REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Reproduction is the production of a new generation of individuals of the same

species, during which there is transmission of genetic material from parents to their
offspring to ensure continued survival of a species.
OR: Formation of separately existing individuals of the same species by existing
organisms
Types of reproduction: Sexual and Asexual

Distinguish between sexual and asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the production of offspring (new individuals) from a single
organism without the formation of gametes. The offspring (referred to as clone) are
genetically identical to each other and to their parent, except when and if mutation
occurs.
Cloning is the process by which an organism reproduces asexually to give individuals
in a population genetically identical to each other and to their parent.
Sexual reproduction is the production of offspring by the fusion of haploid male and
female gametes (fertilization) to form a diploid zygote, which develops into the mature
organism.
Compare sexual and asexual reproduction
Similarities:
• In both mitosis is involved
• Both produce offspring
• In both there is transmission of genetic material from parents to their offspring
Differences:
Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
• Involves fertilization to form diploid • No zygote formation
zygote • Offspring are usually identical to each other
• Offspring show genetic variability and to their parents; i.e. a clone
• Population numbers increase • Population numbers increase rapidly
slowly • Always involves only one parent
• May involve one or two parents • It occurs rapidly in favourable conditions
• It is a less rapid process • Offspring mature faster
• Offspring mature slower • Occurs mainly among plants and simpler
• Occurs among all living organisms animals
• Male and female gametes • No game formation
produced by gametogenesis
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Give an account of the various forms of asexual reproduction
The five major ways by which asexual reproduction
occurs are:
a) Fission:
It is the division of the cell by mitosis into two or more equal sized daughter cells
identical to the parent cell.
Binary fission (‘splitting into two’) occurs in bacteria, amoeba, paramecium while
multiple fission (schizogony) - ‘splitting into many’ occurs in plasmodium (a
malaria parasite) immediately after infection as the parasite (merozoites) enters
the liver and again as they invade the red blood cells.
b) Sporulation (spore formation):
Is the formation of small unicellular bodies called spores by cell divisions in
organisms, which detach from the parent plant and grow into new organisms under
favourable conditions. It occurs in fungi e.g. rhizopus, bacteria, mosses, ferns,
Liverworts, algae and amoeba.
A spore is a haploid reproductive cell, usually unicellular, capable of developing into
an adult without fusion with another cell.
c) Fragmentation:
This is the breaking of a single organism into two or more genetically identical pieces,
each of which is capable of regenerating into a new individual. It occurs in sponges,
spirogyra, cnidarians, and flatworms.
d) Budding:
This involves the parent cell forming an outgrowth (a small bulge), which increases in
size and finally drops off (detaches) to become an independent organism. It occurs in
flat worms e.g. tapeworms, yeast, hydra, obelia, bryophyllum.
e) Vegetative propagation:
This is asexual reproduction in which a part of flowering plant other than the flower
detaches itself to develop into a new individual plant. Parts of the plant such as root,
stem, or leaf specialized to give rise to new individuals are called propagules and
may also act as organs of perennation.

Explain the role played by perennating organs to the plants.

These are parts of flowering plants specialised for vegetative propagation as well as
food storage, enabling plants bearing them to survive adverse (unfavourable)
environmental conditions e.g. cold or dry periods. The food manufactured by
photosynthesis in aerial green leaves is translocated and subsequently stored as
starch in rhizomes, corms, stem and root tubers, or as glucose in onion bulb.
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During unfavourable conditions, the plant remains dormant but when conditions
normalise, starch is hydrolysed to sugar and translocated to the young buds, enabling
early growth, sprouting, and photosynthesis when there is little competition for
nutrients from other species.

Distinguish between organs of vegetative propagation and organs of

perennation in plants.
Organs of vegetative progation are the parts of the flowering plant other than the
flower, such as root, stem, or leaf specialized for developing into new individuals when
detached. Examples: rhizomes e.g. ginger, couch grass, canna lily and spear grass;
corms e.g. coco-yam (mayuni), crocus and gladiolus; stem tubers e.g. Irish potato,
yams; root tubers e.g. sweet potato, dahlia; bulbs e.g. onion, garlic, tulip, swollen
taproots e.g. carrot, turnip; stolons e.g. blackberry; runners e.g. straw berry, oxalis
Organs of perennation are plant parts specialised for storing the food used to develop
into new individuals, enabling plants bearing them to survive adverse environmental
conditions like drought. Examples: rhizomes, corms, stem and root tubers, bulbs,
swollen tap roots.
Summarily, organs of perennation also double as organs of vegetative propagation,
but not all organs of vegetative propagation function as perennating organs.

Specialised organs of vegetative propagation must have buds, which only occur
on stems. Explain why root tubers (swollen adventitious roots) e.g. sweet
potato, dahlia and cassava, and swollen taproots e.g. carrot and turnip are used
as organs of vegetative propagation yet roots lack buds.
Root tubers and swollen taproots must bear a small part of old stem if they are to act
as organs of vegetative propagation. The swollen root together with buds at the base
of old stem form organs of vegetative propagation and perennation.

Artificial propagation methods in plants

Cutting:
A piece of root e.g. of lemon and tamarind, or stem e.g. sugarcane and cassava, or
a complete leaf is dipped in rooting mixture composed of plant hormones, and
allowed to grow in a rooting composite or soil.
Layering:
Involves pegging down of stem of runners e.g. strawberry into the soil to induce
development of adventitious roots, after which the new daughter plants are detached
from the parent plants by cutting.
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Grafting and budding:
It is the insertion of a stem or bud of one plant, the scion onto another closely related
plant, the stock, ensuring that vascular tissues are in contact. It propagates lemons,
apples, roses, hibiscus, and oranges.
Grafting in plants is not hampered by rejection, as is the case in animals.

Comparison of advantages and disadvantages of natural vegetative

propagation
Advantages Disadvantages
• It is a rapid means of reproduction and spread • Leads to overcrowding and
-Offspring are genetically identical, preserving competition for nutrients, unless
good strains. separated artificially.
• Perennating organs enable survival in • New varieties cannot be
adverse conditions produced, except by mutation
• Their dispersal and spread is independent of resulting into reduced vigor &
external agents hence the process is faster. strength
• Plants are less affected by environmental • Diseases typical of a species are
factors rapidly transmitted and can
• Females pass all of their genes to the offspring decimate a crop

Outline the process of sporulation in amoeba.

-It starts when the nucleus of a single cell of amoeba divides repeatedly and each
unit is enclosed in a bit of cytoplasm, but all are encased by one cell membrane.
-Some residual cytoplasm may be left which is discarded.
-The new nuclei with cytoplasm are surrounded by spore case (cyst) to withstand
unfavourable conditions
-The spores formed are released by bursting of the cell membrane.

What is parthenogenesis?
Parthenogenesis (“virgin origin”) is the development of an embryo from an unfertilized
egg or one in which the male and female nuclei fail to unite following fertilization.

What is the exact meaning of the following? Give an example in each case.
a) Diploid parthenogenesis / ameoitic parthenogenesis:
This is the development of embryo from unfertilized diploid eggs that formed by mitosis
instead of meiosis, resulting into diploid offspring, which are clones of the parent. It

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occurs in Aphids, during which large numbers of wingless females are formed without
necessitating the presence of males, in flatworms, rotifers, crustaceans.
b) Haploid parthenogenesis / meiotic parthenogenesis:
This is the development of embryo from unfertilized haploid eggs that formed by
meiosis and may develop directly into haploid offspring. It occurs in honeybees,
wasps, ants, whiptail lizards.
In honeybees, the queen bee can either fertilise the eggs as she lays them or allows
them to pass unfertilised. Fertilised eggs become diploid females (fertile queens or
sterile workers), and unfertilised eggs develop to become fertile haploid males
(drones).
c) Parthenocarpy:
This is fruit development without fertilization, usually induced by auxins e.g. in apples

Give the major advantages of parthenogenesis

• It avoids the problem in some animals of bringing together males and females at
the right moment for successful fertilization.
• Produces a large number of organisms in a short time. E.g. in whiptail lizards all
the parthenogenetic offspring are females, which all produce eggs, yet only half
of the bisexual population are egg-laying females.
• It eliminates in each generation all lethal genes that thrive in homozygous state

Major disadvantage of parthenogenesis:

During sudden environmental changes, parthenogenetic species have limited capacity
to shift gene combinations to adapt to the new conditions

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The role of sexual reproduction compared
Advantages Disadvantages
• Brings about genetic variability in • May result into lethal combination of genes
a population by recombining • In some animals, it is difficult to bringing
parental characteristics, together males and females at the right
enabling a species to adapt to moment for successful fertilization.
the changing environmental • It relies so much on external agents hence
conditions reducing chances of occurrence
• During the life cycle of the • It is a slower method of reproduction.
organism, resistant stages

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 develop enabling survival of • There is wastage in production of males,
adverse conditions many of which fail to reproduce & thus
• The formation of spores, seeds consume resources that could be applied in
or larvae, which may be used to the production of females
disperse offspring and so, • Females only pass half of the genes to the
reduce intraspecific competition. offspring because the genome is halved at
• It leads to increased numbers of meiosis
a population

Outline the ways through which variation can arise in a population

• During fertilization when male and female gametes with different genotypes fuse to
form a zygote.
• Mutations during which there is alteration in gene structure and sequence.
• During meiosis by crossover during prophase I and also during random segregation
of chromosomes on the metaphase plate
• By the effects of the environment where the organisms live.

What are the main characteristics / features of sexual reproduction?

• It involves production of gametes by two separate parents, a process called
gametogenesis. Isogametes are identical though dissimilar genetically,
Anisogametes (heterogametes) differ slightly in size. Some species exhibit
oogamy, the gametes greatly differ in size and activity
• It involves fertilisation (syngamy), the union of male and female gametes -Bacteria
reproduce by conjugation.

Define the term life cycle.

It is the progressive sequence of changes an organism goes through from fertilization
till death.

What is meant by alternation of generations?

It is the occurrence within the life cycle of an organism two or more distinct forms
(generations), a haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generations, which differ
from each other in appearance, method of reproduction and genetic constitution.
a) Give an account of alternation of generations in a named bryophyte or
pteridophyte/Filicinophyte.
b) Compare alternation of generations in a named bryophyte and pteridophyte.

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c) Discuss the significance of alternation of generations to the life cycle of plants.

a) Alternation of generations (lifecycle) of a moss e.g. Funaria – a bryophyte:

• A moss e.g. Funaria consists of two distinct forms in its life cycle, the haploid
gametophyte, which is the dominant and sexual stage, and the diploid sporophyte,
which is the asexual and less conspicuous stage.
• Gametophyte may bear both sex organs, the antheridia (sperm producing) and
archegonia (egg producing) or they may be borne on separate gametophyte plants.
• On maturing, the antheridia shed sperms, antherozoids that are aided by rain-
splash to reach the open neck of archegonia, and the attracted by chemicals e.g.
sucrose enables them to reach the archegonia.
• The haploid antherozoids fuse with the haploid eggs (ospheres) to form diploid
zygotes (oospores).
• The zygotes develop into diploid sporophytes, which remain attached and surviving
on the gametophytes.
• At maturity the sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis within a spore
capsule, which splits open when dry and the spores are dispersed by wind.
• On landing on moist soil;, each spore germinates into a green filamentous
protonema which produces buds that grow into new haploid gametophyte.
Lifecycle of Funaria

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 Alternation of generations (lifecycle) of a common fern - a Pteridophyte /
Filicinophyte:
• A common fern (Dryopteris) consists of two distinct forms in its life cycle, the diploid
sporophyte, which is the dominant and asexual stage, and the haploid
gametophyte, which is the sexual and less conspicuous stage.
• Diploid spore mother cells inside sporangia divide by meiosis to produce haploid
spores When mature, the protective covering (indusium) shrinks and the exposed
sporangium wall begins to dry out.
• The walls rupture and the spores are discharged from the sporangium.
• If moisture is present, each spore germinates into heart-shaped prothallus
(gametophyte), anchored to the soil by rhizoids.
• At the underside, the prothallus bears antheridia and archegonia that produce
haploid sperms and eggs by mitosis respectively.
• After rupture of antheridia, the ciliated sperms swim through water to fertilise eggs
at the base of archegonia, and the diploid zygotes formed grow into young
sporophytes, which remain supported on the prothallus till self-supporting.
Lifecycle of Dryopteris

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b) Comparison of alternation of generations in a moss e.g. Funaria and
common fern
Similarities:
In both:
-There is one dominant stage and the other stage is relatively inconspicuous.
-A moist or aquatic environment is required.
-Male gametes from the antheridia are brought into contact with eggs by some
mechanisms.
-The gametophytes bear sperm producing antheridia and egg producing archegonia.
-Cases the spores are formed in specialized spore-bearing sporangia.
-There is a dispersal mechanism for scattering spores.
-Sporophytes are diploid and gametophytes are haploid.
-Spores are produced by meiosis and gametes by
mitosis
-There is sexual and asexual reproduction
-Male gametes are motile while eggs are non-motile

Differences between alternation of generations in a moss and common fern

Alternation of generations in a moss Alternation of generations in a
e.g. Funaria Common fern
• Sporophyte is dependent upon the • Sporophyte is a self-supporting
gametophyte nutritionally plant
• Each spore germinates first into • Each spore germinates directly
protonema, which transforms into into gametophyte
gametophyte
• Gametophyte is the dominant • Sporophyte is the dominant
generation generation
• Both male and female reproductive • Both male and female
organs may be borne on same or reproductive organs are borne on
separate gametophyte plants the same gametophyte
• Majorly depends on water for plant (prothallus)
growth, transference of sperms, • Dependence on water is less,
support and spore dispersal and spore mainly for swimming of sperms
germination and germination of spores

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c) The significance of alternation of generations to the life cycle of plants
• It enable exploitation of different habitats in the ecosystem by the different
generations
• Promotes rapid multiplication of species since spores are enormously produced
• Enables plants to cope better with adverse environmental conditions for survival
• It reduces chances of extinction of a species since the different generations are
interdependent
• Brings abut genetic variability by meiosis during spore formation
• Mitosis during gamete formation maintains the plant genome by producing haploid
gametes

Description of some terms

Stigma may have one or more lobes, hairy, feathery, sticky, rough etc.
Internally, ovary may be monocarpellary (single carpel), bicarpellary (two carpels),
pentacarpellary (five carpels), etc. depending on the number of mainly chambers
observed when cut or stigma lobes.
Placentation (pattern of ovule arrangement) may be marginal e.g. in beans, parietal
e.g. in pawpaw, passion fruits and some cucumber, axile e.g. in oranges and lemons,
free central/central e.g. in green pepper, basal (at base) e.g. in mango, Apical (at
apex) e.g. avocado

A carpel is described as:

i) Monocarpous – if it consists of only one carpel ii) Apocarpous – if there
are many carpels that are entirely separate from one another e.g. in rose.
iii) Syncarpous – when all its carpels or at least their ovaries are fused e.g. in hibiscus.

With reference to plants, distinguish between the following, giving examples.

Monoecious, dioecious, and polygamous species
Dichogamy, Protandry and Protogyny,
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Heterostyly and self-sterility
Monoecious species: are species in which individual plants bear separate male and
female flowers e.g. maize, oak, sycamore, coconut, date palms, castor oil, pumpkin
Dioecious species: are species in which individual plants bear either only male or
only female flowers, so that there are different sexes of the plant e.g., pawpaw and
asparagus.
Polygamous species: are species in which individual plants bear three types of
flowers: bisexual, male and female e.g. mango
Dichogamy: failure of the stamens and pistil to ripen at the same time in a
hermaphrodite flower. Protandry: it is the ripening of the stamens before the carpel
in a hermaphrodite flower e.g. in sunflower, white deadnettle, salvia, and dandelion
(mainly insect pollinated flowers). Protogyny: ripening of carpels earlier than the
stamens e.g. in arum lilies, and wild varieties of: wheat, barley, and oats. (Mainly wind
pollinated flowers). NB: protandrous flowers are more common than protogynous
ones.
Heterostyly: it is a condition in which the style length is different in various flowers of
an individual plant, so that pollen from a different flower only can bring about effective
pollination. e.g. primrose, has two types of flowers that differ in length of style, with the
pin-eyed flower having stamens situated below the stigma while in the thrum-eyed
flower they are situated above.

Self-sterility/genetic self-incompatibility: a condition, which results when the pollen

and stigma recognize each other as being genetically related and pollen tube growth
is either blocked or retarded. e.g. in clover and pears.
Self-incompatibility is controlled by the S (self-incompatibility) locus, which bears many
alleles e.g. S1, S2, S3, that regulate recognition responses between the pollen and
stigma.
In gametophytic self-incompatibility, if any of the S alleles in the stigma matches with
any pollen S allele, then the growth of that particular pollen tube with the allele which
matches stops before it reaches the embryo sac, but other pollen tubes with alleles
that don’t match continue growing.
Gametophytic selfincompatibility is determined by the haploid pollen genotype e.g. in
petunias.
In sporophytic self-incompatibility, if any allele in the stigma matches with either of the
pollen parent S alleles, then not even a single haploid pollen germinates. Sporophytic
self-incompatibility recognizes the genotype of the diploid pollen parent, not just the
haploid pollen genotype e.g. in broccoli.
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 Drawings showing Heterostyly in primrose

In a species, self-sterility is controlled by multiple alleles S1, S2 and S3.

a) Assuming that self-sterility occurs if the pollen grain and the style tissue
have an allele in common, what proportion of the pollen grains from a plant
with the genotype S1S2 would be capable of successfully germinating on a
plant with:
i) Genotype S2S3?
ii) Genotype S1S2?
Explain your answers in (i) and (ii) above.
b) What type of self-incompatibility is exhibited in (a) above?
c) Give three other factors which promote outcrossing in plants.
a) (i) Only ½ or 50% of the pollen grains (those with the allele S1) would be capable of
germinating
A plant of genotype S1S2 produces ½ of its pollen with allele S1 that does not match
with either of the alleles S2 and S3 of the style tissue, hence would germinate, while
the rest of pollen are of allele S2 which matches with allele S2 of the style tissue,
germination would be inhibited.
ii) 0% or none of the pollen grains germinates. Both alleles S1 and S2 would match
with those of the style tissue and germination would be inhibited.
b) Dioeciousness (Dioecism), Monoeciousness (Monoecism), Dichogamy and
Heterostyly
State the physiological adaptations of flowers to pollination
Explain the mechanisms which limit inbreeding / promote outcrossing in plants
What are the consequences of self-pollination and cross pollination?

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 POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of the flower.
Types of pollination
Self-pollination – pollen from the anthers is transferred to the stigma of the flower on
the same plant.
Cross-pollination - pollen from the anthers is transferred to the stigma of another flower
on a different plant but of the same species.

Based on agents, wind pollination is categorized as follows:

i) Anemophily (wind pollination). Anemophilous flowers exhibit many features.
ii) Entomophily (insect pollination).
iii) Hydrophily (water pollination). In hydrophilous flowers, pollen grains have same
specific gravity as that of water to enable floating in water at any depth.
iv) Ornithophily (bird pollination). Ornithophilous flowers are tubular shaped, brightly
coloured, with plenty of nectar, and generally odourless.
v) Chiropterophily (bat pollination). Chiropterophilous flowers emit strong scent and
open after dusk, have long stalks and produce large quantities of nectar.

Adaptations of flowers to self-pollination:

Physiological Morphological
• Stamens and carpels mature at the • Flowers are reduced and
same time inconspicuous -Stamens are
• Hermaphrodite flowers may not open situated above the stigma or the
petals - Hermaphrodite flowers may anther is close to the stigma
remain under ground • stigma often coiled to touch ripe
• Pollen is released onto the stigma by anthers
matured anthers before the petal • Style and filaments coil on one
opens. another
• Pollen is compatible with the tissues of • Flowers failing to open e.g. in
style, thus allowing for their germination commelina

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 Adaptations of flowers to cross-pollination:
Physiological Morphological
• Stamens ripen before carpel (protandry • Dioecious flowers have either
e.g. in salvia, deadnettle and dandelion) stamens or pistil -Stamens situated
or carpel ripens earlier (protogyny). below the stigma.
• Self-incompatibility due to chemicals • Hermaphrodite (bisexual) flower
prevents germinating of pollen on the containing both sex organs.
stigma of the same flower (self-sterility) • Production of nectar to attract
• It is genetically controlled by self- insects.
incompatibility genes e.g. in pears • Hanging of stamens or whole flower
pollen only becomes functional if the downwards so that falling pollen
stigma surface on which it is has a drops clear of that plant.
different genetic composition.

Mechanisms which limit inbreeding (self-pollination) in plants

• Dioeciousness, all flowers on the plant being either male or female e.g. pawpaw
• Monoeciousness, having separate male and female flowers on the same
hermaphrodite plant.
• Heterostyly (differing style length), structure of the flower e.g. when a stigma is
protected from coming into contact with its own pollen or stigma being taller than
the anthers.
• Dichogamy, Stamens ripening before carpel (protandry) or carpel ripening earlier
(protogyny).
• Self incompatibility due to chemicals prevents germinating of pollen on the stigma
of the same flower

Consequences/effects of self-pollination (inbreeding) and cross-pollination

(out breeding)
Consequences of self-pollination Consequences of cross-pollination (out
(inbreeding) breeding)
It promotes homozygosity i.e. It promotes genetic diversity, resulting
transmission of genotype in the into hybrid vigour, causing increased
population, resulting into decreased resistance to diseases, high yield, and
fertility, reduced resistance to disease, earlier maturity, thereby providing
thereby reducing evolutionary potential of greater evolutionary potential.
the species in the long run.

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 Comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of self and cross
pollination:
Advantages Type of Disadvantages
pollination
• It is reliable especially where members of Self-pollination It promotes homozygosity i.e.
a species are rare and far apart transmission of genotype in the
• It is the only means where pollinating population, resulting into decreased
agents are unreliable e.g. mountain tops fertility and reduced resistance to
lack insects, and during harsh climate. disease
• It is not wasteful of pollen grains
It encourages genetic variation, increasing Cross- It is wasteful of pollen grains since
the hybrid vigour pollination pollinating agents are not very
efficient

a) Give one ecological importance of each of the following structural

arrangements in plants.
i) Monoeciousness
It allows self-fertilization for continuity of species where plants of that species are
few or separated by long distance
ii) Dioeciousness
It encourages genetic variation, thereby increasing the hybrid vigour since it allows
crosspollination
b) Explain why
In dioecious plants, male plants are usually associated with dry soils while
female plants are associated with moist soils.
Pollen production does not require much water, while seed formation and fruit
ripening require much water.
Nearly all dioecious plants are wind pollinated
It may not be possible to have animal pollinators bring in pollen from the same plant
species, which would reduce chances of fertilization.
OR: It is therefore much easier for wind to bring in pollen from same plant species
to increase chances of fertlisation
c) Suggest two reasons why dioecious plants (those with separate sexes) are
rarer than monoecious plants, despite the advantages of cross-pollination.
Half of the individuals in dioecious plants do not produce seeds, whereas all
individuals in monoecious plants bear seeds.
A lot of pollen is wasted in dioecious plants because the male and female plants
are not necessarily together.
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d) Why is dioecism (separate sexes) common in animals than in plants?
There is less wastage of gametes in animals than in plants because males and
females can move about.

Comparison of wind pollinated (anemophilous) and insect pollinated

(entomophilous) flowers
Wind pollinated flowers e.g. guinea grass, maize, Insect pollinated flowers e.g. crotalaria,
rice sunflower, coffee, etc
• Inconspicuous flowers, small and reduced in • Conspicuous flowers, large with brightly
size. Petals may be absent or dull coloured if coloured petals, and often held in
present. inflorescence if they are tiny and
• No nectar and not scented inconspicuous.
• Pollen produced in large quantity, light, smooth, • Produce nectar and or scent to attract
small and may have wing-like extensions. insects.
• Anthers are large and versatilily attached to • Less in quantity, sticky, relatively heavy,
filament. and large pollen is produced.
• Stamens hang outside the flower to release • Anthers are small and basifixedly or
pollen. dorsifixedly attached to filament.
• Stigmas are large, feathery or branched to trap • Stamens are confined within the flower.
pollen. • Stigma relatively small, glandular, and
• Stigmas hang outside the flower. sticky.
• Flowers often unisexual, having male and female • Stigma lies inside the corolla.
reproductive parts on separate flowers. • Flowers bisexual, enclosing reproductive
organs e.g. stamens and carpels.

Events that lead to the production and release of gametes in flowering plants.
• Gamete formation in plants occurs in the anther (male gametes) and ovary (female
gametes).
• The pollen grains, formed in the anthers, contain and transport the male gamete
while the ovules, formed in the ovary contain the female gamete (egg/ovum).
Production and release of male gametes:
Repeated mitotic divisions occur within the sporogenous tissue, producing a mass of
swollen cells, the microspore mother cells.
Mitosis stops and each micro spore mother cell divides by meiosis to form a tetrad of
haploid microspores, each of which gives rise to a pollen grain.
Each pollen grain develops a hard resistant, sculptured outer wall, the exine and an
inner cellulose wall, the intine.
The single haploid pollen grain nucleus divides by mitosis form a pollen tube nucleus
and the generative nucleus.
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When the pollen grains mature, the walls between each pair of pollen sacs breakdown
and the anther lobe rupture longitudinally along the line of weakness to release pollen
grains.
Diagrams illustrating the production of male gametes in plants

Transverse section of male gamete producing organs in flowering plants

Production of female gametes:

Each ovary develops one or more ovules, which contain a mass of cells, the nucellus,
which is completely surrounded by two integuments, except at a small pore called
micropyle.
One cell of the nucellus develops into a diploid embryo sac mother cell.
The embryo sac mother cell divides meiotically to give four haploid megaspore cells,
only one of which develops to form the embryo sac while the three degenerate. (In
terms of development, the embryo sac is the equivalent to the pollen grain of the male)
The embryo sac nucleus divides mitotically to form two nuclei, which migrate to
opposite poles, from where each divides mitotically to form four haploid nuclei at each
pole.

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One nucleus from either end of the sac move to the centre and fuse to form a diploid
primary endosperm nucleus.
The remaining six nuclei each gets enclosed in a thin cell wall, and one of the three
nuclei near the micropyle becomes the female gamete (egg nucleus).
The remaining two nuclei near the micropyle, the synergids disintegrate while the three
nuclei at the opposite end to the micropyle become the antipodal cells.
Thus, a mature embryo sac contains a total of 7 nuclei, comprised of: two synergids,
three antipodal cells, and diploid primary endosperm nucleus.
Diagrams illustrating the production of female gametes in plants

Features of embryo sac development in flowering plants

• Mitosis occurs three times
• There is formation of diploid nucleus by fusion of two male nuclei
• Produces six haploid cells
• Forms antipodal, synergid and egg cells.

a) Describe the events, which occur in the flower from pollination to

fertilization.
b) What are the results of fertilization in a flower?
c) Explain what is meant by double fertilisation in relation to flowers.

a) When a ripe pollen grain lands on the right stigma, it absorbs water, the outer wall
(exine) breaks open and the inner wall (intine) germinates to form a pollen tube.

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 The tube nucleus is positioned at the tip of the growing pollen tube controlling
growth while the 2 male nuclei (2 sperms) formed by mitosis from the generative
nucleus follow closely behind. -The pollen tube tip pierces the stigmatic surface and
penetrates the style tissue via intercellular spaces.
Chemical substances in the style and embryo sac enable the unidirectional rapid
growth of the pollen tube towards the ovary.
After reaching the ovary, the pollen tube grows towards the ovule and usually enters
through the micropyle, chalaza, or integuments.
The pollen tube then penetrates the embryo sac, bursts open and the tube nucleus
degenerates.
The first fertilization occurs when one sperm fuses with the egg to form a diploid
zygote, while the second fertilization occurs when another sperm fuses with the
diploid secondary nucleus to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus. This
double fertilization is unique to only flowering plants.
b)
After fertilisation Function of part formed after
Before fertilisation
the parts become fertilisation
Zygote Embryo
Ovule Seed Protects embryo
Ovary Fruit Protects seeds and enables their
dispersal
Integuments:
(a) outer Testa/seed coat Offer protection to the seed
(b) inner Tegmen
Ovary wall Fruit wall/pericarp Offers protection to fruit contents
Triploid primary Acts as food store in some seeds
endosperm nucleus Endosperm e.g. cereals like maize, wheat, castor
oil
For entry of water and oxygen at
Micropyle Micropyle
germination
Nucellus Disappears
Calyx Wither away or may
persist
Petals, stigma, style
They dry and fall off
& stamens

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c) Double fertilization: is a unique process occurring only in flowering plants in which
one male nucleus fuses with the functional egg nucleus to form a diploid zygote
while another male nucleus fuses with the diploid secondary nucleus to form a
triploid primary endosperm nucleus simultaneously.

Advantages and disadvantages of propagation by seed?

a) Advantages:
• Enable plants to be better adapted for land environment since water is less
required for sexual reproduction
• Embryo is protected within the seed
• There is food reserve for embryo growth in the cotyledon or endosperm
• Seeds are easy to store
• Seeds are easy to disperse and transport
• Allows for mixing of genes which increases the hybrid vigour
• There is increased resistance to diseases
• Plants mature early
• There is tolerance to unfavourable conditions
Disadvantages:
• Seeds are easily destroyed by pests
• Seeds have limited food reserves
• Requires selection of suitable seeds
• Needs technical knowing
• Initial inputs are expensive
• Dispersal may not be easy because of the large size of seeds usually

How the science of palynology (pollen analysis) can provide information about
past climate and human activities of a particular period of time.
The highly sculptured pattern of the exine (outer wall) of pollen grain is specific to plant
species or genus.
Since the exine has a waterproof lining resistant to decay, pollen grains last for a
longtime in the sediments.
The pollen from successive layers of sediments can be extracted and analysed by
radiocarbon dating to establish the climatic history e.g. past temperature. Human
interference with the natural vegetation is also reflected in the pollen record e.g.
absence of pollen from trees in some areas would indicate forest clearance.

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 REPRODUCTION IN VERTEBRATES
Terms used in reproduction
1) Oviparity: animals deposit fertilized eggs in the external environment for
development e.g. in all birds some reptiles and some fish.
2) Ovoviviparity: animals retain eggs in the mother’s body to complete development,
but embryos still obtain all of their nourishment from the egg yolk. The young are
hatched from the mother’s body when fully developed. E.g. in many reptiles and
some fish
3) Viviparity: eggs develop to advanced stage in the mother’s body and the embryo
obtains nourishment directly from the mother’s blood, rather than just from the egg
yolk. E.g. in mammals
4) Internal fertilization: is where fusion of male and female gametes occurs inside
the body of the female animal.
5) External fertilization: is where fusion of male and female gametes occurs outside
the body of the female animal.
6) Isolecithal eggs (Gr. Isos, equal, + lekithos, yolk): eggs with very little yolk that
is evenly distributed in the egg e.g. human eggs.
7) Mesolecithal eggs (Gr. mesos, middle, + lekithos, yolk): eggs with moderate
amount of yolk concentrated in the vegetal pole e.g. in amphibians.
8) Telolecithal eggs (Gr. telos, end, + lekithos, yolk): eggs contain an abundance
of yolk that is densely concentrated at the vegetal pole of the egg. E.g. in birds,
reptiles, most fishes.
9) Cleidoic eggs: shelled eggs e.g. eggs of birds, reptiles
10) Gametogenesis: the series of transformations that result into the formation of
mature gametes.
11) Spermatogenesis: the series of transformations that result into the formation of
male gametes.
12) Oogenesis: the series of transformations that result into the formation of female
gametes.
13) Menopause: a period when ovulation and menstruation cease in human
females.

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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
Mechanisms leading to fertilization and subsequent development in mammals
are of evolutionary advantage to their success. Describe some of the
mechanisms you consider are of evolutionary advantage.
• Fertilisation and development are internal to limit wastage of gametes and provide
protection to the young respectively.
• The breeding seasons coincide with the breeding cycle so that birth occurs at a time
when environmental conditions are most favourable for growth of young.
• Feeding young ones on nutritious milk enables them to prepare for adult food as the
digestive system develops.
• Secondary sexual characteristics enable easy identification of mating partners
• Parental care provides protection from predation and harsh environmental
conditions to the young.
• Development of placenta enables gaseous exchange and the young to excrete
wastes.
• Females are often more receptive to males during ovulation or the act of copulation
stimulating ovulation.

Main features of sexual reproduction in mammals

• Fertilisation is internal
• Females go through a sexual cycle known as menstrual cycle
• Sexual cycle is restricted to the breeding season, except in humans and other
primates, which are sexually receptive throughout the year
• Young ones are born at an advanced stage.
• There is display of courtship behaviour that leads to mating.
• Development of embryo is internal and completely dependent on the mother for food
and protection.
• The young are fed on milk
• Parental care to the young is prolonged

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SEX ORGANS

Primary sex organs: organs, which produce gametes and secrete sex hormones i.e.
the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females)
Secondary sex organs (accessory organs): organs associated with testes or
ovaries which play some roles in reproduction but other than gamete production and
hormone secretion. E.g. penis, prostate, seminal vesicles, sperm duct in males, and
fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands in females.
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 Primary sex organs Secondary sex organs
• Produce gametes • Do not produce gametes
• Secrete sex hormones • Do not secrete sex hormones
• Development is under the control • Development is under the control of
of FSH and LH oestrogen and progesterone in females
and testosterone in males

Accessory or external sex characters: are external characters, which do not play
any direct role in reproduction but are distinct and enable sexes to be distinguished as
male and female. E.g. low pitch voice and facial hair (males) and high pitch voice
(females)
Structure of the human reproductive systems.

Functions of parts of the human reproductive systems

Male reproductive system Female reproductive system
Part Function Part Function
Penis Delivers sperm to the neck of the Ovaries Are sites for egg production
cervix, as close to the site of Secrete the hormones oestrogen
ovulation as possible. and progesterone.
Scrotum Regulates teste’s temperature at Funnel of The finger-like projections sweep
30C lower than body temperature for oviduct the egg into oviduct.
proper sperm formation. When cold,
the cremaster muscle elevates the Oviducts -Walls are muscular and lined
testes to absorb heat from the body, (Fallopian with ciliated epithelium for
this’s reversed at high temperature. tubes) moving egg from ovary towards
uterus.

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 Testes -Contain seminiferous tubules that Uterus Site of implantation of fertilized
produce sperm. egg, development of foetus
-Produce the male sex hormone during pregnancy and origin of
testosterone. muscular contractions that
precede parturition.

Prostate gland -Secretes an alkaline fluid that Vagina -Passage for menstrual flow,
neutralizes the acidic vaginal receptacle for penis during
secretions to avoid reduction in coitus and lower part of birth
sperm motility at low PH. canal.

Seminal -Secrete an alkaline mucous fluid Clitoris -Tactile stimulation excites

vesicles rich in fructose-the respiratory the female sexually during
substrate for sperm motility. intercourse.

Cowper’s -Produces a mucous secretion for Labia -Produce a lubricant mucus

(bulbourethral) lubricating the penis during minora secretion during intercourse
gland intercourse and neutralizing the and Labia and protect the clitoris from
acidity of any remaining urine. majora abrasion.

Epididymis -Sperm maturation site (1-10 days).

-Stores spermatozoa (up to 4wks)

Vas deferens -Stores sperm (up to many months)

before ejaculation.

Main events during Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the process by which spermatogonia in seminiferous tubules of
testes develop into sperm that can leave the male’s body.

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 Phases Processes
Multiplication At puberty, diploid germinal epithelial cells (primordial germ cells) of
phase seminiferous tubules undergo repeated mitotic divisions to form a
number of diploid spermatogonia.
Growth Each spermatogonium increases in size and becomes a primary
phase spermatocyte.
Maturation Each primary spermatocyte undergoes the first meiotic division to
phase form two haploid secondary spermatocytes, which undergo
second meiotic division to form four haploid spermatids,
connected to each other by cytoplasm.
The spermatids get embedded into sertoli cells (loosely called
“nurse cells”) to be transformed into sperm by:
i) Losing part of cytoplasm
ii) Condensation of nucleus into head.
iii) Formation of flagellated tail.
The mature spermatozoa (sperms) finally detach from sertoli cells
and are released into the lumen of seminiferous tubules.

Functions of sertoli (sustentacular) cells:

i) Provide nourishment to developing spermatids.
ii) Phagocytise (eat off) the cytoplasm of spermatids.
iii) Secrete a fluid that carries spermatids through the tubules.
iv) Phagocytise foreign particles that invade the tubules
Development of ova in humans
Oogenesis is the production of eggs in the ovary of females
Phases Processes
Multiplication During embryonic development, diploid oogonia (germinal epithelial
phase cells of ovary) undergo repeated mitotic divisions to increase in
number
Growth Some oogonia undergo mitosis to form primary oocytes, which
phase remain at prophase I of meiosis, while the rest (now called follicle
cells/granulosa cells) enclose the primary oocytes.

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Maturation At puberty, granulosa cells multiply to form primary follicle & other
phase cell layers around the primary oocyte.
-The primary oocyte undergoes meiosis up to metaphase II only to
form a secondary oocyte and 1st polar body
The primary follicle develops to form fluid filled secondary follicle
and later Graafian follicle, which enclose secondary oocyte & 1st
polar body.
-At fertilization, the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II to form a
large ootid (ovum) and second polar body.
-The first polar body also undergoes meiosis at the same time to
form two small polar bodies.
-All the three polar bodies degenerate and only one
functional egg remains

Note: The egg released from the Graafian follicle during ovulation is a secondary
oocyte, which has undergone meiosis up to metaphase II only. Meiosis II is
completed at the time of fertilization and turns the secondary oocyte into an egg

Significance of formation polar bodies during oogenesis.

• Polar bodies take the extra chromosomes resulting from meiosis in order for the
ovum to carry haploid number of chromosomes.
• The unequal cytoplasmic division results into the formation of a large egg with the
cytoplasm containing sufficient yolk for the development of the embryo.

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 Comparison of spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans
Similarities:
• Both begin with diploid germinal epithelial cells
• Mitosis and meiosis are involved in both
• Both yield haploid gametes
• Both occur in gonads

Differences:
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
• Occurs in seminiferous tubules in • Occurs in ovaries of females
testes of males.
• Begins only at puberty. • Begins during embryonic
development. A baby girl is born with
the set number of primary oocytes
already in prophase I meiosis
• It is a continuous process and occurs • It is a discontinuous process, only one
all the time egg matures in about 28 days.
• During growth phase, primary • Primary oocyte may show the increase
spermatocyte shows only double the of about four to eight times.
increase
• Four spermatids are formed from one • Only one ovum is formed from one
primary spermatophyte primary oocyte.
• Equal cytoplasmic divisions during • There is unequal cytoplasmic division
meiosis I and meiosis II and no during meiosis I and meiosis II and
formation of polar bodies. resulting into formation of polar bodies.
• All stages are completed and sperms • The secondary oocyte leaves the
are formed in the testes only ovary and final second meiotic division
at fertilization in the fallopian tube.
• Male gamete or sperm is comparatively • Female gamete is very large
very small. comparatively.
• Spermatid undergoes spermiogenesis • No such stage after the formation of
to become sperm. ootid or ovum
• Takes a longer time to complete • Takes a shorter time to complete

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 Structure of human male and female gametes
Male gamete Female gamete

Functions of the parts of gametes

Human spermatozoon:
Acrosome: Contains hydrolytic enzymes which facilitate the penetration of the egg
membranes prior to fertilization.
Nucleus: Contain a haploid set of chromosomes, which on fusion with the egg
restores the diploid state of organisms.
Mitochondria: They complete aerobic to release ATP required for contraction of
filaments during the sperm’s movement.
Tail piece (Flagellum): Enables motility of the sperm.

Human ovum:
Yolky cytoplasm: Contains fat and protein which nourish the developing embryo.
Cortical granules (lysosomes): Contain enzymes that alter the structure of vitelline
membrane to prevent polyspermy at fertilization, to avoid upsetting the diploid state of
the zygote.
Vitelline membrane: Undergoes structural changes that prevent polyspermy at
fertilisation
Nucleus: Contains 23 chromosomes that complete meiosis II at fertilization to provide
female haploid nucleus
Polar body: Contains 23 chromosomes, but is non-functional and degenerate

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis in humans.

• Interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland working
together controls spermatogenesis.

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• From the hypothalamus, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates
the anterior pituitary gland to secrete two gonadotrophins (gonad stimulating
hormones), i.e. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone
(LH)/interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH).
• FSH stimulates spermatogenesis by causing sertoli cells to complete the
development of spermatozoa from spermatids.
FSH also causes sertoli cells to release a peptide hormone inhibin that specifically
inhibits FSH secretion.
LH (ICSH) stimulates the leydig cells (interstitial cells) of the testes to secrete
testosterone.
• Testosterone stimulates the growth and development of germinal epithelial cells
(spermatogonia) to form sperm, and also works with FSH to stimulate the sertoli
cells.
• However, increased testosterone level inhibits the secretion of GnRH and LH.
The general name for male sex hormones is androgens (e.g. testosterone), while
oestrogens are the female sex hormones. Both androgens and oestrogens are
present in male and female mammals, but in different proportions so that the degree
of ‘maleness’ or ‘femaleness’ is variable depending upon the balance between the
levels of androgens and oestrogens in the body.

a) (i) Distinguish between oestrous and menstrual cycles.

ii) Outline the four main phases of the
menstrual cycle
b) Describe the hormonal, physiological and structural changes that occur
during the human menstrual cycle. (hormonal control of menstrual cycle)
a) (i) Oestrous cycle: series of hormone controlled changes in the non-primate
reproductive cycle characterized by females experiencing a period of heightened
sexual excitement just before ovulation.
Menstrual cycle: series of hormone controlled changes in the primate female
reproductive system that result in monthly discharge of blood and uterine materials
when fertilization fails.

ii) The four main phases of the menstrual cycle:

–Follicular phase
-Ovulation
-Luteal phase
-Menstruation
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 HORMONAL CONTROL OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE
At puberty (about 12 years) the hypothalamus:
1) Secretes Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) which stimulates the
anterior pituitary to secrete follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
2) FSH stimulates:
• The development of primary follicles in the ovary
• The secretion of oestrogen.
3) Oestrogen:
• Causes the repair and healing of the uterine wall following menstruation.
• Inhibits the secretion of FSH.
• Causes the secretion of LH from the anterior pituitary.
4) LH stimulates:
• Ovulation i.e. Meiosis I resumes in the primary oocyte to form polar body and
secondary oocyte, which is released by rupturing of Graafian follicle.
• The remains of Graafian follicle to develop into corpus luteum (yellow body),
• The corpus luteum to secrete progesterone and oestrogen.
5) Progesterone:
• Causes increased thickness (muscularisation) and vascularization of the uterus.
• Inhibits the release of LH and FSH by negative feedback.
Decreased level of FSH prevents development of Graafian follicles, hence
secretion of oestrogen stops.
Decreased level of LH prevents ovulation, hence the corpus luteum degenerates
and progesterone decreases.
The sudden decrease of progesterone level in blood completes menstrual cycle, as
the hypothalamus resumes the secretion of GnRH.
GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH as menstruation occurs,
characterized by breakdown and shedding of endometrial materials.

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Page 31 of 47
Briefly explain the following processes and state the significance of each.
(a) Sperm capacitation (b) Acrosome reaction (c) Fast block (d) Cortical reaction

Process Explanation Significance of the

process
Sperm The process of activation of Entry of Ca2+ increases
capacitation mammalian sperm to fertilise the egg, the beating activity of the
during which the acidity and enzymes sperm tail and also
in the female genital tract cause promotes acrosome
perforation of the sperm head by reaction to enable sperm
removal of cholesterol and penetrate the egg.
glycoprotein to allow entry of Ca2+ and
the release of acrosome enzymes.
Acrosome A process that occurs in the sperm Enables sperm head to
reaction head on making contact with a penetrate the egg
secondary oocyte, during which the membranes.
cell and acrosome membranes
rupture to release hydrolytic enzymes
e.g. hyaluronidase and proteases.

Fast block A process during which contact of the Prevents entrance of more
first sperm with the egg membrane is than one sperm into the
instantly followed by an electrical egg (polyspermy) that
potential change in the egg membrane would upset the diploid
to prevent entrance of more than one state of the embryo.
sperm.
Cortical A process that occurs following sperm Formation of fertilization
reaction penetration of the secondary oocyte membrane prevents
during which lysosomes (cortical multiple sperm entry into
granules) fuse with the plasma the egg (polyspermy) that
membrane and release their contents, would upset the diploid
causing the vitelline membrane to state to cause death of
harden and form the fertilization mammalian embryo.
membrane to prevent polyspermy

Outline the events which lead to fertilization of an egg by a sperm.

Fertilization is the fusion of sperm and egg nuclei to form a diploid zygote.
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 • On entering the vagina, sperm spend about 7 hours being capacitated, after which
they move towards the oviducts, aided by muscular contractions of the uterus and
oviducts, and lashing of tail.
• A spermatozoon comes into contact with the oocyte by random movement.
• Acrosome enzymes hydrolyse a path in the granulosa layer of egg until the sperm
head makes contact with zona pellucida.
• Sperm acrosome membrane ruptures to release hydrolytic enzymes (acrosome
reaction) and the acrosomal filament pierces through the oocyte membranes up to
the plasma membrane of the oocyte.
• An electrical potential change in the oocyte membrane occurs (fast block),
followed by fusion of cortical granules with plasma membrane to discharge their
contents (cortical reaction), which creates an osmotic gradient that draws water
into the space between the plasma membrane and vitelline membrane.
• The two membranes are lifted away and the vitelline membrane hardens
(fertilization membrane) to block polyspermy.
• While the sperm tail is lost and disintegrates, the nucleus expands and is now
known as pronucleus.
• Entry of a sperm stimulates completion of second meiotic division of the secondary
oocyte to form the second polar body, which disintegrates, and an egg. The haploid
male and female pronuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote, which divides
immediately by mitosis to form two diploid cells.

Outline the events that occur in the egg immediately following the entry of the
spermatozoon.
• Sperm acrosome membrane ruptures to release hydrolytic enzymes and the
acrosomal filament pierces through the oocyte membranes up to the plasma
membrane of the oocyte.
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 • An electrical potential change in the oocyte membrane occurs followed by fusion of
cortical granules with plasma membrane to discharge their contents which creates
an osmotic gradient that draws water into the space between the plasma membrane
and vitelline membrane.
• The two membranes are lifted away and the vitelline membrane hardens to block
polyspermy.
• While the sperm tail is lost and disintegrates, the nucleus expands and is now
known as pronucleus.
• Entry of a sperm stimulates completion of second meiotic division of the secondary
oocyte to form the second polar body, which disintegrates, and an egg.
• The haploid male and female pronuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote, which
divides immediately by mitosis to form two diploid cells.

a) What is meant by negative feed back

b) Briefly explain how negative feedback operates in the control of:
i) Testicular hormone secretion
ii) The menstrual cycle
c) What hormonal controlled changes occur in the endometrium during the
menstrual cycle? (Effect of ovarian hormones on the endometrium during the
menstrual cycle)

a) A mechanism in which the effect of deviation from the normal condition triggers
a response that eliminates its deviation in order to reduce further corrective action of
the control system once the set point value has been reached.

b) (i)-The hypothalamic hormone, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete both follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH).
-FSH stimulates spermatogenesis by causing sertoli cells to complete the
development of spermatozoa from spermatids.
FSH also causes sertoli cells to release a peptide hormone inhibin that specifically
inhibits FSH secretion.
-LH stimulates leydig cells of the testes to secrete testosterone.
- Testosterone stimulates the growth and development of spermatogonia to form
sperm, also inhibits the secretion of LH by feeding back, both directly at the anterior
pituitary gland and indirectly by reducing GnRH release. ii) -The hypothalamic

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Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the anterior pituitary to both
FSH and LH.
-FSH stimulates the secretion of oestrogen in the ovary.
-Oestrogen in increased levels inhibits FSH secretion and causes secretion of LH
from the anterior pituitary. -LH stimulates ovulation and development of corpus
luteum, which secretes progesterone and also continues to secrete oestrogen.
-Progesterone inhibits the release of LH and FSH thus arresting development of any
further follicles.

c) Hormonal control of changes in the endometrium during the menstrual cycle

-During the follicular phase, oestrogen (estradiol) from the ovary causes the uterine
endometrium to repair and heal.
-During the luteal phase, progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum in the ovary
causes the endometrium to become highly muscular and vascular.
-As the corpus luteum degenerates, the rapid fall in oestrogen and progesterone levels
at the end of the cycle causes the endometrium to be sloughed off in menstruation.

PREGNANCY (GESTATION)
This is the period between conception (fertilisation) and birth.

Highlights of human pregnancy

30 hours after fertilization: first cleavege
3-4 Days after Conception:
• The zygote, now called morula arrives at the uterus through the fallopian tube.
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 • In the uterus the morula burrows itself into the endometrium (inner lining of uterus).
• The outside cells of the morula eventually grow to form the placenta.
6-7 Days after Conception
• The morula, now called blastocyst attaches to the uterus, causing some women
to feel implantation cramps.
7-9 Days After Conception
• Pregnancy tests can detect the levels of HCG (human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
hormone in the body.
• HCG, a protein hormone, is first produced in the second week of gestation to
prevent menstruation and is most concentrated at 8 weeks gestation. Levels
gradually decline after the 8th week.
Duration Major events
2 weeks Most women can test positive for HCG urine pregnancy tests, at 95%
accuracy.
3 weeks Baby-in-the-making is a ball of cells called a blastocyst. Gastrulation
occurs.
4 weeks Organogenesis
5 weeks Heart begins to beat – at twice the rate of adults.
6 weeks Facial features (e.g. eyes and nostrils) begin to form, and little buds
appear where arms and legs will develop
8 weeks Arms and legs are growing, as well as a nose and upper lip are
formed. Notochord degenerates.
9 weeks Eyes have developed, though eyelids are still fused and shut.
The embryo has become a foetus. Vital organs – such as kidneys,
10
intestines, brain, and liver – are starting to function. Tiny fingernails
weeks
and toenails are forming.
11 week Foetus is almost fully formed. Bone templates are formed, external
genitalia are developing.
12 week Baby’s heartbeat can be felt.
14 week Kidneys can release urine into the amniotic fluid.
15 Baby can see light that filters in from outside the womb, even though
weeks the eyelids are still shut
16 Baby's sex can be detected.
weeks
19 Baby can hear mother’s heartbeat and sounds that come from outside
weeks the body, such as father's voice.

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23 Baby's sense of movement has developed, so s/he can feel the
weeks motion if mother dances.
27 Baby can “practice breathing” by inhaling and exhaling amniotic fluid,
weeks and also open and close eyes.
34 Baby is now considered full-term, lungs can work fine if born now.
weeks
40 Baby is due and fully ready for life outside the womb.
weeks

Hormonal control of pregnancy

Changes in hormonal concentration during pregnancy

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 EXPLANATION FOR OBSERVATIONS
Hormone Observations Explanation
(Description)
HCG (a) Concentration (a) Before conception, HCG is secreted
(pregnancy very low at by the anterior pituitary and functions in a
hormone) conception, Luteinizing Hormone-like manner to
(b) HCG promote ovulation and progesterone
Concentration production during the menstrual cycle.
increases rapidly at (b) At implantation, trophoblast cells
about 1 - 2 weeks secrete HCG to:
after fertilization to a (i) Maintain the corpus luteum.
maximum at about (ii) Stimulate the corpus luteum to
10 - 11 weeks of continue secreting oestrogen and
gestation. progesterone.
(c) HCG (iii) Cause the blockage of any immune
concentration or macrophage action by mother on foreign
decreases rapidly to invading placental cells.
a minimum at about (iv) Cause uterine growth parallel to fetal
19 – 20 weeks, and growth.
remains relatively (v) Suppress any contractions by uterine
constant after the wall during the course of pregnancy.
20th week until (vi) Cause growth and differentiation of
th
about 40 week the umbilical cord
when it drops to (c) As the embryo grows, the placenta
zero. increases in size causing increased
secretion of progesterone, which takes
over some of the roles of HCG causing its
secretion to decreases. A decrease in HCG
causes degeneration of corpus luteum. At
the 40th week the foetus is expelled
therefore HCG secretion stops.

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Progesterone
“pro-
gestational”
hormone
(a) Luteal There is a slight rise Corpus luteum secretes luteal
progesterone to a maximum at progesterone after ovulation, to ensure
about 4-6 weeks that the lining of the uterus stays intact and
after conception provides a nourishing environment for the
followed by a rapid egg to implant and develop. Without luteal
decrease thereafter progesterone, the lining of the uterus
to zero at 11 – 12 would slough off, ending the pregnancy.
week.
As the corpus luteum and ovaries become
(b) Placental (i) Absent at inactive in the later stages of pregnancy,
progesterone conception. progesterone secretion is by the placenta.
(ii) Concentration As the pregnancy progresses, there is
increases first increased growth of the placenta, causing
slowly upto increased secretion of placental
about 8-10 progesterone which:
weeks, then (i) Inhibits contraction of the myometrium
rapidly to a (promotes relaxation)
maximum just (ii) Increases mucus secretion in the cervix
before birth of the womb, forming a protective plug
(40th week). (promotes glandular activity in uterus)
(iii) Stimulates growth of maternal part of
placenta.
(iv) Stimulates enlargement of the
uterus.
(v)Inhibits FSH release, thus prevents
ovulation and menstruation.
(vi) Causes enlargement of the breasts
and growth of mammary glands.
NB: After a meal, progesterone levels
drop greatly (about 50%), explaining
why blood test should be done early
morning and before eating.

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Oestrogen (i) Concentration After ovulation, Oestrogen is initially
very low at secreted by the corpus luteum up to 12
conception weeks, hence the low and constant
(ii) Concentration concentration. Afterwards, placenta takes
remains relatively over oestrogen secretion, therefore
constant from increased growth of the placenta causes
conception to about increased secretion of oestrogen which:
12 weeks. (i) Inhibits secretion of FSH (Follicle
(iii) Concentration Stimulating Hormone) and LH (Lutenising
increases rapidly hormone), both of which are involved in
after 12 weeks to a ovulation.
maximum just (ii) Causes growth of the uterus and
before birth. increases the sensitivity of the uterus to
the hormone oxytocin which is involved in
the processes of birth and lactation.
(iii) Inhibits the secretion of prolactin,
and thus inhibits lactation during
pregnancy.
(iv) Stimulates the development of
mammary glands in preparation for
lactation after the baby has been born.
(v) Causes softening and relaxing of the
ligament of the pelvic girdle.
Prolactin and (i) Not secreted High levels of oestrogen and progesterone
Oxytocin until after the 30th inhibit the secretion of Prolactin from the
week. anterior lobe of pituitary gland and
(ii) Prolactin Oxytocin from the posterior pituitary
secretion starts at until birth.
about 31-32 weeks When levels of Oestrogen and
and increases, first Progesterone decrease after birth,
slowly up to about prolactin causes lactation.
42 week then Towards parturition (birth), high levels of
rapidly thereafter. oestrogen promote uterine contractions
and increased sensitivity of uterine wall to
oxytocin, which causes the uterine
muscle (myometrium) to contract.

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 Relaxin Relaxin peaks Causes increased:
during the 14 weeks (i) Relaxation of ligaments, softening of
of the first trimester cervix and inhibition of muscle
and at delivery contractions.
(ii) Cardiac output, renal blood flow, and
arterial compliance.

a) Give an account of the role of the placenta as an endocrine organ in

mammals.
b) How is a placenta suited for providing the developing foetus with
nutrients?

a)The role of the placenta

As an endocrine organ:
It secretes various hormones which control development of the foetus:
• HCG (human chorionic gonadotrophin) causes the corpus luteum to continue
secreting progesterone and oestrogen necessary for endometrial development for
the first 3-4 months of pregnancy.
• Oestrogen prevents ovulation and menstruation, stimulates growth of mammary
glands and increase in uterine muscle cells, and increases myometrium sensitivity
to oxytocin
• Progesterone also stimulates growth of mammary glands, inhibits the contraction of
uterine muscles and inhibits the release of prolactin (a hormone that stimulates milk
production).
Relaxin hormone relaxes the connective tissue in pelvic girdle to enlarge the cervix
in preparation for birth.

As a non-endocrine organ
• Digested food and other nutrients are transported through umbilical vein to link up
with the foetal blood
• Waste foetal products diffuse from umbilical artery to maternal blood.
• Oxygen diffuses from umbilical vein to the foetal blood while carbondioxide moves
in opposite direction.
• Antibodies cross the placenta from mother to foetus hence providing means by
which passive immunity is acquired.
• It serves as a barrier to the transfer of solutes and blood components from maternal
to foetal circulation.
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• It prevents direct contact of maternal and foetal blood systems enabling them to
operate at different pressures
b) How placenta is suited for providing the developing foetus with nutrients:
-The finger-like projections which grow into the endometrium increase the surface area
for exchange of substances.
-Closeness of maternal and foetal blood vessels facilitates faster diffusion of
substances.
-Continuous flow of blood at the placenta ensures replacement of substances to
maintain diffusion gradients for easy diffusion of these materials.
-Chorionic villi cells contain numerous mitochondria to provide energy required for
active transport.

THE BIRTHING PROCESS (PARTURITION)

The time leading up to the normal birthing process is generally 266 days (38 weeks)
- from conception to birth. However, only about 5% of births occur on the actual due
date.

Outline the stages in the process of parturition (birth)

-The onset of birth is triggered by decreased progesterone and increased oestrogen
levels during the last stages of pregnancy.
-The posterior pituitary produces Oxytocin, which causes contraction of the uterus
that increase in force and frequency.
-Cervix dilates to allow passage of baby’s head into the vagina while embryonic
membranes rupture.

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-Foetus is expelled in down face position, followed by afterbirth (umbilical cord and
placenta) expulsion.

a) Distinguish between contraception and birth control.

Contraception: use of methods which act to prevent fertilization of an egg by
sperm.
Birth control: a wide range of methods that prevent development of egg into
foetus, whether it is already fertilized or not.
b) Give an outline of birth control methods in man
Birth control methods
Method How it works:
Barriers preventing sperm from -Inserted on erect penis or into vagina
reaching egg cell before sexual intercourse
• Condom (for males and females) -Inserted into vagina before sexual
• Diaphragm (cap) intercourse
• Spermicide -Cream, foam or gel placed into vagina
to kill sperm
Hormones that interfere with
ovulation or implantation -Combination of oestrogen and
• Pill progesterone prevents ovulation and
• Morning after pill (emergency pill) implantation
-Used within 48 hours after sex.
Behavioural
• Rhythm method Sex is avoided during ovulation period
• Penis withdrawal (coitus interruptus) Penis is withdrawn from vagina before
ejaculation occurs
Surgical
• Vasectomy (males) Sperm duct is cut and tied permanently
• Ligation of oviducts -Both oviducts are cut and tied
permanently
Others e.g. intra-uterine device (IUD), Prevents implantation
plastic or copper device

INFERTILITY
Infertility is the failure of a couple to conceive a pregnancy after trying to do so for at
least one full year.
Primary infertility is when pregnancy has never occurred.
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Secondary infertility is when one or both members of the couple have previously
conceived, but are unable to conceive again after a full year of trying.
Main causes of infertility
a) Male problems: 35%
b) Ovulation problems: 20%
c) Tubal problems: 20%
d) Endometriosis: 10% (abnormal location of uterine tissue outside of the uterus)
e) Cervical factors: 5%.
1) Complex changes in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and ovaries can cause
hormone imbalance to cause ovulation disorders. It's the most common cause of
female infertility.
2) Excess physical or emotional stress can disrupt the pattern of secretion of
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) and affect
ovulation – evidenced by irregular or absent periods.
3) Excessive overweight or underweight can disrupt the pattern of secretion of FSH
and LH and affect ovulation.
4) Auto-immune response - the body mistakenly attacks ovarian tissues.
5) Premature loss of eggs from the ovary due to genetic problems or environmental
insults such as chemotherapy causing ovulation failure, as well as a decreased
estrogen secretion below 40 years.
6) Too much prolactin secretion which reduces oestrogen production and may
cause infertility due to pituitary malfunction or medications taken for another
disease.
7) Damage or blockage of fallopian tubes hence preventing sperm from getting to
the egg or block the passage of the fertilized egg into the uterus.
8) Implantation failure due to fibroids/tumors, inflammation, abnormally shaped
uterus, cervical narrowing.
9) Sometimes the cervix can't produce the best type of mucus to allow the sperm to
travel through the cervix into the uterus.
10) Low sperm count: less than 5 million sperm per ml of semen
11) Impotence: failure of the penis to erect or ejaculate

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 CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN BLOOD AND FOETAL CIRCULATION AT BIRTH
Before birth:
• Foetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for
oxygen than adult haemoglobin to facilitate
diffusion of oxygen from the mother.
• In the foetus, blood bypasses the lungs via the
ductus arteriosus, which connects the
pulmonary artery to the aorta.
• Blood also bypasses the lungs, which are
functionless by going through the foramen
ovale connecting the two atria of the foetal
heart.
• Blood from the left atrium passes into the left
ventricle and into the aorta, which supplies
blood to the body and the umbilical artery.
• Pressure in the foetal circulatory system is
greatest in the pulmonary artery and this
determines the direction of blood flow through
the foetus and placenta.
After birth:
• In a few weeks of life, foetal haemoglobin is replaced by adult haemoglobin since
it is less suitable as a means of gaseous exchange with air
• At birth when the baby takes the first breath, there is increased partial pressure of
oxygen in its blood together with the nervous reflexes occurring in its body results
in the closure of ductus arteriosus.
• As a result of this, most of the blood vessels and the opening of pulmonary
circulation results in the blood pressure in the left atrium exceeding that of the right
atrium, causing the foramen ovale to close with the aid of a valve in its passage.
• Blood then passes from the right ventricle and pulmonary artery to the lungs.
Note: sometimes the mechanism which results in the closure of foramen ovale fails.
This is the reason why some children called blue babies bear a hole in the heart,
where a portion of blood continues to bypass the lungs resulting in inadequate
oxygenation of the tissues.
If blood pressure were highest in the aorta, blood would flow in the reverse
direction along the ductus arteriosus.

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 Extra embryonic membranes associated with the human foetus
1. Chorion: It completely surrounds the foetus and is the foetal contribution to the
placenta.
2. Amnion: Forms a fluid filled amniotic cavity that cushions the foetus from shock
and mechanical damage.
3. Yolk sac: Contains little or no yolk, it is a temporary site for red blood cell formation.
4. Allantois: Derived from embryonic hind gut, it contributes blood vessels that form
the umbilical cord.

(a) What are the main features of reproduction in birds?

(b) How are birds suited for reproduction on land?
(c) Compare embryo development in birds and mammals.
(d) State the forms of parental care provided by mammals.

a) Some of the main features of reproduction in birds

i) Fertilization is internal
ii) Mating is preceded by elaborate courtship displays
iii)Hard shelled eggs (cleidoic/amniotic eggs) are laid in the external environment
iv) Eggs are incubated usually by the mother as the embryo develops
v) Newly hatched young ones are fed and cared for by the parents

b) How birds are suited for reproduction on land

i) Production of hard-shelled eggs for protection from mechanical damage
ii) Fertilization is internal to avoid drying up of eggs and wastage of gametes
iii) Newly hatched young ones are fed and cared for by the parents e.g. nest building,
brooding etc.
iv) Zygote develops within the amniote (cleidoic egg), which provides the embryo
with a fluid-filled cavity in which it can develop on land.

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c) Comparison of embryo development in birds and mammals.
Similarities:
• Both contain yolk sac
• In both the embryo is surrounded by extra-embryonic membranes, which develop
from tissues outside the embryo
• In both the embryo is cushioned in the fluid-filled amniotic cavity
• Embryo development is preceded by internal fertilization in both
• Allantois is involved in gaseous exchange.
Differences:
Embryo development in birds Embryo development in mammals.
• Yolk sac is well developed nourish the • Yolk sac is poorly developed since the
foetus foetus derives nourishment from the
mother.
• Allantois is a depository organ for • Nitrogenous wastes e.g. urea diffuse
nitrogenous wastes e.g. uric acid. into maternal blood.
• Embryo is protected from damage by • Outer shell is lacking around the
an outer shell. developing embryo.
• Yolk sac transfers digested food to the • Digested food is transferred by
embryo. placenta.
• Allanto-chorion is lacking. • There is a developed allanto-chorion

c) Forms of parental care provided by mammals:

• Protection from predators
• Feeding
• Provision of shelter
• Training of offspring.

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