Because learning changes everything.

Chapter 3
Culture

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 What Is Culture? 1

Culture: the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs,

knowledge, material objects, and behavior.
• Includes the ideas, values, customs, and artifacts of groups of
people.
• Consists of all objects in a society.
Society: a fairly large number of people living in the same
territory, who are relatively independent of people outside
their area, and who participate in a common culture.
• The largest form of a human group.
Culture is learned and transmitted from one generation to the
next.

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 What Is Culture? 2

Having a common culture simplifies daily interactions.

People take for granted small cultural patterns—
for example, assuming that:
• Theaters provide seats for the audience.
• Doctors won’t discuss confidential information.
• Parents will care for their children.
“Culture industry”: the worldwide media industry that
standardizes goods and services demanded by consumers.
• Philosopher Theodor Adorno: the primary effect is to limit
people’s choices.

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 Cultural Universals

Cultural universals: certain common practices and beliefs

that all societies have developed.
• Many are adaptations to meet essential human needs.
Anthropologist George Murdock compiled a list of cultural
universals, which includes:
• Athletic sports.
• Visiting.
• Personal names.
• Marriage.
• Funeral ceremonies.
• Sexual restrictions.

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 Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism: the tendency to assume that one’s own

culture and way of life represents the norm or is superior to
others.
• A person’s group is the center or defining point of culture, and all
other cultures are deviations from what is “normal.”
• Our view of the world is dramatically influenced by the society in
which we were raised.

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 Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism: viewing people’s behaviors from the

perspective of their own culture.
• Priority is placed on understanding other cultures.
• Employs value neutrality.

Cultural relativism does not suggest we must unquestionably

accept every cultural variation.
It does require an unbiased effort to consider the distinctive
culture in evaluating norms, values, and customs.

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 FIGURE 3-1 COUNTRIES WITH HIGH CHILD MARRIAGE RATES
In 16 countries, 40 percent or more of the women under 18 are married.
Note: Data are the most recent available, ranging from 2003 to 2017.

© McGraw Hill LLC Source: UNICEF 2018. 7

 Sociobiology and Culture 1

Sociobiology: the systematic study of how biology affects

human social behavior.
• Sociobiologists assert that many cultural traits are not learned
but are rooted in our genetic makeup.

Sociobiology is founded on Darwin’s theory of evolution.

• Natural selection: term coined by Darwin to describe the
process of adaptation to the environment through random
genetic variation.

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 Sociobiology and Culture 2

Sociobiologists assume that particular forms of behavior

become genetically linked to a species if they contribute to its
fitness to survive.
Instead of focusing on individual behavior, they focus on how
human nature is affected by the genetic composition of a
group of people who share certain characteristics.
Most social scientists agree that there is a biological basis for
social behavior; but most sociologists would likewise agree
that it is behavior that defines social reality.

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 Role of Language

Language is one of the major elements of culture.

• Important component of cultural capital—the noneconomic
assets reflected in a person’s knowledge of language and the
arts.
• Facilitates day-to-day exchanges.

Language includes both the written and spoken word and

nonverbal communication.

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 Language: Written and Spoken

Language: an abstract system of word meanings and

symbols for all aspects of culture.
• Fundamental to shared culture.
• Foundation of every culture.

The ability to speak other languages is crucial to intercultural

relations.
Language shapes the reality of a culture.
• For example, gender-related language.

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 Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication: the use of gestures, facial

expressions, and other visual images to communicate.
• Like other forms of language, these are learned expressions.
Symbols: the gestures, objects, and words that form the
basis of human communication.
• Many symbols are rich in meaning and may not convey the
same meaning in all social contexts.

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 Norms 1

Norms: the established standards of behavior maintained by

a society.
To be significant, a norm must be widely shared and
understood.
For example: one persistent social norm in contemporary
society is heterosexuality.
• One in five mothers sees homosexuality as abnormal.
• One in four mothers teaches her young children that
homosexuality is wrong.
• Only one in four parents has even considered whether his or her
child might grow up to be gay or lesbian.

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 Norms 2

Formal norms: generally have been written down and

specify strict punishment for violators.
Law: formal norms enforced by the state.
• Described by sociologist Donald Black as “governmental social
control.”
Informal norms: generally understood but not precisely
recorded.
• Standards of proper dress are an example.

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 Norms 3

Mores: norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a

society.
• Societies demand obedience to mores.
• The United States has strong mores against murder, treason,
and child abuse.
Folkways: norms governing everyday behavior.
• Society is less likely to formalize folkways.
• Violations do not raise much concern.

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 Norms 4

Sanctions: penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a

social norm.
• Positive sanctions: include pay raises, medals, words of
gratitude, and pats on the back.
• Negative sanctions: include fines, threats, imprisonment, and
stares of contempt.

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 TABLE 3-1 NORMS AND SANCTIONS

Norms Positive Sanctions Negative Sanctions

Formal Salary bonus; Demotion;
Testimonial dinner; Firing from a job;
Medal; Jail sentence;
Diploma Expulsion
Informal Smile; Frown;
Compliment; Humiliation;
Cheers Bullying

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 Norms 5

People do not follow norms in all situations.

• A norm may be weakly enforced.
• A behavior may adhere to a group norm but not a societal norm.
• Norms may be violated because they conflict with other norms.
Acceptance of norms is subject to change.
• For example, norms regarding interracial marriage have
changed over time.
Sudden violation of longstanding cultural norms can upset an
entire population.

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 Values 1

Values: the collective conceptions of what is good, desirable,

and proper—or bad, undesirable, and improper—in a culture.
• Indicate what people in a culture prefer, find important, find
morally right or wrong.
• Can be specific or general.
Values, norms, and sanctions are often directly related to
each other.

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 Values 2

Values can differ in subtle ways not just among individuals

and groups, but from one culture to another.
• Example: “cram schools,” which are valued in Japan but are
considered an unfair advantage in Korea.
• Example: public opinion regarding government efforts to reduce
income inequality.

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 Global Culture War

The polarization of society over controversial cultural

elements has been referred to as the “culture war.”
• In 1990s, the term referred to political debates over abortion,
religious expression, gun control, and sexual orientation.
• Soon, especially after 9/11, it took on a global meaning.
Research over the past 30 years finds that around the world,
certain values are widely shared.
Nevertheless, some scholars see the conflicts of the early
21st century as a “clash of civilizations.”
• The concept discuses the sharp divisions that exist within large
groups.

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 Sociological Perspectives on Culture 1

Functionalists maintain that social stability requires a

consensus and the support of society’s members and that
strong central values and common norms provide that
support.

Conflict theorists argue that the common culture serves to

maintain the privileges of certain groups.

Both agree that culture and society are mutually supportive.

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 Sociological Perspectives on Culture 2

The conflict perspective argues the dominant ideology has

major social significance.

Dominant ideology: a set of cultural beliefs and practices

that help maintain powerful social, economic, and political
interests.

The most powerful groups:

• Control wealth and property.
• Control the means of producing beliefs about reality—through
religion, education, and the media.

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 TABLE 3-2 SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON CULTURE

Functionalist Conflict Feminist Interactionist

Element Perspective Perspective Perspective Perspective
Norms Reinforce societal Reinforce patterns Reinforce roles of Are maintained
standards of domination men and women through face-to-face
interaction
Values Are collective May perpetuate May perpetuate Are defined and
conceptions of what social inequality men’s dominance redefined through
is good social interaction
Culture and Culture reflects a Culture reflects a Culture reflects A society’s core
Society society’s strong society’s dominant society’s view of culture is
central values ideology men and women perpetuated through
daily social
interactions
Cultural Subcultures serve Countercultures Cultural relativism Customs and
Variation the interests of question the respects variations traditions are
subgroups dominant social in the way men and transmitted through
order; women are viewed intergroup contact
ethnocentrism in different societies and through the
devalues groups media

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 Cultural Variation

Cultures adapt to meet specific circumstances.

• Climate, level of technology, population, and geography.

Even within a single nation, groups develop cultural patterns

that differ from those of the dominant society.

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 Subcultures

Subculture: a segment of society that shares distinctive

pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from those
of the larger society.
• The existence of subcultures is characteristic of complex
societies.

Argot: a specialized language that distinguishes a

subculture from the wider society.
• Allows insiders to understand words with special meanings.
• Establishes patterns of communication outsiders can’t
understand.

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 Countercultures

Counterculture: a subculture that conspicuously and

deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture.
Countercultures typically thrive among the young.
Counterterrorism experts in United States are concerned
about the growth of ultraconservative militia groups.
• Tend to be antigovernment, and often tolerate racism.

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 Culture Shock

Culture shock: a feeling of disorientation, uncertainty, being

out of place, or fearful when immersed in an unfamiliar
culture.
• People tend to take for granted the cultural practices of their
society.
• Customs that seem strange are considered normal and proper
in other cultures.

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 Development of Culture around the World
Innovation: the process of introducing a new idea or object
to a culture.

Discovery: involves making known or sharing existence of an

aspect of reality.

Invention: results when existing cultural items are combined into

form that did not exist before.

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 Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology 1

Diffusion: the process by which cultural items spread from

group to group or society to society.
McDonaldization of society: how the principles of fast-food
restaurants, developed in the United States, have come to
dominate throughout the world (George Ritzer).
• Hair salons and medical clinics now take walks-ins.
• Religious groups use marketing techniques.
McDonaldization is associated with the melding of cultures.

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 Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology 2

Technology: cultural information about how to use material

resources of the environment to satisfy human needs and
desires (Nolan and Lenski).
Technology accelerates the diffusion of scientific innovations.
Technology transmits culture.

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 Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology 3

Material culture: the physical or technological aspects of

daily lives.
Nonmaterial culture: ways of using material objects; and
customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of
communication.
Culture lag: the period of maladjustment when nonmaterial
culture struggles to adapt to new material conditions.

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 Social Policy and Culture: Bilingualism 1

Looking at the Issue:

• Bilingualism: the use of two or more languages in a particular
setting.
• Bilingual education may instruct children in their native language
while gradually introducing the language of the host society.
• Bilingual programs vary widely in application and quality, so it is
difficult to measure their success.

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 FIGURE 3-4 MOST COMMONLY SMOKEN LANGUAGE, OTHER THAN
ENGLISH OR SPANISH, BY STATE
U.S. households speak many languages in addition to English and Spanish. Some, such as
German, Italian, and Portuguese, reflect older waves or immigrants, while others, such as
Chinese, Vietnamese, Tagalog, and Russian, reflect more recent immigrant waves. And in
four states the roots of Native American languages, Dakota, Navajo, and Yupik, remain
strong. Access the text alternative for slide image

© McGraw Hill LLC Source: American Community Survey 2018b. 34

 FIGURE 3-5 PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE WHO SPEAK A LANGUAGE
OTHER THAN ENGLISH AT HOME, BY STATE
Note: Data for 2018 for people 5 years of age or older. National average was 22 percent.

Access the text alternative for slide image

© McGraw Hill LLC Source: American Community Survey 2019a. 35

 Social Policy and Culture: Bilingualism 2

Applying Sociology:
• For a long time, people in the United States demanded
conformity to a single language.
• Recent decades have seen challenges to this pattern of forced
obedience to the dominant ideology.
• Attackers of bilingual programs often ignore the fact that
bilingual education programs may have beneficial results.

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 Social Policy and Culture: Bilingualism 3

Initiating Policy:
• Bilingualism has policy implications in two areas:
• Efforts to maintain language purity.
• Programs to enhance bilingual education.
• Nations vary dramatically in their tolerance for a variety of
languages.
• In the United States, repeated efforts have been made to
declare English as the nation’s official language.
• Public concern over a potential decline in the use of English
appears to be overblown, as most immigrants quickly become
fluent and abandon their mother tongue.

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