Conservation tillage in some form is now the most‬
‭common practice when preparing soil for planting, largely replacing less sustainable intensive‬
‭tillage systems in the United States. Globally however, overgrazing in particular has led to‬
‭increasing desertification, especially in the world's drylands. Loss of covering vegetation‬
‭increases the loss of water and soil. This in turn reduces the growth of vegetation, creating a‬
‭cycle that leads to further land degradation.‬

‭Soil erosion and water loss‬

‭●‬ T ‭ he positive (reinforcing) feedback loop caused by the loss of vegetation cover can‬
‭quickly cause land to become unproductive, especially in harsh environments such as the‬
‭semi-arid rangelands of the south and mid-western United States.‬
‭●‬ ‭Overgrazing by livestock removes plant cover and increase evaporation from exposed‬
‭soils. Rangelands can quickly turn into semi-arid deserts as the soils dry out and plant‬
‭growth is reduced. During the Dust Bowl era of the 1930s vegetation loss was caused by‬
‭removing native prairie plants and leaving the land without cover. The resulting dust‬
‭storms swept the region from Texas to Nebraska.‬
‭Methods to reduce soil erosion‬

‭●‬ L
‭ arge volumes of topsoil can be lost through wind or rain after plowing and planting,‬
‭before there is sufficient crop growth cover to protect it. Even when a crop is fully‬
‭established, there may still be exposed ground from which soil can be lost. Planting‬
‭techniques such as minimum tillage farming, terracing, contour plowing, and‬
‭intercropping can reduce the exposure of soil.‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭How does decreased plant cover lead to increased soil erosion?‬

‭2.‬ ‭Why is it important to reduce soil loss as much as possible?‬

‭3.‬ H
‭ ow does terracing and contour plowing reduce soil loss compared to plowing parallel to‬
‭the slope?‬
‭4.‬ S
‭ tudy the data in the table above. Which crop has the greatest soil loss per hectare. Why‬
‭do different crops and cropping systems have such different soil loss values?‬
 ‭Aquaculture (5-92)‬
‭Aquaculture‬

‭Key Question: Is aquaculture a sustainable method of obtaining fish?‬

‭ here is clear evidence that many of the world's most prized fisheries are being overfished.‬
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‭Fisheries such as Atlantic bluefin tuna, North sea cod, and Atlantic salmon have been overfished‬
‭precisely because they are prized fisheries, the fish are valuable because people like to eat them,‬
‭and they were once relatively easy to catch. However, as fish stocks have declined, people have‬
‭realized that solutions are needed to ensure the fisheries survive, both for the environment and‬
‭for the economy. Fish farming has been seen as one way to reduce the number of fish caught in‬
‭the wild while increasing the total number of fish produced. Aquaculture includes not just fish‬
‭farming but the farming of any marine species, including mussels and prawns. It is a highly‬
‭contentious issue, with arguments both for and against it.‬

‭Fish farming: A solution to the problem?‬

 ‭●‬ H ‭ uman demand for fish has outpaced the rate at which those fish can replace themselves.‬
‭Fish farming is a way to produce fish and other marine species without harvesting wild‬
‭populations. For example, the Atlantic salmon has been so overfished that wild caught‬
‭salmon is no longer a viable fishery. Instead, Atlantic salmon are farmed in large sea‬
‭pens.‬
‭●‬ ‭Around 2.5 million tonnes of salmon are produced from farms a year, compared to less‬
‭than 3000 tonnes caught in the wild. Returns like these from commercial fish farms‬
‭reduce the need to catch wild fish and allow wild stocks to recover.‬
‭●‬ ‭Fish farming does not have to rely on specific locations. Atlantic salmon, native to the‬
‭North Atlantic, are farmed in Chile, Canada, Norway, Russia, the UK, and Australia.‬
‭Similarly Chinook (king) salmon, native to the North Pacific, are farmed in New Zealand‬
‭and Chile. New Zealand is the world's largest producer of Chinook salmon, producing‬
‭more farmed salmon than the rest of the world's entire catch.‬
‭●‬ ‭Fish farming is highly efficient. In the wild, a salmon might need 10 kg of food for every‬
‭1 kg of body weight. Farmed fish require just 4 kg of food per kg of body weight. Much‬
‭of this food includes fish meal.‬
‭●‬ ‭The increase in fish farming has not caused an increase in the catch of fish for fish meal.‬
‭Instead, the fish meal required for fish farming has come from fish meal that was once‬
‭fed to livestock such as pigs and poultry, which now use other feed types such as grain.‬

‭Fish farming: An unsustainable disaster?‬

‭●‬ M ‭ ost fish farming is carried out in sea cages rather than containment facilities. This‬
‭means waste from the fish farm enters the local ecosystem directly. Fish are held at high‬
‭density in the pens and produce a large and concentrated amount of waste, including‬
‭feces and food waste. In sites without adequate currents, these wastes can build up in the‬
‭area, polluting the water and causing disease in the farmed fish and in local populations‬
‭of marine animals. Heavy metals may also accumulate in the environment and in the fish,‬
‭creating a hazard for human consumption.‬
‭●‬ ‭Disease can be a problem in cages, spreading quickly through the high density‬
‭population. Antifouling, antibacterial and anti-parasitic chemicals are used to reduce‬
‭disease.‬
‭●‬ ‭Escapes from the cages are common, especially in high seas. If the fish being farmed are‬
‭not native, they can compete with native fish. Farmed fish also have lower genetic‬
‭diversity than wild fish, so a large escape could decrease the overall genetic diversity of a‬
‭wild population.‬
‭●‬ ‭Many of the farmed fish species are carnivorous and so are fed fish meal and oils in order‬
‭to produce fish high in omega-3 fats (not made by fish but taken in with their normal‬
‭diet). A large percentage of the commercial fish take is dedicated to catching bait fish‬
‭such as sardines specifically for fish meal. What's more, 80% of all fish oil produced is‬
‭used in the aquaculture sector. This has the potential to drive these forage fish to‬
‭extinction.‬
‭Hatcheries and their effect on wild populations‬

‭●‬ F ‭ ish hatcheries are operations for the artificial breeding and rearing of fish species. In‬
‭some cases, this is part of a fish farming operation producing fish for market. In other‬
‭cases, it is a way of maintaining fish stocks in the wild. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife‬
‭Service oversees the National Fish Hatchery System, which rears a variety of fish species‬
‭to maintain wild populations.‬
‭●‬ ‭Salmon and trout hatcheries are an important part of the program because of the‬
‭importance of these fish species in recreational and commercial fishing. These fish grow‬
‭at sea and return to their natal streams to spawn.‬
‭●‬ T ‭ here is a certain amount of evidence that, unless managed very carefully, hatchery‬
‭releases of salmon into the wild can actually do more harm than good to the population. It‬
‭is simplistic to assume that if wild stock numbers are declining, the population can be‬
‭rebuilt simply by introducing more young.‬
‭●‬ ‭Rebuilding a natural population must account for other factors involved in its decline,‬
‭such as habitat loss and catch rate.‬
‭●‬ ‭Increasing the population with an oversupply of young can affect the carrying capacity of‬
‭the environment. The behavior of hatchery young is different from those hatched in the‬
‭wild, which affects their long term survival.‬
‭●‬ ‭One of the major problems with hatchery-released salmonids is that they cannot imprint‬
‭on the river where they hatched (as they do not have one). This affects their return from‬
‭sea and productivity tends to decline as the fraction of hatchery spawners in the‬
‭population increases. This is true for all species of salmonids studied.‬
‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ I‭ dentify some advantages and disadvantages of fish farming. Use the data plotted in the‬
‭graph to help you:‬
‭a.‬ ‭Advantages:‬

‭b.‬ ‭Disadvantages:‬

‭2.‬ W
‭ ith your lab group, discuss the advantages and disadvantages you mentioned above.‬
‭Use the discussion, the data above, and your own research to evaluate fish farming as a‬
‭solution to overfishing. Write a short account to argue for and against the statement "Fish‬
‭farming can stop overfishing and provide a sustainable food source". Use evidence to‬
‭justify your answer your‬

‭ ne of the difficulties with devising a solution for a problem is that all solutions have‬
O
‭consequences. The biggest problems come from unforeseen consequences.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Explain why when planning for building or the use of a resource, planners must be extra‬
‭careful to research as many of the associated issues as possible. Use your knowledge of‬
‭fisheries and any research you do to illustrate this concept:‬

‭4.‬ ‭What is the purpose of salmon hatcheries?‬

‭5.‬ ‭Do hatchery reared salmon survive as well as wild hatched salmon?‬

‭6.‬ ‭How do hatchery salmon compared to wild salmon in the production of offspring?‬

‭7.‬ ‭Why is releasing hatchery reared salmon a simplistic way to restore fish stocks?‬
 ‭Sustainable Forestry (5-93)‬
‭Sustainable Forestry‬

‭Key Question: How can forestry become more sustainable?‬

‭ he idea of sustainable forestry followed acknowledgement of the damage done by unrestricted‬

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‭logging of old growth forests. Changes in consumer behavior, including the reuse of lumber from‬
‭demolition, can help to mitigate the impact of humans on forests, but this must be combined with‬
‭more sustainable forestry practices. For forestry to be sustainable, demand for lumber must be‬
‭balanced by tree regrowth. Sustainable forestry allows timber demands to be met without‬
‭over-exploiting the timber-producing trees. Different logging methods are used depending on the‬
‭type of trees being logged. This prevents disruption of the service that forests provide, including‬
‭providing shelter for wildlife, reducing water runoff and flooding, and moderating local climate.‬

‭Sustainable methods of forestry‬

‭ elective logging‬
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‭A mature forest is examined, and trees are selected for removal based on height, girth, or species.‬
‭These trees are felled individually and directed to fall in such a way as to minimize the damage‬
‭to the surrounding younger trees. The forest is managed in such a way as to ensure continual‬
‭regeneration of young seedlings (reforestation) and provide a balance of tree ages that mirrors‬
‭the natural age structure of the forest.‬

‭ orestry integrated pest management (forestry IPM) has an important role in sustainable forestry,‬
F
‭allowing pests and diseases to be managed to an economically acceptable level.‬
‭Strip cutting‬

‭ trip cutting is a variation of clearcutting. Trees are clear cut out of a forest in strips. The strip is‬
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‭narrow enough that the forest on either side is able to reclaim the cleared land. As the cleared‬
‭forest reestablishes (3-5 years) the next strip is cut.‬

‭ trip cutting allows the forest to be logged with minimal effort and damage to forest on either‬
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‭side of the cutting zone, while at the same time allowing the natural reestablishment of the‬
‭original forest. Each strip is not cut again for around 30 years, depending on regeneration time.‬
 ‭●‬ P ‭ art of forest management is to reduce the occurrence of large, serious fires.‬‭Prescribed‬
‭burns‬‭are designed to remove excess flammable material‬‭in a section of forest, and so‬
‭significantly reduce the risk of a wildfire. This is done in colder seasons when there is a‬
‭lower risk of the burn becoming uncontrollable. The controlled burns also help to‬
‭stimulate new growth in the following season.‬
‭●‬ ‭Prescribed burns are carried out to prevent small surface fires from becoming crown fires‬
‭or out of control wildfires. Surface fires burn debris close to the ground and can be a‬
‭benefit to a forest. Crown fires are large, extremely hot forest fires that often destroy‬
‭large trees and forests. Ground fires are fires that burn material underground (such as‬
‭peat) but may emerge to cause surface fires.‬

‭Questions‬

‭1.‬ ‭Identify advantages and disadvantages of each of the logging methods:‬

‭2.‬ ‭Distinguish between, ground fires, and crown fires:‬

‭3.‬ S
‭ ome people argue that conservation of forests includes reducing any fires to prevent‬
‭damage to the forest. Others argue that prescribed burns simulate natural fires and‬
‭prevent larger more dangerous fires. Justify the use of prescribed burns in the forestry‬
‭setting. You may include the relevance of local ecology (local adaptation to fire) if you‬
‭wish:‬
‭The End‬